Chapter 6 Team Working

Group/ Team Working

Module Code and Module Title Title of Slides

Learning Outcome

• More understanding of the way teams work

• More understanding of your behaviour in a team

• Greater awareness of your strengths and areas for development

• Some techniques for supporting and leading groups


Definition & Classification

• Group/ team – two or more individuals interacting & being interdependent, who have come together to achieve certain objectives

2 types of groups

1) Formal groups – formed accordance to the requirement determined by management. Formed to carry out certain tasks & duties to assist organization to meet the objectives. Establish by formal figure of authority & group leader is formally appointed & has responsibility to ensure that tasks assigned to each members are well executed.



2) Informal groups – formed without the existence of a formal figure of authority & the general purpose of its establishment being, to mutually & collectively benefit its members.

• Reasons for forming informal group – looking after group members welfare & as an avenue to conduct discussions on employee dissatisfaction.



• Groups can be further classified into: Command & Task group (formal) & Interest & Friendship group (informal)



1) Command group – determined on the organizational chart. Consists of individuals that report directly to a particular manager.

2) Task group - consists of all individual, who collectively work to complete a task. Not limited by the hierarchical boundaries. • All command groups are also task groups, however,

task groups are not necessary command groups since task groups may go beyond hierarchical boundaries.



3) Interest group - a group of individuals that share a common interest, which make them come together to achieve specific goals.

4) Friendship group – formed to enable its members to socialise & interact with one another. This usually occurs after formal working hours

• Either formal or informal groups will influence the behaviour & achievement of the group.


Your experiences

• Think of teams you have worked with or observed.

• Why do individuals join groups??


Reasons for Joining Group

1) Security – by joining group, individuals are able to reduce their feelings of insecurity. Group make them feel safer, more confident & less susceptible to threats

2) Status – membership in certain group can increase other people’s acceptance & recognition of an individual. Example, golf club membership

3) Self-esteem – group may provide people with feelings of self-worth. A person who join a professional body provides prestige to an individual


Reasons for Joining Group

4) Affiliation – fulfil individual’s social needs by providing an avenue for members to interact, hold discussion & exchange ideas.

5) Power – groups are able to exert greater power & influence during decision making compared to individual

6) Goal achievement – working in a group enables a difficult task to be accomplished. Team working improves productivity as it consist of a pool of skills & expertise & shared strengths.


Advantages

• Combines talents and skills• Involves wider perspectives

(implementers, planners, managers)• Motivates through shared goal• Evaluates ideas• Develops individuals• Social contact• Greater than the sum of the parts


Stages of Group Development



Tuckman’s Five Stage Model of Group Development• Indicate how an individual measures his level of

independence when joining a group



1) Forming – ice-breaking stage, all members meet for first time. Members tend to avoid interacting with one another & try to act independently. • Discomfort will diminish when members get to know

each other better & accept their presence as members

• Stage of uncertainty – emphasis is placed on orientation & adaptation among group members

• Member’s behaviour - Questioning, wanting to “know” and ‘get on with it’, socializing, displaying eagerness, enthusiasm, sticking to fairly safe behaviours and topics



2) Storming – members begin to learn to accept each other, openly discuss and make decision & members will gain confidence to participate in group activities.• Intra-group conflict – members begin to express

their individuality by exercising leadership. • Group rules become more established & conflicts will

lessen once each member understand his/her respective role, responsibility & authority

• Member’s behaviour - Resistance, lack of participation; competition rather than teamwork; high emotions, focus on process rather than task; conflict, ‘coming to a head’, discussion



3) Norming – all conflicts & disagreement are resolved, members demonstrate cohesiveness & cooperation among each other• Goals, expectation & rules are clearer• Setting of norm & value is instrumental to the

success of a group • Member’s behaviour - Reconciliation, relief, lowered

anxiety. Members are engaged and supportive• Information and ideas are shared and explored• Group and teams are developing cohesion



4) Performing – all issues pertaining to the group structure are settled.• Group functions as one unit – focus on task at

hand & each member is clear about their task & responsibility

• Member’s behaviour - Demonstrations of interdependence, healthy system

• Ability as a team to produce effectively • Balance of task and process orientation



5) Adjourning – group that is established for specific purpose or with pre-determined & limited task, will disband.• Dissolution take place after the pre-determined tasks

has been accomplished & the goals were achieved• Members shifted from formal to informal

relationship• Member’s behaviour - Recognition of team and

individual efforts• Discussion of how group will stay connected




Discussion

• Referring to Tuckman’s Group Development Model, discuss your experience in group development that occurred in your workplace. Identify and discuss the individual behaviour during each stage of group development process.


Punctuated Equilibrium Model

• Suitable for temporary groups with specific deadlines• Show the unique sequence of action with different

behaviours



1) 1st meeting sets the group’s direction – a framework of behavioural patterns made by the group is made known, after the group is formed

2) 1st phase of group activity is one of inertia – after the goals have been set, they will be written down & normally would not be revised throughout the 1st phase.• Time of inertia – the group is more static, focusing

on the set goal



3) Transition take place at the end of 1st phase when the group has used up half of its allotted time – which is precisely half way between its 1st meeting & official deadline. • this midpoint appears to work like an alarm clock,

heightening members’ awareness that their time is limited & that they need to get moving

4) A transition initiates major changes – by concentrated changes via dropping of old patterns & adoption of new perspectives• This transition set revised direction for phase 2



5) A second phase of inertia follows the transition – phase 2 is a new equilibrium or period of inertia• The group executes the plans created during the

transition period

6) The group’s last meeting is characterised by accelerated activity – final meeting is the last activity in accomplishing the task


Group Behaviour Model


Group Behaviour Model

External Conditions Imposed on the Group

• Overall strategy

• Authority structures

• Formal regulations

• Resources

• Employee selection

• Evaluation-rewards

• Culture

• Work setting


External Conditions

1) Organization strategy – influence the power of various work groups in term of resource allocation. Example, if organization undergoes restructuring, anxiety among members will occur & this will lead to internal conflict within the group.

2) Structure of Authority – define the reporting hierarchy, determines where positions of works groups are within the organizational charts & the formal relations between groups.


External Conditions

3) Formal Rulings – rules & regulations, policies, job description & other forms of formal ruling to standardise employee behaviour. As regulations imposed on all employees become more formal, employees’ imposed behaviour becomes more consistent & predictable

4) Organization’s Resources – i.e. money, time & equipment can significantly affect group behaviour. Organization with ample resources will enable employees to enjoy sufficient & quality equipment compare to the organization with limited resources


External Conditions

5) Employee selection process – group is part of the organization. The criteria employed by the organization for employee selection will be used to decide who will become part of the group

6) Performance appraisal & reward systems – Does organization provides specific & challenging goals? Does organization reward both individual & groups for achievement of goals?• Behaviour of group members is also influenced by the

manner in which organizations appraise the task & the kind of behaviour that it rewards.


External Conditions

7) Culture – indicates the standard for acceptable or non-acceptable behaviour. Meanwhile group member might have their subculture that practiced solely by certain groups within a organization.

8) Workplace conditions – size, physical layout of the work space, location of equipment – with the main purpose of providing amicable work environment. All these can be obstructions & opportunities for the interactions of a work group.


The Resourcesof Group Members

Personal Capability

Knowledge,

Skills, and

Abilities

Personal Traits

Personality

Characteristics


Resources of Group Members

1) Personal Capability – individual’s level of knowledge, skills & abilities (KSA). • A significant part of potential achievement of a group

can be anticipated by assessing the KSA of each member.

• Evidence shows that there is a positive correlation between good interpersonal skills & group achievement (refer to the abilities on resolution of conflict, cooperation in problem solving & communications skills)


Resources for Group Members

2) Personal Traits – Good characteristics that are positively related with culture will contribute positively to productivity, team spirit & group cohesion or unity.• Positive characteristics i.e. Friendliness, initiatives,

openness & flexibility.• Negative characteristics i.e. Authoritarianism,

domineering & unconventionally display a negative relationship with productivity, team spirit & group cohesion.

• Personality affect group performance in terms of how individual interacts with other members within a group


Group Structure

Elements of Group Structure

• Formal Leadership

• Roles

• Norms

• Group Status

• Group Size

• Group Composition

• Cohesiveness


Group Structure

1) Formal leadership – all work groups have a formal leader – dept manager, supervisor, project leader. Leaders play important role in the success of the group

2) Roles – each member has own roles to play with a set of expected behaviour patterns. Sometime, each person may have more than one role to play at any given time within the different groups. Example, a manager may behave in a more serious manner at work as compared to when he is at a society meeting or with his family.



Group Structure

3) Norms – acceptable standards of behaviour that are shared by members of the group. Provides guideline to members on what ought & ought not to be done (informally).• An effective work groups will establish norm of quality,

punctuality, safety & honesty.• Norms can induce negative behaviour when it

encourage members to damage company’s property & jeopardise company’s image.



Group Structure

4) Group status – socially defined position or rank given to group members by others.

• Awarding of status can influence the behaviour of groups – if inequality in status exists among members, the productivity & individual’s desire to continue staying with the group will be affected

• It is important for groups to reach a consensual agreement on the status & the position of individuals in a group


Group Structure

5) Group size – researches indicate that smaller groups are more productive than larger ones. However, larger groups deal better with problem solving since more ideas are put forth.

• The goals of the group – main factor to consider in determining the size of group.

• Problems – social loafing – tendency for individuals to spend less effort when working collectively as compared to when they are required to work individually.


Size of the Group

• Small groups

• Large groups

• Social loafing

• Individual effort


Group Structure

6) Group composition – Most groups activities require different skills & knowledge. If the group consists of various personalities – greater the chance for that group to accomplish its task successfully.

• Heterogeneous groups are more effective compared to homogeneous – members possess more abilities, skills & info as a result of having members from variety of background.

• Heterogeneous groups are more difficult to control & easier to create conflicts among members.



Group Structure

7) Group cohesiveness – degree of members being attracted to each other & are motivated to stay in the group. Cohesiveness is proven to be positively related to productivity of a group.

Encourage cohesiveness:• Members spend more time together & high

interaction among members.• Create opportunities for members to cooperate –

provide a task that require interdependence on other group members.

• Organize some social activities i.e. family day



Group Process

• Work group with loosely defined individual contribution – will encourage social loafing, tendency for individuals to reduce their effort. This reflects the loss of certain processes due to the formation of a group

• Organized group process – produce positive results, higher output as opposed to the input. This can be seen in heterogeneous groups where wide range of creative alternatives can be generated



Group Task

• Routine or standard task – simple to perform• Complex task – unusual (not in the norm) & seldom

carried out.• If simple task – members tend to follow SOP without the

need to discuss• If complex task – more benefits can be obtained from

group discussion. Group members interact more often & the degree of task dependency is high – group performance is greatly improved via effective comm.

• Task that have high degree of uncertainty, complex, require high level of interdependence & the need for more info – requires better in-group process.


Implication of Group Models

• Implication on performance & satisfaction• Group with poor communication, weak leadership &

high level of conflicts – will result in poor performance• Effective group – group that have creative ideas,

can adapt to any change & accomplish their task. Group members have to be actively involved in the group & goals of the organization.

• Managers – need to have effective interpersonal skills, people skills & a high degree of understanding between the leader & his/her members.


Discussion

• High cohesiveness in a group leads to higher group productivity, do you agree or disagree?

• What effect if any, do you expect that workforce diversity has on group performance?


Team Effectiveness Model

Team Effectiveness


Creating Effective Groups

Work Design• Members must work together whilst taking

collective responsibilities to complete the task• Work designs must include freedom & autonomy of

members; opportunity to use respective skills & talents. Members’ ability to complete a whole & identifiable task & working on a task that has substantial impact on others

• Effective work design – enhances motivation & boosts members’ sense of responsibility & ownership over their work



CompositionHow to form an effective team based on members’ ability & personality, allocation of roles & diversity of roles, size, flexibility and members’ preference for teamwork.

1) Member abilities – 3 different types of skills • Technical • Problem solving & decision making skills • Interpersonal skills

2) Personality – influences the behaviour of individuals refer to Big Five Personality Model.


• BIG Five Personality Model (Goldberg, 1981)


BIG Five Personality Model



Composition

3) Allocation of roles & diversity – select the right people to fill the specific roles with the selection being done based on skills & preferences of the selected individuals.• Managers need to select team members based on

their strengths & preferred styles.

4) Size of team – not too large or too small. Large team will experience problems in reaching agreement & cohesiveness. Small team will lead to a lack of diversity• Ideally a team should consist of five to twelve

members



Composition5) Flexibility of members – improves team adaptability and less reliant on a single member, since team members are familiar with the tasks of co-members.• Select members who are flexible & provide them with cross

training

6) Preferences of members – high performance teams are made up of those who enjoy working in team since they are fully committed to their team. • If an individual prefers to work alone, they are unable to give

full commitment to the team, leading to poor team spirit.



Context1) Adequate resources – limited resources will directly affect the ability of a team to accomplish its task.• Support received from

organization – timely info, proper equipment, adequate staffing and encouragement

• Team must receive necessary support from management in order to perform effectively


Context2) Leadership structure – make sure all members have equal share of responsibilities and workload. Team leaders also need to determine work schedules, development of required skills, resolution of conflicts & making the right decision with members’ involvement.• Members agreeing on the work

allocation & justify how to integrate individual skills with team structure.



Context

3) Performance evaluation & reward system – modifying individually oriented evaluation & reward system to system that reflects team performance

• Develop appraisal system that emphasise teamwork & collective achievement.

• Management can consider group based appraisals, profit sharing, small-group incentive that reinforce team effort & commitment.



Process1) Common purpose – that provides direction, momentum

& commitment to members. Members must spend time & effort into discussing, shaping & agreeing on a purpose that belong to both collectively and individually.

2) Formulating specific goals for the team – SMART.

3) Team efficacy – team members should have confidence & believe in their ability to succeed. Management should take effort to increase team efficacy – provide training & development



Process4) Conflict levels – several intra group conflict can exist:

• Personal conflict – team members do not like each other

• Substantive conflict – team members disagree with another’s task related idea of the team’s plans

• Procedure conflict – team members disagree about the policies & procedures

• Sometimes conflict can improve team effectiveness – lessen groupthink, stimulate discussion & promote critical assessment of problems which lead to better decision



Process

5) Social loafing – effective teams must reduce this problem by holding themselves accountable on both individual & team levels.• When team members are clear about their

responsibility, they will give full commitment to the team

6) Social facilitation – the presence of others can arouse evaluation apprehension, so that members will perform better because they think they are being evaluated.


Group Dynamism

• Douglas McGregor (2002), an expert in organisational communication, summarises the characteristics of an effective and well-functioning group, as follows:

• The atmosphere tends to be informal, comfortable, and relaxed. There is a lot of discussion in which virtually everyone participates, but it remains pertinent to the task.

• The task or objective is well understood and accepted by the members. There will be free discussion of the objective at some point, until it is formulated in such a way that the group members could commit themselves to it.


Group Dynamism

• The members listen to each other. Every idea is given a hearing. People do not appear to be afraid of being foolish - they will offer a creative thought.

• There is disagreement. Disagreements are not suppressed or overridden by premature action. The reasons are carefully examined, and the group seeks to resolve disagreements rather than dominate dissenters.

• Most decisions are reached by a kind of consensus in which it is clear that everyone is in general agreement and willing to go along. Formal voting is at a minimum; the group does not accept a simple majority as a proper basis for action.


Group Dynamism

• Criticism is frequent, frank and relatively comfortable. There is little evidence of personal attack.

• People are free to express their feelings, ideas about the problem and the group’s operation.

• When action is taken, clear assignments are made and accepted.

• The chairperson of the group does not dominate it. In fact, the leadership shifts from time to time, depending on the circumstances.

• There is little evidence of a struggle for power as the group operates. The issue is not who controls but how to get the job done.


Team Roles (Belbin’s Model)

Team roles – “A tendency to behave, contribute and interrelate with others in a particular way.”• 9 roles have been identified• Most people have 2-3

preferred roles • People can be flexible

about the roles they adopted



Roles

The 9 roles can be categorised into 3 categories:1) Action-oriented roles

• Shaper, Implementer, and Completer-Finisher2) People-oriented roles

• Co-ordinator, Team-worker and Resource Investigator

3) Cerebral/ Thinking roles• Plant, Monitor-Evaluator and Specialist





The Plant (T)

• The Plant is creative and innovative.• Responsible for the production of ingenious new

ideas and novel strategies. • Are not very team orientated, though their

contribution to the team is very likely to improve the team's success.



Monitor Evaluator (T)• Is intelligent, discerning objective and free from

influence of emotional factors. • Takes a back-seat role, but will come into

prominence when a crucial decision is to be made. • Is very good at weighing up the facts, carefully

considering the pros and cons of each option, and finally coming to a well considered decision.

• Shows little enthusiasm or personal commitment to teams goals.



Specialist (T) • Single-minded, self-starting and dedicated.

Provides knowledge and skills in rare supply.• Contributes on only a narrow front - may have

a tendency to focus narrowly on their own subject of choice.

• Ignores factors outside own area of competence.



The Coordinator (P)• The Coordinator's role is to direct the group.• Stops the discussion from becoming uncontrolled

& draws other team members back to the intended purpose.

• The Coordinator’s enthusiasm tends to be goal orientated.

• Coordinators tend to be tolerant and will demonstrate that they have faith in their team members.



Team-worker (P)• Is a good communicator, trusting, sensitive, caring

and not dominant. • Is perceptive and diplomatic not critical of other

team members.• The presence of a Team Worker may contribute

greatly to the team's success simply by allowing better co-operation amongst team members.

• Places the group's objectives and the smooth running maintenance of the group itself before their own personal ambition.



Resources Investigator (P)• Has a critical role to play in the team's new

innovations, enthusiastic, explores opportunities • Is skilled interpersonally• Facilitates liaisons & communicative• Looks into every corner for some valuable piece of

information, which may facilitate improvisation (unplanned/ unexpected activities or outcomes)



The Shaper (A)• Is highly motivated & challenging.• Has a high degree of nervous energy and a great

need for achievement.• The Shaper may lead the team, but is single minded

and critical.• Tends to be an aggressive extrovert and as such

may elicit an aggressive response from other team members.

• Can create interpersonal problems as a result of his open criticism of others.



• May lack the interpersonal understanding and warmth.

• The Shaper's directive approach is more orientated towards achieving objectives than towards the stable maintenance of the team.

• Shapers are excellent when it comes to sparking life into a team but not useful in a team that is functioning well.



Completer / Finisher (A)• Are hard working and conscientious. • Are concerned to ensure that the detailed aspects of

a project, such as testing, trialing and general administrative matters, are planned into schedules.

• Have great self-discipline and thus reflect discipline and orderliness in others.

• Is reluctant to let a matter go unfinished.



Implementer (A)• Is concerned with detail, reliable & efficient .• Is an excellent implementer of schemes which others

have devised. • Is a good organizer, and capable of directing

subordinates.• Tend to be well controlled emotionally, and have a

preference for orderliness and routine. • Is driven by their identification with the organisation,

together with a set of principles.


Belbin’s Team Roles


Team-Role Descriptions: the Parts People Play in Effective Team Operations


Team-Role Descriptions: the Parts People Play in Effective Team Operations



• According to Belbin …Each team member contributes towards achieving the team’s objectives by performing: -

A functional role - determined by their professional and/or technical knowledge

A team role - determined by their

characteristic pattern of team interaction



• The team needs an optimal balance in both functional & team roles.• That balance is dependent on the goals & tasks that the team faces.

The effectiveness of the team will be promoted by the extent to which members correctly recognise and adjust themselves to the relative strengths of the team, both in expertise and ability to engage in specific team roles.


Johari Window (‘Windows of Self’)

• The Johari Window is a communication model that can be used to improve understanding between individuals.

• Developed by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham (the word “Johari” comes from Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham).

• Two key ideas behind the tool:

1. Individuals can build trust between themselves by disclosing information about themselves.

2. They can learn about themselves and come to terms with personal issues with the help of feedback from others.



• Using the Johari model, each person is represented by their own four quadrant, or four-pane, window.

• Each of these contains and represents personal information - feelings, motivation - about the person, and shows whether the information is known or not known by themselves or other people.



4 Quadrant Window: Quadrant 1: Open Area

– What is known by the person about him/herself and is also known by others

Quadrant 2: Blind Area, or "Blind Spot"– What is unknown by the person about him/herself but

which others know. – This can be a simple information, or can involve deep

issues (for example, feelings of inadequacy, incompetence, unworthiness, rejection) which are difficult for individuals to face directly, and yet can be seen by others.



4 Quadrant Window: Quadrant 3: Hidden or Avoided Area

– What the person knows about him/herself that others do not know

Quadrant 4: Unknown Area– What is unknown by the person about him/herself

and is also unknown by others




Implications:

• In most cases, the aim in group should be to develop the Open Area for every person.

• Working in this area with others usually allows for enhanced individual and team effectiveness and productivity. The Open Area is the ‘space’ where good communications and cooperation occur, free from confusion, conflict and misunderstanding.



Implications:

• Self-disclosure is the process by which people expand the Open Area horizontally. Feedback is the process by which people expand this area vertically.

• By encouraging healthy self-disclosure and sensitive feedback, you can build a stronger and more effective team.


Group Communication Roles

1) Group Task Role - communication roles that help the group to accomplish group goals.

2) Group Maintenance Roles - communication roles that promote social support among group members.

3) Self-centered Roles - communication roles that support individual goals & may not be compatible with overall group’s goal.

• Generally, group task & maintenance roles are considered productive for group interaction, whereas self-centered roles are destructive & ineffective.


Successful teams

• Clear objective• Shared responsibility• Leadership • Combination of skills and knowledge


Failing Teams

• Wrong size• Communication breakdown

– duplication of effort– tasks left incomplete

• Obscure objectives• Personality clashes• Run out of time• Inadequate resources


Discussion

• Referring to your position or role in your workplace, share & discuss your roles based on Belbin’s Team Roles Model.

• Critically reflect how you can use Johari’s Window to improve the effectiveness of your team communication.

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Chapter 6 Team Working

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