Chapter 6:Chapter 6:

The Roman EmpireThe Roman Empire

The Age of Augustus (31 BC - AD14)The Age of Augustus (31 BC - AD14)27 BC – Octavian proclaimed his victories against Antony had 27 BC – Octavian proclaimed his victories against Antony had restored the Republicrestored the Republic

Knowing that the republic could not be restored to its old form, he Knowing that the republic could not be restored to its old form, he worked to find a compromiseworked to find a compromise– The senate gave him the title of “Augustus” - the revered oneThe senate gave him the title of “Augustus” - the revered one

– He preferred “princeps” – first among equalsHe preferred “princeps” – first among equals

The system he established is sometimes called a principateThe system he established is sometimes called a principate– A constitutional monarch as co-ruler w/ the senateA constitutional monarch as co-ruler w/ the senate

The title of princeps itself held no powerThe title of princeps itself held no power– Until 23 BC, Augustus also held the consulship, giving him imperiumUntil 23 BC, Augustus also held the consulship, giving him imperium

– After 23 BC, he gave up the consulship and was granted maius imperium After 23 BC, he gave up the consulship and was granted maius imperium “greater imperium than all others”“greater imperium than all others”

– Also given the power of a tribune without actually holding the officeAlso given the power of a tribune without actually holding the office

– Able to propose legislation and also veto any item of public businessAble to propose legislation and also veto any item of public business

Officials continued to be elected, but since Augustus held more Officials continued to be elected, but since Augustus held more authorityauthority– Caused involvement in elections to decline and eventually the popular Caused involvement in elections to decline and eventually the popular

assemblies cease to have any real authorityassemblies cease to have any real authority

The ArmyThe Army

Peace in the empire & security of the princeps depended on the Peace in the empire & security of the princeps depended on the armyarmy

Primarily responsible guarding the frontiers & maintain domestic Primarily responsible guarding the frontiers & maintain domestic order in the provincesorder in the provinces

The standing army was 28 legionsThe standing army was 28 legions– A legion consisted of 5400 soldiers (150,000 total troops)A legion consisted of 5400 soldiers (150,000 total troops)

– Not large by modern terms or for the size of the empire (50 million total pop.)Not large by modern terms or for the size of the empire (50 million total pop.)

Legionaries served 20 years, recruited only from the citizenry and Legionaries served 20 years, recruited only from the citizenry and (under Augustus) mainly from Italy(under Augustus) mainly from Italy

Auxiliares numbered 130,000; noncitizens; served 24 year terms; Auxiliares numbered 130,000; noncitizens; served 24 year terms; they and their families received citizenship after they finishedthey and their families received citizenship after they finished

The Praetorian GuardThe Praetorian Guard

roughly 9000 elite soldiersroughly 9000 elite soldiers

Tasked w/ protecting the princepsTasked w/ protecting the princeps

Recruited from Italian citizens & served 16 yr toursRecruited from Italian citizens & served 16 yr tours

Would become important in making & deposing emperorsWould become important in making & deposing emperors

Victorious generals were hailed as imperator (emperor)Victorious generals were hailed as imperator (emperor)– although we refer to Augustus as emperor, it didn’t become common although we refer to Augustus as emperor, it didn’t become common

for a Roman ruler until Vespasian (69-79)for a Roman ruler until Vespasian (69-79)

Provinces and FrontiersProvinces and Frontiers

Under Augustus, provincial governors received a regular Under Augustus, provincial governors received a regular salary, so corruption was not as big a problemsalary, so corruption was not as big a problem

Since governors had few assistants, the policy of working Since governors had few assistants, the policy of working with local elite and a degree of self-government by locals with local elite and a degree of self-government by locals became policybecame policy

By 15 BC, Augustus began looking to expand northBy 15 BC, Augustus began looking to expand north– 9 BC – reached the Elbe River in eastern Germany9 BC – reached the Elbe River in eastern Germany– AD 9 – General Varus lost 3 entire legions after a massacre led by AD 9 – General Varus lost 3 entire legions after a massacre led by

Arminius (a German tribal leader, despite being a Roman scout and Arminius (a German tribal leader, despite being a Roman scout and citizen)citizen)

– Defeat muted Augustus’s desire to advance in central EuropeDefeat muted Augustus’s desire to advance in central Europe

Roman historians blame Varus completely for the defeatRoman historians blame Varus completely for the defeat

Augustan SocietyAugustan SocietyThe Social OrderThe Social Order

Augustus adopted a senatorial order as a ruling classAugustus adopted a senatorial order as a ruling class– Must own 1 million sesterces in property to belong to the senatorial Must own 1 million sesterces in property to belong to the senatorial

classclass– Reduced the senate from 1000 to 600, but added new families from Reduced the senate from 1000 to 600, but added new families from

across Italyacross Italy

Equestrian order expandedEquestrian order expanded– Opened up to all Roman citizens in good standing & possessing Opened up to all Roman citizens in good standing & possessing

400,000 sesterces in property400,000 sesterces in property– Could hold military & political offices but less important than Could hold military & political offices but less important than

positions of senatorial classpositions of senatorial class– At the end of their career, could be awarded membership in At the end of their career, could be awarded membership in

senatorial classsenatorial class

Citizens not of either class belonged to the lower classCitizens not of either class belonged to the lower class– Majority of populationMajority of population– Lost most political power, given free grain & public spectacles to Lost most political power, given free grain & public spectacles to

keep them from causing problemskeep them from causing problems

Augustus’ ReformsAugustus’ ReformsCreated an imperial cult to strengthen the tie between religion and Created an imperial cult to strengthen the tie between religion and the statethe state– Never claimed to be a godNever claimed to be a god– Allowed the veneration of Julius Caesar as a deityAllowed the veneration of Julius Caesar as a deity– Allowed the building of temples to Augustus and RomaAllowed the building of temples to Augustus and Roma– Deified following his death in A.D. 14Deified following his death in A.D. 14

Augustus believed that Roman morals had been corrupted during Augustus believed that Roman morals had been corrupted during the late republicthe late republic– Created social legislation to slow/halt declineCreated social legislation to slow/halt decline– Luxury had undermined roman moralityLuxury had undermined roman morality– easy divorce, declining birthrate in upper class, hedonistic behavioreasy divorce, declining birthrate in upper class, hedonistic behavior

Made divorce near impossible, limits on banquet expenses, Made divorce near impossible, limits on banquet expenses, adultery became a crime, tax laws penalized the unmarried and adultery became a crime, tax laws penalized the unmarried and small familiessmall families– Exiled his own daughter for adulteryExiled his own daughter for adultery

Golden Age of Latin LiteratureGolden Age of Latin LiteratureAugustan literature is considered the peak of Latin literatureAugustan literature is considered the peak of Latin literature

Augustus patronized the greatest writers in the empire to Augustus patronized the greatest writers in the empire to exemplify the qualities of duty, piety & faithfulnessexemplify the qualities of duty, piety & faithfulness

VirgilVirgil (70 – 19 BC) (70 – 19 BC)greatest of all Roman poetsgreatest of all Roman poetsgreatest work – greatest work – AeneidAeneid (epic poem about the founding of Rome) (epic poem about the founding of Rome)other poems: other poems: – GeorgicsGeorgics (about farming life) (about farming life)– EcloguesEclogues (a series of stories told by a group of shepherds talking to each (a series of stories told by a group of shepherds talking to each

other) other)

HoraceHorace (65 BC – 8 BC??) (65 BC – 8 BC??)best known for his best known for his OdesOdes (4 books of poems about various subjects (4 books of poems about various subjects concerning Roman society)concerning Roman society)– sexual immorality, greed, laziness, & job dissatisfactionsexual immorality, greed, laziness, & job dissatisfaction– Odes IOdes I, 11 – “carpe diem” , 11 – “carpe diem”

Also wrote a collection of short stories called Also wrote a collection of short stories called SatiresSatires– Attacked movements in society, not people individuallyAttacked movements in society, not people individually– (contains one story called “Town Mouse, Country Mouse”)(contains one story called “Town Mouse, Country Mouse”)

OvidOvid (43 BC - AD 14) (43 BC - AD 14)Part of the privileged upper class, ridiculed Augustus’s morality Part of the privileged upper class, ridiculed Augustus’s morality policiespoliciessupported by Augustus until he wrote supported by Augustus until he wrote Art of LoveArt of Love– a collection of lewd & explicit storiesa collection of lewd & explicit stories

Refused to heed Augustus’s wishes, implicated in the same Refused to heed Augustus’s wishes, implicated in the same scandal that caused the emperor’s daughter to be exiled from scandal that caused the emperor’s daughter to be exiled from RomeRome died in exile in a small town on the coast of the Black Seadied in exile in a small town on the coast of the Black Sea

LivyLivy (59 BC – AD 17) (59 BC – AD 17)

Most famous prose work of the golden ageMost famous prose work of the golden age

Celebrated Rome’s greatnessCelebrated Rome’s greatness

Masterpiece was a history of Rome from foundation to 9 BCMasterpiece was a history of Rome from foundation to 9 BC– 142 total books, only 35 have survived142 total books, only 35 have survived

Not overly concerned w/ accuracy of his stories but was a fine Not overly concerned w/ accuracy of his stories but was a fine story tellerstory teller

Despite flaws, his work remained the standard for Roman history Despite flaws, his work remained the standard for Roman history for generationsfor generations

The Early Empire (14-180)The Early Empire (14-180)No real opposition to Augustus’s choice of successor, TiberiusNo real opposition to Augustus’s choice of successor, Tiberius– Established the Established the Julio-ClaudianJulio-Claudian dynasty dynasty

Tiberius (14-37Tiberius (14-37))– Augustus’s stepsonAugustus’s stepson– Competent general, able administrator, tried to get Senate involvedCompetent general, able administrator, tried to get Senate involved

Caligula (37-41)Caligula (37-41)– Great-grandson of AugustusGreat-grandson of Augustus– Tyrannical, erratic, perverse, insane by most accountsTyrannical, erratic, perverse, insane by most accounts– Killed by his Praetorian guardKilled by his Praetorian guard

Claudius (41-54)Claudius (41-54)– Great-nephew of AugustusGreat-nephew of Augustus– Physically disabled but well educated & competent rulerPhysically disabled but well educated & competent ruler

Nero (54-68)Nero (54-68)– Spoiled, neglectful of the militarySpoiled, neglectful of the military– Eliminated anything/body that stood in his wayEliminated anything/body that stood in his way

Dynasty fell during the reign of NeroDynasty fell during the reign of Nero

Became emperor at 16, advised by his tutor, SenecaBecame emperor at 16, advised by his tutor, Seneca

Soon became interested in anything but ruling (acting, violin Soon became interested in anything but ruling (acting, violin playing, singing, horse racing, other more “playing, singing, horse racing, other more “Caligula-like”Caligula-like” activities)activities)

Gained the animosity of the senate and Roman people by Gained the animosity of the senate and Roman people by eliminating several prominent figureseliminating several prominent figures– a popular general, his mother, political “thorns”, had Seneca kill a popular general, his mother, political “thorns”, had Seneca kill

himself to test his convictionshimself to test his convictions– believed to have had an entire series of city blocks burned to expand believed to have had an entire series of city blocks burned to expand

his palacehis palace

6868 - His guards abandoned him during a revolt; without - His guards abandoned him during a revolt; without protection, Nero chose to stab himself in the throatprotection, Nero chose to stab himself in the throat– ““What an artist the world is losing in me.”What an artist the world is losing in me.”

The Flavians (69-96)The Flavians (69-96)Civil war broke out following the revolt Civil war broke out following the revolt in 68. in 68. – Galba replaced Nero, but was defeated Galba replaced Nero, but was defeated

by Otho, then Vitellius and finally by Otho, then Vitellius and finally Vespasian took control Vespasian took control

– know as the Year of the Four Emperorsknow as the Year of the Four Emperors– The Flavians dropped the title of The Flavians dropped the title of

princepsprinceps and used and used imperatorimperator

Vespasian’sVespasian’s (69-79) ascension proved (69-79) ascension proved that an emperor could be chosen that an emperor could be chosen outside of Rome and did not have to be outside of Rome and did not have to be descended from Julius Caesardescended from Julius Caesar– Reformed the economy after Nero’s Reformed the economy after Nero’s

extravagance and the civil wars of 68-69extravagance and the civil wars of 68-69– Followed by his sons, Followed by his sons, TitusTitus (79-81) and (79-81) and

DomitianDomitian (81-96) (81-96)

The Five Good Emperors (96-180)The Five Good Emperors (96-180)The benefits of the Pax Romana were most evident during the The benefits of the Pax Romana were most evident during the rule of the “five good emperors”rule of the “five good emperors”– Absolute monarchs, but known for tolerance & diplomacyAbsolute monarchs, but known for tolerance & diplomacy

NervaNerva (96-98) - chosen by the Senate to succeed Domitian (96-98) - chosen by the Senate to succeed Domitian– Old when he become emperor, adopted Trajan to have an heirOld when he become emperor, adopted Trajan to have an heir

Marcus Ulpius Nerva Marcus Ulpius Nerva TrajanTrajan (98-117) was succeeded by his 2 (98-117) was succeeded by his 2ndnd cousin, cousin, HardianHardian– Hadrian traveled extensively, also known as a great builder Hadrian traveled extensively, also known as a great builder

(Hadrian’s Wall, the Parthenon)(Hadrian’s Wall, the Parthenon)

Hardian adopted Hardian adopted Antoninus PiusAntoninus Pius (138-161) (138-161)– Considered the most productive of the fiveConsidered the most productive of the five– Chose to stay close to Rome and made great use of the SenateChose to stay close to Rome and made great use of the Senate– Agiain, w/o an heir, Pius adopted Marcus AureliusAgiain, w/o an heir, Pius adopted Marcus Aurelius

Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius (161-180) (161-180) – Considered by many to be a philospher-king like Plato spoke ofConsidered by many to be a philospher-king like Plato spoke of– Stoic author of Meditations – about the stoic ideal as a religious Stoic author of Meditations – about the stoic ideal as a religious

conceptconcept

Frontiers and ProvincesFrontiers and ProvincesAt its height in 2At its height in 2ndnd cent. AD, the Roman Empire covered 3.5 million cent. AD, the Roman Empire covered 3.5 million sq. mi and had a pop. of over 50 millionsq. mi and had a pop. of over 50 million

While imperial administration provided a degree of unity, local While imperial administration provided a degree of unity, local customs were given a great deal of leewaycustoms were given a great deal of leeway– 212212 – Caracalla granted all free inhabitants citizenship – Caracalla granted all free inhabitants citizenship– Latin was the language of the West, Greek in the EastLatin was the language of the West, Greek in the East– Local languages still existed, many inhabitants spoke neither Latin nor Local languages still existed, many inhabitants spoke neither Latin nor

Greek Greek

Augustus had advised against future expansion & most 1Augustus had advised against future expansion & most 1 stst cent cent emperors followed his exampleemperors followed his example– 54 BC 54 BC - Claudius annexed Britain- Claudius annexed Britain– Trajan broke w/ the policy; annexing Dacia (Romania), Mesopotamia, & Trajan broke w/ the policy; annexing Dacia (Romania), Mesopotamia, &

Sinai peninsulaSinai peninsula– Hadrian withdrew from Mesopotamia and began fortifying the frontierHadrian withdrew from Mesopotamia and began fortifying the frontier– The glaring weakness of the empire was apparent: no strategic reserveThe glaring weakness of the empire was apparent: no strategic reserve– If revolt broke, out troops had to be moved from one frontier to anotherIf revolt broke, out troops had to be moved from one frontier to another

Role of the ArmyRole of the ArmyAD 14 AD 14 – 25 legions; 30 by 117– 25 legions; 30 by 117

By By 200200 - 400,000 total troops (standing & auxiliary) - 400,000 total troops (standing & auxiliary)

Legionaries had to be citizens, so Augustus’ army was primarily Legionaries had to be citizens, so Augustus’ army was primarily ItalianItalian

– By AD 100, the Italian reluctance to serve in the army led to recruitment By AD 100, the Italian reluctance to serve in the army led to recruitment in the provincesin the provinces

– By this time, only 1 In 5 soldiers were ItalianBy this time, only 1 In 5 soldiers were Italian

Military camps became centers of cultural diffusion in the provincesMilitary camps became centers of cultural diffusion in the provinces– Spread the Latin language & Roman institutions to the conqueredSpread the Latin language & Roman institutions to the conquered– Presence of large # of troops and their women & slaves encouraged the Presence of large # of troops and their women & slaves encouraged the

development of trade in those regionsdevelopment of trade in those regions– Cities grew up around the camps or nearby coloniesCities grew up around the camps or nearby colonies

Local officials chosen from the upper-classLocal officials chosen from the upper-class– No pay, but conferred citizenship on officials & tied them to the RomeNo pay, but conferred citizenship on officials & tied them to the Rome– Led to a distinct change in the SenateLed to a distinct change in the Senate– 5050 – few non-Italian senators; – few non-Italian senators; 200200 – less than ½ of senators Italian – less than ½ of senators Italian

The Silver Age of Latin LiteratureThe Silver Age of Latin LiteratureLiterature from the 150 yrs following the reign of Augustus is Literature from the 150 yrs following the reign of Augustus is referred to the “silver” agereferred to the “silver” age– good but not equal to the “golden” agegood but not equal to the “golden” age

SenecaSeneca (4 BC-AD 65) (4 BC-AD 65)– Stoic philosopher, tutor to Nero & advisor early in Nero’s reignStoic philosopher, tutor to Nero & advisor early in Nero’s reign– Considered the greatest Roman stoic, but didn’t always live Considered the greatest Roman stoic, but didn’t always live

according to his wordsaccording to his words– Ordered by Nero to take his own life to test his commitmentOrdered by Nero to take his own life to test his commitment

Tacitus (56-120)Tacitus (56-120)– greatest historian of the silver agegreatest historian of the silver age– author of author of AnnalsAnnals and and HistoriesHistories– felt it was his duty to display the corruption & decadence of Rome’s felt it was his duty to display the corruption & decadence of Rome’s

upper classupper class

Juvenal (55-128)Juvenal (55-128)– Considered the best poet of the silver ageConsidered the best poet of the silver age– Satirist, attacked the fickleness of Roman women, abuse of slaves, Satirist, attacked the fickleness of Roman women, abuse of slaves,

excess of emperors, immigration, his own poverty & inequality in societyexcess of emperors, immigration, his own poverty & inequality in society

Imperial RomeImperial Rome

Largest city in the empire (close to 1 million by 32 BC)Largest city in the empire (close to 1 million by 32 BC)– Nationalities from all over the empire, often with entire Nationalities from all over the empire, often with entire

neighborhoods inhabited by specific groupsneighborhoods inhabited by specific groups

Overcrowded & noisy, wagon traffic was banned during the Overcrowded & noisy, wagon traffic was banned during the dayday

Crime was an issue especially in the poorer neighborhoodsCrime was an issue especially in the poorer neighborhoods

Rich lived in comfortable villas, poor lived in apartment blocks Rich lived in comfortable villas, poor lived in apartment blocks called insulaecalled insulae

– Made of concrete w/ wooden walls; prone to collapse and fireMade of concrete w/ wooden walls; prone to collapse and fire

Many great public buildings (temples, baths, amphitheatres, Many great public buildings (temples, baths, amphitheatres, govt. buildings)govt. buildings)

Rome was also a great parasiteRome was also a great parasite– 200,000 poor received free grain (6 million sacks/year)200,000 poor received free grain (6 million sacks/year)– Had to import food from all over the empireHad to import food from all over the empire– Aqueducts carried water from many miles away to supply the cityAqueducts carried water from many miles away to supply the city

The Gladiatorial SpectaclesThe Gladiatorial SpectaclesIn addition to food, entertainment was In addition to food, entertainment was provided by prominent figuresprovided by prominent figures– Political in purpose: kept the “mob” Political in purpose: kept the “mob”

distracted from how miserable their distracted from how miserable their lives werelives were

– 3 main types: chariot races, plays, & 3 main types: chariot races, plays, & gladiatorial matchesgladiatorial matches

– Spectacles were focused around Spectacles were focused around Roman religious festivalsRoman religious festivals

– Over 100 state holidays in the Over 100 state holidays in the Roman calendarRoman calendar

Many sporting events were held in Many sporting events were held in large amphitheaters.large amphitheaters.

Most famous was the gladiatorial Most famous was the gladiatorial matchesmatches– In provinces & during some periods In provinces & during some periods

in Rome fights were to the deathin Rome fights were to the death

earliest discovered amphitheater earliest discovered amphitheater was in Pompeii (75 BC)was in Pompeii (75 BC)– best known of all amphitheaters was best known of all amphitheaters was

the the ColosseumColosseum in Romein Rome– It held 50,000 spectators (roughly It held 50,000 spectators (roughly

the size of larger sports arenas the size of larger sports arenas today)today)

– Largest amphitheater was Largest amphitheater was Circus Circus MaximusMaximus (held about 200,000 (held about 200,000 spectators)spectators)Roman society was violent and Roman society was violent and brutal & thus was their brutal & thus was their entertainmententertainment

Gladiators were trained fighters, Gladiators were trained fighters, usually slaves or criminalsusually slaves or criminals– Games were from dawn to duskGames were from dawn to dusk– Some free men fought in hope of Some free men fought in hope of

fame & fortunefame & fortune– Most were one on one, refereed & Most were one on one, refereed &

scriptedscripted– Some events might involve unarmed Some events might involve unarmed

criminals and wild animalscriminals and wild animals

Disaster in Southern ItalyDisaster in Southern Italy7979 – Mt. Vesuvius erupts, burying Pompeii in volcanic ash and – Mt. Vesuvius erupts, burying Pompeii in volcanic ash and

Herculaneum in mudslidesHerculaneum in mudslides– Providing modern archeologists with insight as to the daily lives of Providing modern archeologists with insight as to the daily lives of

Romans from this periodRomans from this period

Roman LawRoman LawCornerstones of modern legal principals come from this time periodCornerstones of modern legal principals come from this time period

– Concept of natural rights, Innocent until proven guilty, defendant’s Concept of natural rights, Innocent until proven guilty, defendant’s right to defend themselves in court, judges expected to weigh right to defend themselves in court, judges expected to weigh evidence before judgingevidence before judging

Political & Military WoesPolitical & Military WoesCommodus’ assassination led to a period of civil warCommodus’ assassination led to a period of civil war

– Replaced by Septimus Severus (193-211)Replaced by Septimus Severus (193-211)

Severan dynasty created a military monarchySeveran dynasty created a military monarchy– Army expanded, pay increased & officers promoted to important Army expanded, pay increased & officers promoted to important

govt. positionsgovt. positions

The Late Roman Empire (p.166-The Late Roman Empire (p.166-Reforms of Diocletian & ConstantineReforms of Diocletian & Constantine

Diocletian restructured the empireDiocletian restructured the empire– # of provinces increased by over 100# of provinces increased by over 100– Provinces grouped into 12 diocesesProvinces grouped into 12 dioceses– Dioceses grouped into 4 prefectures, each w/ a governor Dioceses grouped into 4 prefectures, each w/ a governor – The empire was split into halves: West (Roman) & East (Byzantine)The empire was split into halves: West (Roman) & East (Byzantine)– Each prefecture ruled by an “Augustus” or “Caesar” but Diocletian Each prefecture ruled by an “Augustus” or “Caesar” but Diocletian

retained controlretained control

Diocletian had decided that Rome was too big to be run by Diocletian had decided that Rome was too big to be run by one personone person

– tetrarchy tetrarchy – rule of four– rule of four– Each half ruled by an Augustus; assisted by the Caesar or vice-Each half ruled by an Augustus; assisted by the Caesar or vice-

emperoremperor

312312 – Constantine took control of the west; – Constantine took control of the west; 324324 – defeated – defeated fellow emperor, Licinius, and assumed total controlfellow emperor, Licinius, and assumed total control

Between 324-330, Constantine moved the capital from Between 324-330, Constantine moved the capital from Rome to the eastern city of Byzantium, renaming it Rome to the eastern city of Byzantium, renaming it ConstantinopleConstantinople

312312 – Constantine converted to Christianity – Constantine converted to Christianity

313313 – – Edict of Milan Edict of Milan – legalized Christian worship– legalized Christian worship– Theodosius adopted Christianity as the official religionTheodosius adopted Christianity as the official religion

378378 – Visigoth revolt routs a Roman army – Visigoth revolt routs a Roman army

402 – 402 – western capital moved to Ravennawestern capital moved to Ravenna

410410 – Visigoths sack Rome – Visigoths sack Rome– Also, all Roman legions are pulled out of BritainAlso, all Roman legions are pulled out of Britain

455455 – Rome breaks a treaty with the Vandals; Alaric orders – Rome breaks a treaty with the Vandals; Alaric orders the sack of Romethe sack of Rome

476476 – Master of the Soldiers, Odacer, deposes the emperor, – Master of the Soldiers, Odacer, deposes the emperor, Romulus AugustulusRomulus Augustulus– Considered by historians as the fall of the western (Roman) empireConsidered by historians as the fall of the western (Roman) empire– Eastern empire (Byzantine) would continue on until 1453Eastern empire (Byzantine) would continue on until 1453