Chapter 6Thinking & Intelligence

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Topics to Explore

1. Problem Solving

2. Thinking Under Uncertainty

3. Intelligence

Part 1Problem Solving

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Types of Problems

Thinking: the processing of information to solve problems and make judgments and decisions

Well-defined problem: a problem with clear specifications of the start state, goal state, and the processes for reaching the goal state.

Ill-defined problem: a problem lacking clear specification of either the start state, goal state, or the processes for reaching the goal state.

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Barriers to Problem-Solving

Fixation: the inability to create a new interpretation of a problem.

Functional fixedness: the inability to see that an object can have a function other than its typical one in solving a problem

Mental set: the tendency to use previously successful strategies without considering other strategies that are more appropriate for the current problem

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Some Solution Methods

• Mechanical Solution: Achieved by trial and error or by rote

• General Solution: States the requirements for success but not in enough detail for further action

• Solution by Understanding: analyzing the nature of the question in order to find a solution

• Insight: finding a new way to interpret a problem that immediately yields a solution.

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A Problem to Solve

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Solution Strategies

• Algorithm: a step-by-step problem-solving procedure that guarantees a correct answer to a problem.

• Heuristic: a strategy that seems reasonable given past experience with similar problems, but does not guarantee a correct answer to a problem.

• Note: heuristics work much of the time – that is why we use them. The problem is that they do not work 100% of the time – and researchers are ingenuous at finding the times that they don’t work!

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Some Interesting Problems

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Part 2Thinking Under

Uncertainty

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Judging Probability

• Representativeness heuristic: a heuristic for judging the probability of membership in a category by how well an object is representative of that category

• Availability heuristic: a heuristic for judging the probability of an event by how available examples of the event are in memory

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Representativeness Heuristic

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Availability Heuristic

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Hypothesis Testing

• Confirmation bias: the tendency to seek evidence that confirms one’s beliefs, rather than disconfirming evidence

• Belief perseverance: the tendency to cling to one’s beliefs in the face of contradictory evidence

• Person-who reasoning: questioning an established research finding because one knows a person who violates the finding

Part 3Intelligence

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Intelligence: Global capacity to act purposefully, think

rationally, and deal effectively with the environment

Operational Definition: Procedures used to measure a

concept

Operational Definition of Intelligence: Intelligence is

what an intelligence test measures.

Defining Intelligence

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Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale: Widely used individual intelligence test, derived directly from Alfred Binet’s first intelligence test; items are age-ranked

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Test (WAIS): Adult intelligence test that rates verbal and performance intelligence and abilities

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC): Downscaled version of the WAIS-III; for children from 6 years to 16 years, 11 months, 30 days

• Performance Intelligence: Nonverbal intelligence

• Verbal Intelligence: Language or symbol-oriented intelligence

Intelligence Tests

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Sample Items from the WAIS

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Sample Items from the WAIS, 2

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Sample Items from the WAIS, 3

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Scoring Intelligence Tests

Intelligence Quotient: Stanford-Binet is scored as a quotient between chronological age and mental age (a child with a mental age of 8 scores at the same level as the average 8 year old:

IQ = (mental age/chronological age) x 100

Deviation IQ: Wechsler tests are not actually a quotient, but rather are based on the normal curve and how far a person scores from the center or mean.

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Distribution of IQ Scores

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A strong correlation (about .50) exists between IQ and school

grades.

IQ is NOT a good predictor of success in art, music, writing,

dramatics, science and leadership.

Men and women do NOT appear to differ in overall

intelligence.

Giftedness: Having a high IQ (usually above 130) or special

talents or abilities (playing Mozart at age 5)

Facts About IQ

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Intelligence: Nature or Nurture?

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Language: Used for thinking by lawyers, writers, comedians

Logic and Math: Used by scientists, accountants, programmers

Visual & Spatial Thinking: Used by engineers, inventors,

aviators

Music: Used by composers, musicians, music critics

Bodily-Kinesthetic Skills: Used by dancers, athletes, surgeons

Intrapersonal Skills (Self-Knowledge): Used by poets, actors,

ministers

Interpersonal Skills (Social Abilities): Used by psychologists,

teachers, politicians

Naturalistic Skills (Ability to Understand Natural Environment):

Used by biologists, organic farmers

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

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Just for Fun: Inductive Reasoning Problem

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Just for Fun: Deductive Reasoning Problem

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A Little Exercise

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