Chapter 6 Human ScienceChapter 6 Human Science

Lesson 1Lesson 1What Is Human Science?What Is Human Science?

What human science wants to What human science wants to knowknow

• Why people interact with the Why people interact with the environment the way they doenvironment the way they do

• What the reality of being human isWhat the reality of being human is

Knowledge in human science Knowledge in human science comes from…comes from…

• Consensus:Consensus:There is a consensus about the There is a consensus about the standards for what is considered standards for what is considered acceptable to be considered a knowledge acceptable to be considered a knowledge claim.claim.

• ObservationObservation

• Interpretation of the observationsInterpretation of the observations

A Problem with knowledge A Problem with knowledge claims in Human Scienceclaims in Human Science

• The study of human science is itself a The study of human science is itself a human activity and the researcher must human activity and the researcher must have an awareness of human behaviour to have an awareness of human behaviour to be able to avoid biasing or slanting results. be able to avoid biasing or slanting results.

• The researcher is an active part of the The researcher is an active part of the knowledge claims being made. knowledge claims being made. Subsequently, it becomes hard for a Subsequently, it becomes hard for a researcher to escape human subjectivity in researcher to escape human subjectivity in order to view human behaviour order to view human behaviour objectively. In the natural sciences, the objectively. In the natural sciences, the researcher studies a subject other than researcher studies a subject other than him or her self.him or her self.

Subjective biasingSubjective biasing

• Can skew observationsCan skew observations

• Can alter the way an experiment is Can alter the way an experiment is donedone

• Can skew interpretation of resultsCan skew interpretation of results

• Does have an effect on knowledge Does have an effect on knowledge claimsclaims

The Human-scientific The Human-scientific methodmethod• Observe some phenomenon regarding

human behaviour • Invent a tentative description or answer,

called a hypothesis, which is consistent with what has been observed

• Use the hypothesis to make predictions • Validation of the hypothesis

How human science worksHow human science works

• Statistical methods Statistical methods

• Phenomenological methodsPhenomenological methods

• Holistic analysisHolistic analysis

Special problems of knowledge Special problems of knowledge within human sciencewithin human science

• Holistic natureHolistic nature

• Imprecise elementsImprecise elements

• Unfinished workUnfinished work

• AccessibilityAccessibility

Edvard Munch. The Scream

Lesson 2 Humans and Science: Lesson 2 Humans and Science: Is Predictability Equal to Is Predictability Equal to

Knowledge?Knowledge?• This lesson is comprised of three This lesson is comprised of three

different scenarios to be read and different scenarios to be read and discussed in a classroom setting.discussed in a classroom setting.

Lesson 3 Lesson 3 Can Psychology give us Can Psychology give us

Knowledge?Knowledge?

Psychological knowledge is Psychological knowledge is aboutabout

• Understanding human behavourUnderstanding human behavour

• Predicting human behaviourPredicting human behaviour

• Controlling human behaviourControlling human behaviour

Psychology explains human Psychology explains human behaviour from different behaviour from different

perspectives. These perspectives perspectives. These perspectives affectaffect

• How behaviour is understoodHow behaviour is understood

• How behaviour is approachedHow behaviour is approached

• How behaviour is treatedHow behaviour is treated

• Knowledge about human behaviourKnowledge about human behaviour

Different perspectives create Different perspectives create different knowledgedifferent knowledge

• Biological perspective explains behaviour in terms of Biological perspective explains behaviour in terms of biological predispositionbiological predisposition

• Cognitive psychology explains behaviour in terms of how Cognitive psychology explains behaviour in terms of how an mental processes affect an individuals understanding an mental processes affect an individuals understanding of the worldof the world

• The learning perspective explains behaviour as being The learning perspective explains behaviour as being something we have learnedsomething we have learned

• Each perspective means that knowledge about Each perspective means that knowledge about behaviour will be different depending on the perspective behaviour will be different depending on the perspective from which one examines the behaviour.from which one examines the behaviour.

• Can psychology really give knowledge about behaviour Can psychology really give knowledge about behaviour then?then?

Why do we like sweets?Why do we like sweets?Explanations from two different Explanations from two different

perspectives.perspectives.

Biological perspectiveBiological perspective

• Evolution is assumed to be a factEvolution is assumed to be a fact

• Some ancestors could palate sweet Some ancestors could palate sweet foods and some could notfoods and some could not

• The ability to eat high energy sweet The ability to eat high energy sweet food was a useful trait which food was a useful trait which facilitated survivalfacilitated survival

• Hard times such as famine or drought Hard times such as famine or drought camecame

Biological Biological perspectiveperspective contd.contd.

• Those who ate sweet food were able Those who ate sweet food were able to find enough energy to surviveto find enough energy to survive

• Consequently their genes were Consequently their genes were passed on passed on

• After many generations, everyone After many generations, everyone was able to eat sweet, high-energy was able to eat sweet, high-energy foodfood

• Do we really even “like” sweet food?Do we really even “like” sweet food?

Learning perspectiveLearning perspective

• We are all born as blank slates (tabula We are all born as blank slates (tabula rasa)rasa)

• First sweet taste of mother’s milk First sweet taste of mother’s milk associated with warmth and securityassociated with warmth and security

• Throughout growing up sweets always Throughout growing up sweets always associated with something positiveassociated with something positive

• We are conditioned to like sweetsWe are conditioned to like sweets

Proof?Proof?

• Perhaps it is never possible to Perhaps it is never possible to knowknow for for sure what causes human behavioursure what causes human behaviour

• The knowledge is based on faith in the The knowledge is based on faith in the assumptions of a perspectiveassumptions of a perspective

• Consensus also creates knowledge. Consensus also creates knowledge. People agree on People agree on reasonablereasonable interpretationsinterpretations

• Consensus, faith, and reason all Consensus, faith, and reason all important concepts in human scienceimportant concepts in human science

Lesson 4 Lying with Lesson 4 Lying with StatisticsStatistics

•There are three kinds of lies—lies, There are three kinds of lies—lies, damned lies and statistics.damned lies and statistics.Mark Twain quoting Benjamin DisraeliMark Twain quoting Benjamin Disraeli

Statistics is an invaluable tool Statistics is an invaluable tool for human sciencefor human science

• They reveal information about the They reveal information about the behaviour and attitudes of large groupsbehaviour and attitudes of large groups

• They help to make clear relationships They help to make clear relationships between factorsbetween factors

• They are useful as empirical support for They are useful as empirical support for interpretationsinterpretations

• However there are many pitfalls in However there are many pitfalls in statistics and much opportunity to mislead statistics and much opportunity to mislead a populationa population

Larry Liar’s Easy StepsLarry Liar’s Easy Steps™™ to to Learning how to Lie with Learning how to Lie with

StatisticsStatisticsFear of War at Record Levels

0

5

10

15

20

25

Sickenss Robbery Murder War

Poverty Rises Again

12

17

22

27

32

37

1 2 3

Year

Ra

te

Methods of DupingMethods of Duping

• Intentional deceitIntentional deceit (Larry’s favorite) (Larry’s favorite)• Selective data-useSelective data-use ( (Do Not Report Do Not Report

On All The Data)On All The Data)• Faulty assumptionsFaulty assumptions (Do not leave (Do not leave

the thinking for the audience. We the thinking for the audience. We have to do the thinking for them).have to do the thinking for them).

• Creative graphicsCreative graphics • IncompetenceIncompetence

Learn to Sample CorrectlyLearn to Sample Correctly

• Choosing which sample to useChoosing which sample to use

• Carefully choose the size of your Carefully choose the size of your samplesample

• ““Random” samplingRandom” sampling

The three best ways to lie with The three best ways to lie with sampling are:sampling are:

• Not only should you ignore any Not only should you ignore any possible biases in your sampling possible biases in your sampling method, you should actively seek to method, you should actively seek to find samples which will give you the find samples which will give you the answers you want.answers you want.

• Always claim everything has been Always claim everything has been done randomly. It is expected of you!done randomly. It is expected of you!

• Do Not ElaborateDo Not Elaborate!!!!

Trickery with AveragesTrickery with Averages

• Ambiguity is a statistician’s best Ambiguity is a statistician’s best friendfriend—Antonius Stewartius—Antonius Stewartius

Pick the average that suits you Pick the average that suits you bestbest

• There are three measures of central There are three measures of central tendency. All three of them can tendency. All three of them can conveniently be called the “average” conveniently be called the “average” in statisticsin statistics

Mean (the sum of all values divided Mean (the sum of all values divided by number of values)by number of values)

Median (the middle value)Median (the middle value) Mode (the most common value)Mode (the most common value)

Here’s an example of how it Here’s an example of how it can work in real lifecan work in real life

• Mean = 51Mean = 51• Median = 26Median = 26• Mode = 16Mode = 16

• Pick your favourite Pick your favourite and use it to and use it to support the claim support the claim you want to makeyou want to make

County Numbers of Robberies

Pine 264

Maple 82

Birch 75

Fir 56

Alder 51

Teak 43

Oak 26

Beech 16

Walnut 16

Chestnut 16

Sandalwood 16

Driftwood 8

Neverwould 1

Number of armed robberies per county 1996

Graphs and ChartsGraphs and Charts

• Confusing Confusing Graphics: Leave Graphics: Leave information out information out and let the image and let the image do the talking. do the talking.

• When lying with When lying with statistics, image is statistics, image is everythingeverything

Fear of War at Record Levels

0

5

10

15

20

25

Sickenss Robbery Murder War

Choose a scale any scaleChoose a scale any scale

• Alter the Y-axis to Alter the Y-axis to make the graphs make the graphs look like you think look like you think they should they should

• Make them show Make them show what you say they what you say they showshow

Drastic Rise in Phobia Cases

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

1 2 3 4

1995-2004

Cas

es p

er T

ho

usa

nd

Insignificant Rise in New Phobia Cases

020

4060

80100120

140

1 2 3 4

1995-2004

Ca

se

s p

er

Th

ou

sa

nd

Manipulation of colours and Manipulation of colours and picturespictures

• Pick colors that will accentuate the message you Pick colors that will accentuate the message you are trying to makeare trying to make

• Dark and drab colors for sad statistics, bright and Dark and drab colors for sad statistics, bright and cheerful colors happy statisticscheerful colors happy statistics

Poverty Rises Again

12

17

22

27

32

37

1 2 3

Year

Rat

e

Poverty Increase Slows

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

1 2 3

Year

Rat

e

Important points to remember Important points to remember about using graphsabout using graphs

• Use Confusing and Vague GraphsUse Confusing and Vague Graphs

• Choose a scale which suits your Choose a scale which suits your needs bestneeds best

• Manipulate colors and pictures to Manipulate colors and pictures to create a tone which is to your create a tone which is to your advantageadvantage

Concluding HintsConcluding Hints

• Be sure to use loaded questionsBe sure to use loaded questions

• Confuse correlation with causationConfuse correlation with causation

• Try and try Again. If the sample does Try and try Again. If the sample does not give you the result you want, just not give you the result you want, just get a new sampleget a new sample

Lesson 5 Free will vs. Lesson 5 Free will vs. determinismdeterminism

Titan. Adam and Eve. Ca. 1550

Free will is an illusionFree will is an illusion

• We do not decide the things we do We do not decide the things we do because something predisposes us to because something predisposes us to behave in a certain waybehave in a certain way

• Our biology dictates our choices. We Our biology dictates our choices. We all have a “selfish gene”all have a “selfish gene”

• Societal conditioning dictates our Societal conditioning dictates our choiceschoices

We are masters of our own We are masters of our own destinydestiny

• We are free to do as we wish. We are free to do as we wish. When When we decide what we want to do, it is we decide what we want to do, it is our conscious mind that makes the our conscious mind that makes the decisiondecision

• Our tastes and preferences are Our tastes and preferences are chosen by us. They reflect our chosen by us. They reflect our individuality and freedom to chooseindividuality and freedom to choose

• Life is but a long line of choicesLife is but a long line of choices

The debate is important to The debate is important to human science becausehuman science because

• Human science wants to understand the Human science wants to understand the motives behind human behaviourmotives behind human behaviour

• If our behaviour is determined by our biology, If our behaviour is determined by our biology, it is crucial for the human scientist to it is crucial for the human scientist to understand how biology affects human understand how biology affects human behaviourbehaviour

• If behaviour is determined by our social If behaviour is determined by our social environment, the human scientist would look environment, the human scientist would look at environmental factors to explain why at environmental factors to explain why people behave the way they dopeople behave the way they do

The debate is important to The debate is important to human science because human science because

(contd.)(contd.)• If behaviour is on account of free will, If behaviour is on account of free will,

is the consciousness even is the consciousness even accessible?accessible?

• Can anyone access the individual Can anyone access the individual consciousness to a degree that will consciousness to a degree that will allow an outsider to understand the allow an outsider to understand the inner motivations of another human inner motivations of another human being? being?

Final thoughts Final thoughts

• To the human scientist, knowing human To the human scientist, knowing human behaviour is, in part, being able to predict behaviour is, in part, being able to predict human behaviourhuman behaviour

• If behaviour is the result of free will, then this If behaviour is the result of free will, then this makes predicting behaviour nearly impossiblemakes predicting behaviour nearly impossible

• The human scientist wants to understand The human scientist wants to understand whywhy people behave the way they do. Free will people behave the way they do. Free will makes it hard for a human scientist to do thismakes it hard for a human scientist to do this