Clandestine Drug Laboratories 746 I llegal or clandestine drug laboratories synthesize illicit drugs using a variety of techniques. The majority of clandestine labs in the United States are involved in the production of methamphetamine, but a num- ber of other drugs may also be synthesized, including phen- cyclidine (PCP), methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) and methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), methcathinone (CAT), amphetamine, and other controlled substances (Table 66–1). Illicit methamphetamine laboratories have spread across the United States, after having been found in significant num- bers in California, Oregon, Washington, and Texas. They are also found throughout the world. No data are available on the total number of drug laboratories seized to date in the United States, but the U.S. Department of Justice’s Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) and certain state and local jurisdictions keep statistics on clandestine laboratory investigations in which they have participated (Table 66–2). Clandestine drug laboratories have been discovered in houses, apartments, hotel rooms, trailers, vans, storage units, mines, buried cargo containers, and a variety of other structures. They are often found in rural or remote areas, where greater privacy is available. Often these facilities are moved frequently to prevent detection. Because of the flammable and reactive hazards of chemicals used in clan- destine drug synthesis, many labs are discovered only after explosions or fires. Health risks in clandestine labs also include exposures to poisonous chemicals and encounters with potentially armed and dangerous individuals involved in illicit drug synthesis. Adverse health effects have been reported for residents of the drug labs, their families, law enforcement personnel involved in the investigation of lab- oratories, and subsequent inhabitants of the buildings when adequate clean-up was not performed. Chemical Hazards The specific chemical hazards of a clandestine laboratory vary from laboratory to laboratory, depending on the status of the laboratory the illicit drug or drugs being synthesized, and the mechanism of synthesis. LABORATORY STATUS Clandestine laboratories can be classified as active, in which an active chemical process or synthesis is in 66 JEFFEREY L. BURGESS DAVID CHANDLER ▼ Abandoned wine cellar used as clan- destine drug laboratory. (Courtesy of Getty Images.)
Transcript
Clandestine DrugLaboratories
746
Illegal or clandestine drug laboratories synthesize
illicit drugs using a variety of techniques. The
majority of clandestine labs in the United States areinvolved in the production of methamphetamine, but a num-ber of other drugs may also be synthesized, including phen-cyclidine (PCP), methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) andmethylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), lysergic aciddiethylamide (LSD), methcathinone (CAT), amphetamine,and other controlled substances (Table 66–1). Illicitmethamphetamine laboratories have spread across theUnited States, after having been found in significant num-bers in California, Oregon, Washington, and Texas. They arealso found throughout the world. No data are available onthe total number of drug laboratories seized to date in theUnited States, but the U.S. Department of Justice’s DrugEnforcement Administration (DEA) and certain state andlocal jurisdictions keep statistics on clandestine laboratoryinvestigations in which they have participated (Table 66–2).
Clandestine drug laboratories have been discovered inhouses, apartments, hotel rooms, trailers, vans, storageunits, mines, buried cargo containers, and a variety of otherstructures. They are often found in rural or remote areas,where greater privacy is available. Often these facilities are
moved frequently to prevent detection. Because of theflammable and reactive hazards of chemicals used in clan-destine drug synthesis, many labs are discovered only afterexplosions or fires. Health risks in clandestine labs alsoinclude exposures to poisonous chemicals and encounterswith potentially armed and dangerous individuals involvedin illicit drug synthesis. Adverse health effects have beenreported for residents of the drug labs, their families, lawenforcement personnel involved in the investigation of lab-oratories, and subsequent inhabitants of the buildings whenadequate clean-up was not performed.
Chemical Hazards
The specific chemical hazards of a clandestine laboratoryvary from laboratory to laboratory, depending on the statusof the laboratory the illicit drug or drugs being synthesized,and the mechanism of synthesis.
LABORATORY STATUS
Clandestine laboratories can be classified as active, inwhich an active chemical process or synthesis is in
66 JEFFEREY L. BURGESS
DAVID CHANDLER
�
Abandoned wine cellar used as clan-
destine drug laboratory. (Courtesy of
Getty Images.)
progress; set-up, in which chemical apparatus may be setup for ongoing chemical processes or reactions but aprocess is not immediately in progress; in-transit or boxed,in which chemicals and apparatus are boxed or otherwisestored for transit or future use; and former or historical,where all or most chemicals and apparatus have beenremoved from the site, but chemical residues indicatingmanufacturing still exist.
Active laboratories present a much greater risk thanother categories of laboratories because of the increasedpotential for exposure to precursor and reagent chemicalsand their by-products. Increased exposure to chemicalsmay also occur from incidents such as fires, explosions, or
out-of-control reactions. Set-up and boxed laboratoriestend to be somewhat less problematic, although exposuresmay still occur from opening containers of volatile chemi-cals, contaminated glassware or apparatus, or spills.Former laboratories do not usually present a fire or explo-sion hazard but have been reported to cause illnesses insubsequent inhabitants of the involved dwellings.
SYNTHETIC PROCESSES
The specific methods used to synthesize illicit drugs havechanged over time as legal restrictions on the sale of pre-cursor and reagent chemicals are enacted. The greatestadaptation to these restrictions has occurred in the synthe-sis of methamphetamine. The types and classes of chemi-cals used in illicit laboratories can be broken down intothree general classes, precursors, reagents, and solvents.Precursor chemicals are chemicals that donate all or a por-tion of their structure or moiety to the structure of an inter-mediate or target compound. Reagents are chemicals thatfacilitate the reaction of the precursors but do not con-tribute to the final structures of the target compound.Solvents are used to dissolve, isolate, or manipulate pre-cursors, reagents, or final products.
Generally, illicit drugs are made by following “recipes”gleamed from the open chemical literature, which may bepassed from person to person, sold as a commodity,obtained from underground sources or counterculture pub-lications, or downloaded from the Internet. The personsmanufacturing illicit drugs seldom are trained chemists andmay have limited education. These clandestine “chemists”literally “cook” the ingredients and are therefore calledcooks. In addition to creating the target compound of thesyntheses, other chemical by-products are produced thatmay be harmful to the investigator or the end user. Thechemistry and methods used to produce illicit drugs arevery similar to those skills and methods found in anyorganic chemistry course. These methods include the fol-lowing chemical techniques:
Reflux: Reflux is the process of boiling one or moreorganic chemicals in a round-bottomed reaction flask. Theflask sits in a heating mantle and is topped off with awater-cooled condenser. The importance of a properly set-up and functioning condenser cannot be overemphasized.If a reaction, such as the hydriodic acid reduction ofephedrine, were to lose the liquid out of the reaction flask,poisonous phosphine gas would form and the red phos-phorus would likely convert to yellow phosphorus. Yellowphosphorus burns on contact with air.
Distillation: Distillation is similar to reflux, but thecondenser is now placed at an angle down and awayfrom the reaction flask. Instead of being returned tothe flask, the condensed liquid is collected inanother vessel. In this manner the liquid is isolatedfrom the original solution.
Extraction: Extraction is the process of isolating achemical with a solvent. The simplest type of extrac-tion is known as a dry extraction, in which a pow-
*Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) national statistics. †All reporting California agencies, including the DEA. ‡Laboratories reported by the San Bernardino Sheriff's Crime Laboratory,Calif. Statistics courtesy of the Western States Intelligence Network.27
� Clandestine Drug Laboratory Statistics
Parameter Examined %
Illicit Drug SynthesizedMethamphetamine 81.1 PCP 6.5 MDA/MDMA 1.5 LSD 0.4 Other 8.1 Unknown 2.4 Methamphetamine Synthetic ProcessEphedrine–red phosphorus 64.6 P2P–methylamine 27.6 Ephedrine–thionyl chloride 3.8 Other 2.4 Unknown 1.6 Laboratory StatusIn-transit (boxed) 42.5 Active 26.2 Set-up 16.5 Former 13.0 Other 1.8
Questionnaire data collected from 46 law enforcement chemists involved in2255 drug laboratory investigations.4
TABLE 66–1
TABLE 66–2
der is washed with a solvent that will dissolve eitherthe desired or undesired component. Another type ofextraction commonly encountered in illicit laborato-ries is called a liquid-liquid extraction. In thisextraction, the compound of interest is partitionedbetween an aqueous phase and an immiscibleorganic phase using a piece of glassware called aseparatory funnel. Usually, this requires the pH ofthe aqueous phase to be either strongly acidic orbasic. Common organic solvents used for liquid-liq-uid extractions include diethyl ether, benzene, petro-leum ether, hexane, chloroform, methylene chloride,charcoal lighter fluid, freon (11, 12, 113, 142b etc.),or any other water-immiscible solvent.
Reductions: Reductions are processes in which atomichydrogen is added to a molecule. This usuallyrequires some type of metallic catalyst, a hydrogensource, and a suitable vessel. Reductions for illicitlyproduced drugs generally fall into three categories:dissolving metal reductions, metal hydride reductions,and catalytic reductions. A dissolving metal reductioninvolves the use of an appropriate solvent to dissolvea metal such as sodium, lithium, potassium, zinc, oraluminum to produce a reducing medium. Aluminumalso requires the use of mercuric chloride, a water-soluble mercury salt, to temper the reducing mediaand produce an amalgam. These media tend to bevery reactive, especially toward moisture. A metalhydride reduction uses metal hydrides such as lithiumaluminum hydride, sodium borohydride, sodiumcyanoborohydride, or calcium hydride in an organicsolvent such as diethyl ether or tetrahydrofuran.Metal hydrides, too, are very reactive to water andmay cause a fire or explosion. Finally, catalyticreductions use metal catalysts on support media, suchas palladium on carbon, palladium on barium sulfate,platinum chloride, Raney nickel, or ruthenium oxide.Catalytic reductions are typically performed in adevice called a hydrogenator. A hydrogenator is avessel made from stainless steel or glass capable ofholding pressures ranging from 2 to several hundredatmospheres of pressure. The intermediate or pre-cursor compound is dissolved in a solvent, such asalcohol, and added to the hydrogenator. The metalcatalyst is added and the hydrogenator is sealed.The vessel is charged with hydrogen gas from atank and shaken. Charged hydrogenators can beespecially dangerous to disassemble. Makeshifthydrogenators have been constructed frompolypropylene garden sprayers.
Acid salt formation: This process is called powderingout. Nearly all controlled substances are nitrogenousbases that form acid salts when reacted with a suit-able mineral or organic acid. The formation of awater-soluble salt is important if the drug is to beabsorbed by the body. The most common exampleof this process is the bubbling of hydrogen chloridegas, either anhydrous from a tank or synthesizedusing rock salt and sulfuric acid, through a nonpolar
solvent as freon, diethyl ethyl, or hexane containingthe base drug. The drug forms the water-soluble saltof the drug, which precipitates from the solution andis collected by filtration. This process can also beperformed by adding a small portion of the mineralacid to a co-solvent such as acetone, which is addedto the drug solution. Other types of acids used inthis process include sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid,and citric acid.
Filtration: Filtration is the act of removing the solidsin a solution by pouring the solution into a filterpaper. The filtration process can either retain the fin-ished product (as in powdering out) or remove theundesirable solids (such as red phosphorus) from thesolution. Actual chemical filtration equipment suchas Buchner funnels, filter flasks, and filter papermay be used. Equipment may also be improvisedfrom such items as coffee filters and caddies, bedsheets, trash cans, and other devices.
CHEMICAL TOXICITY
Because of the large number of chemicals potentially presentin a clandestine drug laboratory, it is impossible to predictthe exact hazards of any individual laboratory. However, thechemicals present can generally be categorized by type oftoxicity as corrosives, solvents, pharmacologically activeagents, and other systemic toxins. Corrosives includestrong acids and bases, including hydrochloric acid, hydri-odic acid, sulfuric acid, and sodium hydroxide. Solventsinclude ethyl and diethyl ether, acetone, toluene, xylene, ben-zene, chloroform, denatured alcohol, freon, hexane, iso-propanol, methanol, petroleum ether, and more recentlyColeman fuel. Pharmacologically active agents includemethamphetamine, ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, and otherdrugs found in nonmethamphetamine laboratories. Othersystemic toxins include metals, primarily mercury and leadbut also chromium and others, and gases such as phosphine.Explosives and cyanide/acid mixtures can be used to booby-trap the laboratories. A description of selected chemicals isprovided in Table 66–3.
Examples of synthetic processes are listed in Tables66–4 through 66–13. These tables have been adapted fromthe Washington State Department of Health (http://www.doh.wa.gov/ehp/ts/CDL/guide1ns.doc). The list of chemi-cals in each table is meant to be representative and notexhaustive for the synthetic process described. For morecomplete information, readers should contact a local foren-sic chemist familiar with clandestine drug laboratories.
Methamphetamine Synthesis
Illicit methamphetamine laboratories constitute the major-ity of clandestine laboratory seizures in the United States,Canada, and Australia. For methamphetamine, two syn-thetic methods dominate. The first method uses the pre-cursor chemical phenylacetone (phenyl-2-propanone, orP2P) and was the predominant synthetic method in the
Clandestine Drug Laboratories / 66 749
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750 SECTION III / Environmental Toxicology
� Potential Toxicity of Selected Chemicals
In the following list, vapor pressure is given at 20˚C (68˚F) unless otherwise specified. All odor thresholds are from the American IndustrialHygiene Association (AIHA)2 unless otherwise indicated. PEL = OSHA permissible exposure level, TLV = American Conference ofGovernmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) threshold limit value, TWA = time-weighted average, STEL = short-term (15-minute) exposurelimit, C = ceiling limit (instantaneous level not to be exceeded), IDLH = National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)immediately dangerous to life and health concentration. For the following table, vapor pressure is given at 20˚C (68˚F) unless otherwise specified. All odor thresholds are from the AIHA unless oth-erwise indicated. PEL = Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Permissible Exposure Level; TLV = American Conference ofGovernmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) Threshold Limit Value, TWA = Time Weighted Average, STEL = Short-Term (15 minute)Exposure Limit, C = Ceiling Limit (level not to be exceeded); IDLH = National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health concentration.
Acetic acid (glacial) (CAS 64-19-7) Form: Coloress liquid, solid below 62˚F; sour, vinegar-like odor Use: Reagent used in the manufacture of phenyl-2-propanone (P2P) for methamphetamine and amphetamine. Physical properties: Boiling point 118˚C (244˚F), vapor density 2.1, vapor pressure 11 mm Hg Exposure limits: TLV-TWA 10 ppm, STEL 15 ppm, IDLH 50 ppm Hazards: Corrosive and strong irritant. Vapors cause eye irritation. Exposure to high concentration may cause inflammation of the airway,
accumulation of fluid in the lungs, severe burns, blurred vision, ulcers of the eyes, and permanent eye damage. Chronic exposure maycause irritation of the nose, throat, and airway, irritation of the eyes, and reproductive problems. Flammable when moderately heated.
Potential risks: Acetic acid, which is used in the manufacture of both amphetamine and methamphetamine, is a health risk to allexposed individuals, especially children. Hazards result from skin or eye contact with this acid, inhalation of vapors, or fire due toits flammability.
Acetic anhydride (CAS 108-24-7) Form: Liquid, colorless, strong vinegar-like odor Use: Reagent in P2P synthesis Physical properties: Boiling point 139˚C (282˚F), vapor pressure 4 mm Hg, vapor density 3.5, odor threshold 0.4 ppm Exposure limits: PEL 5 ppm, IDLH 200 ppm Hazards: Corrosive and irritant. Vapors are irritating to eyes, mucous membranes, and skin. Exposure to high concentration can lead
to ulcerations of the nasal mucosa and in some cases bronchospasm. The liquid and vapor can severely damage the eye. This is characterized by immediate burning, followed by corneal and conjunctival edema several hours later and, in severe cases, corneal opacification with loss of vision. Skin contact may cause skin to redden and subsequently turn white and wrinkled, with moderatepain. The appearance of skin burns may be delayed.
Potential risks: This reagent, used in the synthesis of P2P, is a corrosive, causing skin burns. Its vapors can lead to eye damage, making it a health risk to individuals exposed during the manufacturing process and cleanup.
Acetone (CAS 67-64-1) Form: Colorless liquid; sweet fragrant odor Use: Solvent used in methamphetamine production. Physical properties: Boiling point 56˚C (133˚F), vapor pressure 180 mm Hg, vapor density not given Exposure limits: TLV-TWA 500 ppm, IDLH 2500 ppm Hazards: Irritating to the eyes and skin. Vapors may be irritating, causing irritation of the throat, airways, and lung. Prolonged
exposure to high concentrations may lead to coughing, blurred vision, fatigue, tremors, convulsions, stupor, bizarre behavior, coma, and death. Alcohol and other chemicals may increase toxic effects. Flammable or explosive when mixed with air at room temperature. May explode when exposed to heat or fire.
Potential risks: This solvent, which is used in the production of methamphetamine, is dangerous primarily because of its flammability and its potential to explode when exposed to heat. At high concentrations it is toxic and potentially lethal. It is a health risk to all individuals exposed during the manufacturing process and those responding to a laboratory fire.
Ammonia (CAS 7664-41-7) Form: Gas (liquid under pressure), colorless, pungent odor Use: Reagent in methamphetamine synthesis, "Nazi" method. Used as liquid for reaction since sodium metal is water-reactive. Physical properties: Boiling point −33.4˚C (−28.1˚F), vapor density 0.6, odor threshold 17 ppm Exposure limits: TLV-TWA 25 ppm, STEL 35 ppm, IDLH 300 ppm Hazards: Corrosive and irritant. Reacts with moisture in the mucosal surfaces (eyes, skin, and respiratory tract) to produce ammonium
hydroxide. Exposure to vapors at high concentrations can result in burns to eyes, nose, pharynx, and larynx. Eye exposure may result in conjunctivitis, lacrimation, corneal irritation, and temporary or permanent blindness. Respiratory exposure may result in bronchospasm, laryngitis, tracheitis, wheezing, dyspnea, and chest pain. Exposure may also result in pulmonary edema and chemical pneumonitis. Skin exposure to concentrated vapors or liquid can lead to deep, penetrating burns.
Potential risks: Ammonia is a gas used in methamphetamine synthesis. Its vapors are a health risk to all individuals in the vicinity during the manufacturing process.
Benzaldehyde (CAS 100-52-7) Form: Liquid, colorless; bitter almond odor Use: Precursor for amphetamine or P2P synthesis, with nitroethane. Physical properties: Boiling point 176˚C (354˚F), vapor pressure 1 mm Hg at 26.2˚C (79.2˚F), vapor density 3.7, odor threshold
0.04 ppm Exposure limits: None Hazards: Mild irritant to the lungs; a narcotic at moderate doses and a convulsant at higher doses. It may cause contact dermatitis.
It may cause skin sensitization and allergic contact dermatitis. Vapors are irritating to eyes. May be absorbed through the skin.
TABLE 66–3
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� Potential Toxicity of Selected Chemicals (Continued)
Potential risks: This liquid is a health risk, especially in high concentrations. It is a precursor in the production of amphetamines, making it a hazard to those exposed during the manufacturing process.
Benzyl chloride (CAS 100-44-7) Form: Liquid, colorless to slightly yellow, pungent aromatic odor Use: Used in methamphetamine production. Physical properties: Boiling point 179˚C (355˚F), vapor density 4.4, vapor pressure 1 mm Hg, odor threshold 0.04 ppm Exposure limits: PEL 1 ppm, IDLH 10 ppm Hazards: Severe irritant to the eyes, mucous membranes, and skin. It will produce lacrimation at low concentrations and also
weakness, irritability, and persistent headache. At sufficient concentration, inhalation may produce pulmonary edema. Liquid in the eye can produce severe irritation and corneal injury. Skin contact may produce dermatitis and skin sensitization.
Potential risks: This liquid, which is used in methamphetamine production, is a severe irritant to the eyes and can have otherharmful effects to individuals present during the manufacturing process.
Benzene (CAS 71-43-2) Form: Colorless to light–yellow liquid; aromatic odor Use: Solvent used in methamphetamine production. Physical properties: Boiling point 80˚C (176˚F), vapor pressure 74.6 mm Hg, vapor density not determined Exposure limits: TLV-TWA 1 ppm, STEL 5 ppm, IDLH 500 ppm Hazards: Vapor in high concentration may affect the nervous system, causing headache, dizziness, breathing difficulties, coughing,
fluid in the lungs, coma, lung, liver, or kidney damage, or death. Prolonged inhalation may lead to anemia or leukemia. Chronic expo-sure can irritate the eyes, nose, throat, and lungs and may affect the central nervous system, bone marrow, and respiratory tract.Symptoms include allergies, confusion, headache, short-term memory loss, coma, or death. Benzene is extremely flammable, andvapor may cause a flash fire.
Potential risks: Benzene is used in methamphetamine production. It is extremely flammable, and inhalation of the vapors is veryhazardous to exposed individuals present during the manufacture, cleanup, and response to fire. Chronic exposure, especially inyoung children, can cause severe health problems.
Coleman fuel (light hydrotreated distillate) (CAS 68410-97-9) Form: Liquid Use: Solvent used to extract d-methamphetamine. Physical properties: Boiling point 38˚C (100˚F), vapor pressure 518 mm Hg, vapor density 3 Exposure limits: TWA 400 ppm Hazards: Vapor may cause delayed lung injury, nervous system depression, convulsions, and loss of consciousness. Irritant to skin and
eyes. Can form flammable mixture with air at room temperature. Potential risks: Coleman fuel is a solvent used in the extraction of d-methamphetamine. It is hazardous due to its flammability when
mixed with air. Vapors are a health hazard to individuals during the manufacturing phase.
Ephedrine (CAS 299-42-3) Form: White crystal; odorless Use: Precusor in manufacture of methamphetamines. Physical properties: Not available Exposure limits: None Hazards: Irritant to eyes, skin, and respiratory system. Ingestion may lead to headache, rapid pulse, high blood pressure and stroke. Potential risks: Ephedrine is a precusor used in the manufacture of methamphetamines. In addition to being an irritant, ingestion of
excessive amounts can have serious effects.
Ethanol (CAS 64-17-5) Form: Clear, colorless liquid Use: Used in the production of methamphetamine. Physical properties: Boiling point 79˚C (173˚F), vapor pressure 5.8 mm Hg, vapor density 1.6 Exposure limits: TLV-TWA 1000 ppm, IDLH 3300 ppm Hazards: Inhalation may irritate the nose and throat, causing headache, nausea, vomiting, drowsiness, or confusion. Ingestion can lead
to burning sensation, confusion, dizziness, seizures, blurred vision, blindness, unconsciousness, or death. Chronic exposure may leadto headache, lack of coordination, fatigue, and damage to the nervous system, liver, stomach, and heart. Vapor and liquid areextremely flammable.
Potential risks: Ethanol and its vapors are extremely flammable, making it a health risk to all present. Ingestion is common and inlarge amounts can lead to severe health effects in children.
Ethyl ether (CAS 60-29-7) Form: Colorless liquid; sweet pungent odor Use: Solvent used in the manufacture of methamphetamine and amphetamine. Physical properties: Boiling point 35˚C (94˚F), vapor pressure 58.6 mm Hg, vapor density 2.6 Exposure limits: TLV-TWA 400 ppm, STEL 500 ppm, IDLH 1900 ppm Hazards: Inhalation or ingestion causes headache, drunkenness, and vomiting. Flammable and highly volatile. In the presence of oxy-
gen or sunlight, unstable peroxides may form, which explode spontaneously or when heated. Potential Risks: This solvent is used in the manufacture of both amphetamine and methamphetamine. Inhalation can lead to toxic
nervous system effects. It is highly volatile and flammable, making it a risk to all those in the vicinity and to individuals respondingto a fire.
TABLE 66–3
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Formic acid (CAS 64-18-6) Form: Colorless liquid; pungent odor Use: Used in the manufacturing process. Physical properties: Boiling point 101˚C (224˚F), vapor pressure 4.6 mm Hg, vapor density 1.6 Exposure limits: TLV-TWA 5 ppm, STEL 10 ppm, IDLH 30 ppm Hazards: Corrosive to eyes, skin, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract. It is readily absorbed into the skin, causing piercing pain, redden-
ing, burns, and severe toxic effects. Vapor may cause severe irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat. Severe inhalation leads to accu-mulation of fluid in the lungs, shock, and death. Ingestion can produce severe burns, bloody diarrhea, and agonizing pain.Nonflammable, but may explode violently on contact with oxidizing agents.
Potential risks: This acid is corrosive to the skin and also can cause severe toxic effects from absorption into the skin. Inhalationmay cause accumulation of fluid in the lungs and even death. It can explode violently when in contact with oxidizing reagents. It isa hazard to all individuals present during manufacturing and cleanup.
Hexane (other isomers) Form: Colorless liquid; mild characteristic odor Use: Solvent used in the production of methamphetamine. Physical properties: Boiling point 69˚C (156˚F), vapor pressure 16 mm Hg, vapor density 3.0 Exposure limits: TLV-TWA 500 ppm, STEL 1000, IDLH 1100 ppm Hazards: Prolonged exposure can lead to permanent brain and nerve damage with coughing, bizarre behavior, unconsciousness,
coma, or death. Extremely flammable. Potential risks: Hexane is an extremely flammable solvent used in the production of methamphetamine, making it a risk to all indi-
viduals in the area or responding to a fire. Its heath effects from chronic exposure make it harmful to laboratory residents, espe-cially children.
Hydrochloric acid (Muriatic acid) (CAS 7647-01-0) Form: Colorless liquid; pungent odor (muriatic acid refers to an industrial grade of hydrochloric acid) Use: Reagent used in the manufacture of methamphetamine. Physical properties: Boiling point 53˚C (127˚F), vapor pressure 190 mm Hg, vapor density—no information found Exposure limits: PEL-C 5 ppm, IDLH 50 ppm (as hydrogen chloride gas) Hazards: Very corrosive. Causes severe pain and burns on the skin. Inhalation may destroy the lining in the airways, throat, and lungs.
Can lead to permanent lung damage. Prolonged exposure may cause tooth decay and skin allergies. Heating can lead to releaseof toxic, flammable, and explosive gas.
Potential risks: This acid is a reagent used in the production of methamphetamine. It is very corrosive, causing severe burns oncontact and lung damage if inhaled. Gases released during heating are toxic and also flammable and explosive, making it a haz-ard to inhabitants of the laboratory, those involved in cleanup, and first responders.
Hydrogen chloride (CAS 7647-01) Form: Colorless gas Use: Used in the manufacture of methamphetamine. Physical properties: Boiling point −85˚C (−121˚F), vapor density 1.3 Exposure limits: TLV-C 5 ppm, IDLH 50 ppm Hazards: High concentrations are very corrosive and may cause severe burns. Inhalation may cause mild to severe irritation of the
nose and throat with possible fluid in the lungs. Potential risks: This gas, used in the manufacture of methamphetamine, is very corrosive, causing severe burns. It is a heath haz-
ard to individuals present in the laboratory and those involved in cleanup.
Hydrogen iodide (gas), Hydriodic acid (liquid) (CAS 10034-85-2) Form: Gas (soluble in water), colorless Use: Reagent in methamphetamine synthesis, with red phosphorus. Physical properties: Boiling point −35.1˚C (−31.2˚F), vapor density 4.4, odor threshold not available Exposure limits: None Hazards: Corrosive and irritant. Exposure can occur to both liquid and gas. Inhalation causes irritation of the throat and upper respi-
ratory tract, and, at higher concentrations, dyspnea, chest pain, bronchospasm, and pneumonitis. Severe exposures result in pul-monary and laryngeal edema. Will cause severe irritation to the eyes. Skin contact at high concentrations may lead to burns.
Potential risks: This substance may be in gas or liquid form and is used in the red phosphorus method of methamphetamine syn-thesis. It is corrosive and an irritant. It is a health risk to both inhabitants of the laboratory and first responders.
Hypophosphorus acid (CAS 6303-21-5) Form: Colorless liquid Use: Used instead of red phosphorus as a reagent in methamphetamine. Physical properties: Boiling point not found, vapor pressure less than 17 mm Hg Exposure limits: None Hazards: Corrosive. Causes burns if inhaled or on contact with skin. Extremely destructive to mucous membranes. Potential risks: This acid is corrosive, causing burns to those inhaling its vapors and those in direct contact with it.
Iodine (CAS 7553-56-2) Form: Solid, purple crystals or flakes; sharp odor Use: Reagent in synthesis of hydriodic acid. Physical properties: Melting point 113˚C (236˚F), boiling point 184˚C (364˚F), vapor pressure 0.3 mm Hg at 25˚C (77˚F), vapor den-
� Potential Toxicity of Selected Chemicals (Continued)
Exposure limits: TLV-C 0.1 ppm, IDLH 2 ppm Hazards: Corrosive. Ingestion of iodine will cause vomiting, delirium, headache, low blood pressure, and circulatory collapse. Inhalation
of iodine vapors is very irritating to the mucous membranes and at high concentrations may lead to pulmonary edema. Skin contactmay cause redness and swelling.
Potential risks: Iodine is used in the manufacture of hydriodic acid for methamphetamine synthesis. It is corrosive and can causeserious health problems if ingested or inhaled in high concentrations. It can be a risk for those present in the laboratory and forindividuals involved in cleanup.
Iodine, Prill (CAS 7553-56-2) See IodineForm: Round beads of iodine
Iodine, tinctureForm: Dark red solution with a medicinal odor Use: Reagent used in the synthesis of hydriodic acid. Physical properties: Boiling point 82˚C (180˚F), vapor pressure 10 mm Hg, vapor density > 1 Exposure limits: TLV-C 0.1 ppm, IDLH 2 ppm Hazards: Harmful if inhaled or swallowed. May cause intoxication and severe irritation. Flammable. Potential risks: This reagent, used in hydriodic acid synthesis, is flammable, making it a hazard to all present individuals and those
responding to fire. It is harmful if inhaled and can cause intoxication if swallowed.
Lead acetate (CAS 301-04-2) Form: Solid, white crystals or, for commercial grades, brown or gray lumps; odorless Use: Reagent used in P2P synthesis. Physical properties: Melting point 280˚C (536˚F) Exposure limits (for lead): TLV-TWA 0.05 mg/m3, IDLH 100mg/m3
Hazards: Mostly a chronic exposure hazard by ingestion or inhalation of dust. Will form fumes at high temperatures. Poisoning symp-toms include abdominal cramping, nausea, anorexia, vomiting, constipation, diarrhea, and difficulty concentrating. Children are moresusceptible to exposure due to increased absorption and greater effects on the developing nervous system.
Potential risks: This crystalline material is used in P2P synthesis. The health hazard is mainly from chronic exposure, especially in children.
Lithium aluminum hydride (CAS 1302-30-3) Form: Solid, white to gray powder; odorless Use: Used for hydrogenation in multiple processes. Physical properties: Decomposes at 125˚C (257˚F) to form lithium hydride, aluminum metal, and hydrogen. Exposure limits: None Hazards: Corrosive. Extremely water-reactive, will generate hydrogen gas and explode. It is severely irritating to the eyes, nose, skin,
mucous memebranes, and lungs. Eye exposure can result in scarring and inflammation. Potential risks: This solid is used in the hydrogenation process during methamphetamine production. It is corrosive and reacts with
water to form explosive hydrogen gas, making it a risk to inhabitants and first responders.
Mercuric chloride (CAS 7487-94-7) Form: Solid, white crystals, odorless Use: Reagent used in methamphetamine synthesis, P2P method. Physical properties: Melting point 276˚C (529˚F), boiling point 302˚C (576˚F) Exposure limits (for mercury compounds): TLV-TWA 0.025 mg/m3, IDLH 10 mg/m3
Hazards: Corrosive. Ingestion results in intense epigastric and abdominal pain and emesis, which may be bloody, and later renal fail-ure. Inhalation of dust can cause respiratory irritation, major destruction of lungs and airways, kidney failure, shock, and bizarrebehavior. Eye exposure can lead to corrosive injury. Chronic exposure may lead to build-up in the brain, liver, and kidneys. Releasestoxic fumes when heated.
Potential risks: This solid reagent, used to manufacture methamphetamine and P2P, is a corrosive chemical. Inhalation as well asingestion can cause severe health hazards. Long-term exposure may lead to brain, liver, and kidney damage, making this chemi-cal hazardous to those living in the laboratory and those involved in cleanup. Toxic fumes released on heating make it a potentialhazard to first responders as well.
Methyl alcohol (HEET) (CAS 67-56-1) Form: Clear colorless liquid, characteristic odor Use: Used in the production of methamphetamine Physical properties: Boiling point 64.5˚C (147˚F), vapor pressure 97 mm Hg, vapor density 1.1 Exposure limits: TLV-TWA 200 ppm, STEL 250 ppm, IDLH 6000 ppm Hazards: Vapors may cause irritation of the eyes, nose, throat, and lungs. Ingestion may lead to headache, nausea, abdominal pain,
loss of consciousness, coma, blindness, and brain, pancreas, or kidney damage. Flammable. Potential risks: Methyl alcohol is used in the synthesis of methamphetamine. Its vapors are irritants, and acute ingestion can lead to
blindness and other organ damage, making it a danger to inhabitants of the laboratory, especially children. It is flammable andtherefore a risk to first responders.
Methylamine (CAS 74-89-5) Form: Gas or liquid, colorless; strong fish/ammonia odor (usually encountered as 40% weight/volume in water) Use: Precursor for methamphetamine production. Physical properties: Boiling point −6.3˚C (20.6˚F), vapor density 1.07, odor threshold 4.7 ppm Exposure limits: TLV-TWA 10 ppm, STEL 15 ppm, IDLH 100 ppm
TABLE 66–3
Table continued on following page
754 SECTION III / Environmental Toxicology
� Potential Toxicity of Selected Chemicals (Continued)
Hazards: Severe irritant to the eyes, mucous membranes, and skin. It has been reported to be linked to the generation of allergic orchemical bronchitis. Exposure to this compound can lead to olfactory fatigue. Exposure to the eye can cause conjunctival hemor-rhage, superficial corneal opacities, and edema. On the skin, a 40% solution caused tissue destruction.
Potential risks: This chemical, found as either a gas or liquid, is a precursor in methamphetamine production. It is a severe irritantand can cause chemical bronchitis. It is a hazard to individuals in the laboratory during the manufacturing process and thoseinvolved in cleanup.
Muriatic acid (see Hydrochloric acid)
Naphtha (CAS 8002-05-9) Form: Reddish-brown liquid; aromatic odor Use: A petroleum distillate solvent used in the manufacture of methamphetamine Physical properties: Boiling point 104˚C (220˚F), vapor pressure 22 mm Hg, vapor density 3.4 Exposure limits: PEL 500 ppm, IDLH 1100 ppm Hazards: May cause irritation or burns to skin and eyes. Inhalation may lead to central nervous system depression, headache, nau-
sea, dizziness, confusion, and unconsciousness. Potential risks: Naphtha is an aliphatic petroleum solvent used in the manufacture of methamphetamine. Inhalation can have serious
effects, making it a health hazard to individuals present during the manufacturing process.
Nitroethane (CAS 79-24-3) Form: Liquid, oily, colorless; mild fruity smell. Use: Precursor for P2P synthesis. Physical properties: Boiling point 114˚C (237˚F), vapor pressure 21 mm Hg at 25˚C (77˚F), vapor density 2.58, odor threshold
163 ppm Exposure limits: PEL 100 ppm, IDLH 1000 ppm Hazards: Skin, eye and mucous membrane irritant. It may cause anorexia, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. In animals it has resulted
in renal and liver toxicity, and is a central nervous system depressant. It produces weakness, ataxia, and convulsions. Its vaporscause irritation to the respiratory tract, coughing, or difficulty breathing. Skin exposure may produce erythema and swelling with pain.Eye exposure may cause irritation.
Potential risks: Nitroethane is used as a precursor for P2P synthesis. It is an irritant and may be harmful to those present during themanufacturing process.
Phenylacetic acid (CAS 103-82-2) Form: Solid, white shiny crystals; floral odor. Use: Precursor for the synthesis of P2P. Physical properties: Melting point 76.5˚C (170˚F), boiling point 265˚C (510˚F), vapor pressure 0.004 mm Hg, vapor density 1.09, odor
threshold not available Exposure limits: None Hazards: Irritant. Oral toxicity of this compound is low. It is slightly irritating to the skin. It is a possible teratogen. Eye exposure may
result in mild irritation. Inhalation of the compound may lead to headache, nausea, and dizziness. Potential risks: This precursor of P2P is an irritant and a possible teratogen. It is most hazardous to those present during the syn-
thesis of P2P.
Phenyl-2-propanone (P2P) (CAS 103-79-7) Form: Liquid Use: Precursor for methamphetamine production. Physical properties: Boiling point 215˚C (419˚F), vapor density 1.003 Exposure limits: None Hazards: Oral toxicity of this compound is low. It is slightly irritating to the skin. Eye exposure would result in mild irritation. Inhalation
of the compound may lead to headache, nausea, and dizziness. These symptoms may be due to the organic nature of the com-pound or to the odor.
Potential risks: This precursor of methamphetamine is an irritant to the skin. Inhalation may cause symptoms. It is a health risk tothose inhabiting the laboratory.
Phosphine (CAS 7803-51-2) Form: Colorless gas; fish-or garlic-like odor Use: Product of methamphetamine production. Physical properties: Boiling point −87.7˚C (−125.9˚F), vapor density 1.18 Exposure limits: TLV-TWA 0.3 ppm, STEL 1.0 ppm, IDLH 50 ppm Hazards: Extremely flammable, reacts explosively with air. Inhalation may cause dizziness, dullness, tremors, vomiting, shortness of
breath, delayed lung damage, and convulsions. Potential risks: Because of its explosive reaction with air, phosphine gas is a hazard to those present in the laboratory during the
manufacturing process and first responders. It has been linked to several deaths in clandestine laboratories.
Phosphoric acid (CAS 7664-38-2) Form: Hygroscopic, colorless crystals Use: Precursor in the production of methamphetamine and amphetamine. Physical properties: Boiling point 213˚C (415˚F), vapor pressure 4 mm Hg, vapor density 3.4 Exposure limits: TVL-TWA 1 mg/m3, STEL 3 mg/m3, IDLH 1000 mg/m3
TABLE 66–3
Clandestine Drug Laboratories / 66 755
� Potential Toxicity of Selected Chemicals (Continued)
Hazards: Eye irritant causing irritation, tearing, blinking, and burns. Vapor can irritate nose and throat. Skin exposure results in irrita-tion, redness, itching, swelling, and burns. Chronic exposure may cause allergies and damage to lungs, liver, bloodstream, and bonemarrow. Contact with metal can cause release of poisonous and explosive phosphine gas.
Potential risks: A precursor used in methamphetamine and amphetamine, this acid is an irritant to the eyes, nose, and throat. Long-term exposure may be damaging to the lungs, liver, and bone marrow, making it harmful for individuals living in the laboratory,especially children.
Pseudoephedrine (CAS 321-97-1) Form: White crystalline powder Use: Precusor used in the production of methamphetamines. Physical properties: Not available Exposure limits: None Hazards: Irritant to the eyes, skin, and respiratory system. Ingestion may lead to headache, rapid pulse, high blood pressure, and
stroke. Potential risks: Ephedrine is a precursor used in the manufacture of methamphetamines. In addition to being an irritant, ingestion of
excessive amounts can have serious effects.
Pyridine (CAS 110-86-1) Form: Liquid, colorless to yellow; nauseating fish-like odor Use: Reagent in the synthesis of P2P from phenylacetic acid in the presence of acetic anhydride. Physical properties: Boiling point 115˚C (240˚F), vapor pressure 16 mm Hg, vapor density 2.73, odor threshold 0.74 ppm Exposure limits: PEL 5 ppm, IDLH 1000 ppm Hazards: Irritant and central nervous system depressant. On ingestion it may cause liver and kidney damage. Exposure to vapor may
cause headaches, vertigo, nervousness, sleeplessness, nausea, and vomiting. Lower back pain may develop with no evidence ofkidney damage. Skin irritation may result from prolonged or repeated contact.
Potential risks: This reagent, used to produce P2P, can cause central nervous system depression. Vapor can cause symptoms inindividuals present during the manufacturing process.
Red phosphorus (CAS 7723-14-0) Form: Solid, red to violet; odorless Use: Catalyst in methamphetamine synthesis. Physical properties: Burns when heated in air to 260˚C (500˚F) with formation of pentoxide fumes Exposure limits: None Hazards: Red phosphorus is considered relatively nontoxic. If heated it can either produce toxic fumes or convert to yellow phospho-
rus, which will burn on contact with air and cause severe burns. If heated in the presence of acid, it can form phosphine gas. Potential risks: This catalyst in methamphetamine production is mainly a serious hazard because of its ability to form phosphine gas
in the presence of acid. It is also explosive, making it a possible hazard to individuals involved in cleaning laboratories and dumpsites, in addition to those present in the laboratory during the manufacturing process.
Ronsonol (lighter fluid)Form: Reddish brown liquid; aromatic odor Use: A petroleum distillate solvent consisting of two solvent naphtha fractions, light aliphatic 95% (CAS 64742-89-8) and medium 5%
(CAS 64742-88-7); and Shell Sol RB 100%. Physical properties: Similar to naphtha. Exposure limits: See Naphtha. Potential risks: See Naphtha.
Sodium (CAS 7440-23-5) Form: Solid, silvery white metal or crystals; odorless Use: Used for hydrogenation in methamphetamine synthesis. Physical properties: Melting point 97.8˚C (208˚F), boiling point 883˚C (1621˚F) Exposure limits: None available Hazards: Corrosive. Extremely water-reactive, producing hydrogen gas and sodium hydroxide. Metallic sodium can react with water on
skin to cause thermal and chemical burns. It is severely irritating to the eyes, nose, skin, mucous membranes, and lungs. Eye expo-sure can result in scarring and inflammation.
Potential risks: Sodium metal is corrosive and extremely water-reactive, producing explosive hydrogen gas. It reacts with water onthe skin to cause burns. It is a heath risk to individual present during manufacturing, and to first responders.
Sodium hydroxide (lye) (CAS 1310-73-2) Form: White pellets or flakes; odorless Use: Reagent used in methamphetamine manufacture. Physical properties: Boiling point 1390˚C (2534˚F), vapor pressure negligible, vapor density 1.0 Exposure limits: TLV-C 2 mg/m3, IDLH 10 mg/m3
Hazards: Very corrosive. Contact of the eyes with vapor or powder can cause severe eye burns with permanent damage. Contact withskin causes severe irritation and burns. Inhalation of vapors and dust can lead to burns of the lungs and air passages. Carcinogenif ingested. Contact with metals or fire may produce deadly and explosive hydrogen gas.
Potential risks: This reagent, used in the manufacture of methamphetamine, is very corrosive. It can cause severe burns of theeyes, skin, and the lungs. In the presence of metals or fire, explosive gas may result, making it a hazard to those present in thelaboratory, and to first responders.
TABLE 66–3
Table continued on following page
756 SECTION III / Environmental Toxicology
� Potential Toxicity of Selected Chemicals (Continued)
Sulfuric acid (CAS 7664-93-9) Form: Colorless to yellow viscous liquid, odorless Use: Reagent used in the manufacture of amphetamine, methamphetamine, and P2P. Physical properties: Boiling point 290˚C (554˚F), vapor pressure 7 mm Hg Exposure limits: TLV-TWA 1 mg/m3, STEL 3 mg/m3, IDLH 15 mg/m3
Hazards: Contact with eyes causes severe burns, pain, tearing, swelling, permanent damage, or blindness. Corrosive to the skin, caus-ing severe deep burns, blistering, swelling, and scarring. Harmful or fatal if inhaled, causing possible lung damage, cough, difficultybreathing, and subsequent respiratory failure. Chronic exposure may lead to lung damage, skin allergies, and kidney and liver dam-age. Reacts violently with water to produce toxic and corrosive fumes. Carcinogen.
Potential risks: This reagent is used in the manufacture of amphetamine and methamphetamine. It may cause severe burns on con-tact and may be harmful or fatal if inhaled. Chronic exposure may lead to damage of the liver, lungs and kidneys. It reacts vio-lently with water to produce corrosive fumes. It presents health risks to those present during manufacturing,
Thionyl chloride (CAS 7719-09-7) Form: Liquid, colorless, pale yellow, or reddish; suffocating pungent odor Use: Reagent used in methamphetamine synthesis. Physical properties: Boiling point 76˚C (169˚F), decomposes at 140˚C (284˚F) to form Cl2, SO2, and S2Cl2, vapor pressure 100 mm
Hg at 21˚C (70˚F), vapor density 4.1, odor threshold not available Exposure limits: TLV-C 1 ppm, IDLH not determined Hazards: Strongly irritating or caustic to the eyes, lungs, skin, and mucous membranes. Severe acute exposure may result in pulmonary
edema, pneumonia, and death. Skin exposure may cause irritation, burning, and dermatitis. Eye exposure may produce burns, con-junctivitis and corneal damage.
Potential risks: This reagent, used in the manufacture of methamphetamine, can cause irritation of the eyes, lungs, and skin.Overexposure may lead to pulmonary edema or even death. Individuals most at risk are those present during the manufacturingprocess.
Thorium oxide (CAS 1314-20-1) Form: Solid, white crystals (sand-like); odorless Use: Catalyst for P2P synthesis Physical properties: Melting point 3390˚C (6134˚F), boiling point 4400˚C (7952˚F) Exposure limits: None available other than general standards for radioactive materials Hazards: Thorium is a radioactive alpha-emitter. It is toxic if ingested or inhaled. Carcinogen. Potential risks: A catalyst for P2P synthesis, thorium oxide is a radioactive material and is toxic if ingested or inhaled. It is most
harmful to those having chronic exposure, such as children and others inhabiting the laboratory.
Toluene (CAS 108-88-3) Form: Clear, colorless liquid; benzene-like aroma Use: Solvent used in the manufacture of P2P and methamphetamine. Physical properties: Boiling point 111˚C (232˚F), vapor pressure 22 mm Hg, vapor density 3.14 Exposure limits: TLV-TWA 50 ppm, IDLH 500 ppm Hazards: Inhalation may cause irritation of the skin, nose, throat, and lungs, as well as nausea, weakness, drunkenness, confusion,
and loss of consciouness. Highly flammable. Potential risks: It is an irritant to the skin and respiratory system and has significant effects on the nervous system. It is highly flam-
mable, making it a hazard for first responders as well as those present during the manufacturing process.
1,1,2-Trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane (Freon) (CAS 76-13-1) Form: Clear, colorless liquid; slight ethereal odor Use: Solvent used to extract d-methamphetamine Physical properties: Boiling point 47˚C (117˚F), vapor pressure 284 mm Hg, vapor density 6.5 Exposure limits: TLV-TWA 1000 ppm, STEL 1250 ppm, IDLH 2000 ppm Hazards: Vapor can cause eye irritation, burning, and damage. Inhalation can cause sudden cardiac death. Freon interferes with the
heart's rhythm. Symptoms may include slurring, vomiting, drunkenness, coma, and death. Potential risks: Freon is used as a solvent to extract d-methamphetamine. The vapor can cause eye irritation and damage.
Inhalation can be deadly. This solvent is a serious health hazard to individuals present during the manufacturing process.
United States until about 1989. The second method usesthe precursor ephedrine or its diastereomer, pseu-doephedrine, and has become the most popular syntheticmethod in the United States, Canada, and Australia.
As an optically active or chiral compound, methamphet-amine has two forms. The dextrorotatory (d) isomer is aphysiologically active CNS stimulant; the levorotatory (l)methamphetamine isomer is not active as a CNS stimulant.When synthesized through a nonchiral intermediate such asP2P, the resulting methamphetamine will have equalamounts of active and inactive isomers. Synthetic
processes using optically pure isomers of l-ephedrine or d-pseudoephedrine produce essentially pure active d-methamphetamine.
PHENYLACETONE (P2P) METHODS
Historically, P2P was converted to methamphetamine usinga process called reductive amination (Table 66–4). In thisprocess, P2P is reacted with methylamine in alcohol in thepresence of an aluminum amalgam, usually in a round-bottomed flask with a water-cooled condensing column.
TABLE 66–3
Clandestine Drug Laboratories / 66 757
Heat is not necessary for this reaction, as it is exothermic,but many laboratories have been found in which a heatingmantle was used. Mercuric chloride is added in smallamounts to form the aluminum amalgam. The reaction isallowed to react overnight. At the completion of the reac-tion time, the methamphetamine is isolated from the fil-tered reaction solution by titrating with hydrochloric acid,by liquid-liquid extraction using acid-base partitioningfrom water and a suitable organic solvent, or by distilla-tion.
Another reductive amination process using P2P is calleda Leuckart reaction. This reaction uses N-methylformamideand formic acid in the place of methylamine. This type ofreaction has been more popular in Canada, the Great Lakesregion, and the Texas-Oklahoma region. A variation of theLeuckart reaction using formamide instead of methylfor-mamide is used to synthesize amphetamine both legallyand illicitly.
PRECURSOR SYNTHESIS: P2P
Laws passed to limit the sale of precursor chemicals usedin the synthesis of illegal drugs have significantly alteredthe synthetic processes and have also forced the cooks tosynthesize previously available precursor drugs fromchemicals that are still commercially available. However,the existence and extent of precursor laws vary from stateto state and from country to country.
Before 1980, P2P could be purchased legally from nearlyall chemical retailers without any restrictions. In 1980, theU.S. federal government added P2P to Schedule II of itsControlled Substances Act (21 CFR 1308.12, Schedule II,8501). Thus, to legally purchase or possess P2P, a personhad to be registered with the DEA and had to have a validDEA license. Passage of this law had a tremendous impacton the commercial sale and diversion of P2P for illicitamphetamine and methamphetamine synthesis.
After 1980, a clandestine methamphetamine cook had toindependently synthesize P2P using other precursor mate-rials. The most popular method of synthesizing P2P hasbeen the base-catalyzed condensation of phenylacetic acidand acetic anhydride (Table 66–5). The process requiresrefluxing phenylacetic acid and acetic anhydride in thepresence of a base such as sodium acetate or pyridine forabout 18 hours. This process is particularly malodorous, asthe phenylacetic acid has a pungent, lingering odor oftencompared to stale urine.
Several other synthetic methods have been encounteredfor the conversion of phenylacetic acid to PCP. Of partic-ular note are two methods using the following hazardousprecursors:
1 Lead (II) acetate: This method was traced to a refer-ence found in the Japanese journal Crime andScience Detective22 and appears to have surfaced inthe Salem, Oregon, area. The lead acetate was dry-distilled with the phenylacetic acid. The P2P wascollected in another vessel, and the remnants of thereaction mixture hardened into a “cookie” of leadsalts. The round-bottom flasks used in these reac-tions were generally only used once, as the cookiewas difficult to remove without breaking the flask.The contents of these flasks and other broken flaskswere often found at laboratory sites. There were sev-eral reports of methamphetamine users having ele-vated levels of lead in their blood1,6; however, thesource of the lead may have been from lead (II)acetate used as a cutting agent in the final powder.
2 Thorium oxide: This process uses a tube furnacepacked with pumice that has been treated with a tho-rium oxide catalyst. Thorium is a radioactive alphaemitter and is potentially carcinogenic if inhaled oringested.
The U.S. Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act(CDTA) of 1987 placed numerous restrictions on the pur-chase and sale of many precursor and reagent chemicals,especially phenylacetic acid. In response to this restriction,violators began to synthesize their own phenylacetic acidfrom other chemicals, such as benzyl cyanide and benzylchloride. Despite its name, benzyl cyanide (phenylacetoni-trile) is actually an organic nitrile and not capable of pro-ducing toxic hydrogen cyanide gas when reacted with anacidic solution. Another well-documented P2P syntheticmethod in the chemical literature, using benzaldehyde andnitroethane, began to be seen in the central Oregon areafirst, then spread to surrounding states. This process forms ayellow-orange crystalline powder that is stable and pleasant-smelling as well as a very strong mucous membrane irritant.
EPHEDRINE METHODS
l-Ephedrine and its diastereomer, d-pseudoephedrine, arenaturally occurring substances found in the plant species
Ephedra. The ephedrines are produced in nature as opti-cally pure compounds. Pseudoephedrine is a legitimateover-the-counter medication used for nasal decongestionand in cold remedies such as Sudafed and Actifed. Theephedrines are structurally very similar to methampheta-mine. Ephedrine differs from methamphetamine by a sin-gle hydroxyl group. Replacing the hydroxyl group withhydrogen is achieved using one of the reduction processespreviously described.
Ephedrine–Thionyl Chloride
Prior to about 1982, the reduction of ephedrine to metham-phetamine was not very common. When it was encoun-tered, it followed a process that required reacting theephedrine with a chlorinating agent such as thionyl chlo-ride, phosphorus pentachloride, or phosphorus trichloride(Table 66–6).12,13 This synthesis produced an intermediatecompound known as chloropseudoephedrine by chemicallysubstituting the hydroxyl group with a chlorine atom. Thisintermediate was subjected to a catalytic reduction using ametal catalyst, hydrogen gas, and some type of pressure-containing vessel.
The chlorinating reagents suggested in the literature arevery reactive and dangerous materials. Thionyl chloridevapors are extremely corrosive and form hydrogen chloridegas and sulfur dioxide in the presence of moisture.Although thionyl chloride is one of the chemicals on theCDTA list, it is still occasionally encountered in a clandes-tine laboratory. Most of the catalysts used in these reduc-tions do not cause much concern to the investigator exceptas a nuisance dust because of the nature of the fine powder.However, Raney nickel catalyst is a volatile catalyst that ispyrophoric—that is, it will burn in contact with air andwater. The catalytic reduction method has not been a verypopular reaction except in limited areas of California.
Ephedrine–Hydriodic Acid
The most popular method of reducing ephedrine or pseu-doephedrine to methamphetamine has been using hydri-odic acid (HI) and red phosphorus (Table 66–7).21 Thismethod is a straightforward, one-pot synthesis completedin 12 to 72 hours. Ephedrine powder is dissolved in 57%HI and a quantity of amorphous red phosphorus. HI isavailable commericially at a strength of 47% or 57% w/v,stabilized with hypophosphorus acid. The reaction solu-tion is refluxed, cooled, and processed to isolate the
methamphetamine. During the reflux, vapors of HI arevolitilized from the solution. Unfortunately, the condensercolumns used on the reaction flasks are not capable oftrapping and returning these vapors to the reaction flask.Thus, a large quantity of HI fumes are expelled from thereaction into the air and often stain the ceilings and wallsof rooms where the synthesis is performed. The cooks areaware of the dangers of the HI fumes and often havesome form of respiratory protection in the laboratory.However, these respirators are often old military surplusgas masks or cartridge respirators meant for protectionfrom particulate matter. HI fumes are known to inducechemical pneumonia and other respiratory problems. Oneagent who was standing 50 feet from a laboratory site wasexposed to HI fumes and later suffered pneumonia, chem-ical bronchitis, and a collapsed lung.23 Deaths have beenassociated with inhalation of HI fumes.17
Amorphous red phosphorus is used in the reaction as acatalyst to regenerate the iodine formed from the reductionof the ephedrine back to iodide. The red phosphorus is notappreciably changed in the reaction. Red phosphorus is con-sidered safe and unreactive. However, two major hazardsmay arise from the use of red phosphorus. First, if it isheated dry, the red phosphorus will change to yellow phos-phorus and will spontaneously ignite on contact with air.There have been reports from investigators of samples of redphosphorus autoigniting during the sampling process9,19,24
and a report of a reaction mixture igniting on a stove top.14
Suppression of red phosphorus fires requires the use of aclass D fire extinguisher. Second, when red phosphorus isheated in the presence of HI, one of the by-product chemi-cals that may be produced is phosphine, a poisonous gaswith a strong fishy odor. Several deaths are suspected tohave been caused by phosphine exposure in clandestinelaboratories.17,19
Laboratories using the HI – red phosphorus method usu-ally run reactions on a large scale. Reaction flasks rangingin size from 22 liters to 72 liters have been found. In addi-tion, it is not uncommon to encounter laboratories usingseveral 22-liter flasks. The large quantity of hazardouschemicals increases the risk of exposure to the cook andthe investigators. In the isolation of the finished metham-phetamine from the reaction solution, the cooks must neu-tralize the very strong HI mineral acid with sodium orcalcium hydroxide. This process generates copious quanti-ties of heat and may produce spattering. When the pH ofthe reaction mixture is basic, the methamphetamine isready to be extracted for further processing.
758 SECTION III / Environmental Toxicology
� Methamphetamine Synthesis: Ephedrine– Hydriodic Acid – Red PhosphorusMethod
Ephedrine + hydriodic acid + red phosphorus →Methamphetamine
This extraction process has traditionally used one ormore of the chlorinated-fluorocarbon solvents and refriger-ants known as Freons. In the middle and late 1980s, thesolvent of choice was the refrigerant Freon 11. Morerecently, Freon 113 and 142b have been encountered Freonis nonflammable and has a low boiling point, allowingrapid evaporation. One important hazard of Freon is itsability to displace air in enclosed spaces. Freon vapors areheavier than air and will seek the lower regions of a space.With enough Freon and under the right conditions, anoxygen-deficient environment will be created.
Ephedrine: The “Nazi” Method
In the early to mid-1990s, the federal government andmany states began to regulate the sale of HI in an attemptto stop its diversion to methamphetamine laboratories.With restrictions on the sale of HI, many cooks began tolook for alternative methods of reducing ephedrine tomethamphetamine. A novel dissolving metal reductionusing lithium metal and condensed anhydrous ammoniagas was found in a clandestine laboratory in Vacaville,California.11 The method created some interest in the illicitsynthesis world but was encountered only occasionallyover the next 5 years. However, around 1992 a similarmethod using sodium metal was found in Missouri (Table66–8). In a related seizure in Arkansas in 1995, a suspectin the investigation indicated the sodium-ammonia proce-dure being used was from a patent issued to Nazi Germanyduring the war,10 although by personal communication,subsequent investigation of the chemical literature failed tosupport this claim. Thus, the reaction was called the“Nazi” method by investigators.
Sodium and lithium metals are very reactive to water.These metals are generally stored in a mineral oil bath. Bothare available commercially as chemical reagents; however,many cooks process common materials to obtain these met-als. Sodium may be produced by the electrolytic depositionof sodium hydroxide (lye) using a hot plate, cast iron skil-let, and a car battery. Lithium metal foil has been harvestedfrom lithium batteries. The reduction method is extremelydangerous due to the use of gaseous anhydrous ammonia.Ammonia is a strong base and is a respiratory irritant.
Ephedrine Extraction
When regulations and laws made obtaining ephedrine pow-der more difficult, cooks began to extract mail-order tabletswith water to remove the ephedrine from the tablet binding
material. The solution is filtered to remove the solids andthe ephedrine-containing water is separated and evaporatedusing a propane burner to recover the powder for use ina reaction. In the summer of 1995, many of the cooksswitched from using water to alcohol. However, no precau-tions were taken in changing their heat source. Thus, in thelast half of 1995, numerous laboratories were discoveredbecause of fires caused by the ignition of the alcoholsolvent.5,16
PRECURSOR SYNTHESIS: HI
In response to regulations on the commercial sale of HI,many cooks have begun to synthesize their own HI. Manyof these syntheses use hazardous materials such as iodinecrystals, hyphophosphoric acid, and hydrogen sulfide(Table 66–9). In addition, a few HI-manufacturing labora-tories in the Central Valley of California have been foundusing acetylene or hydrogen gas purges in the atmospheresabove the reaction.18 These gases do nothing to enhance ordetract from the reaction; however, they increase the like-lihood of a catastrophic accident.
Synthesis of Other Illicit Drugs
Although the illicit synthesis of methamphetamine is morecommonly encountered, many other dangerous drugs areillicitly synthesized, extracted, and processed. Theseprocesses are briefly described as follows.
PHENCYCLIDINE
Phencyclidine (PCP) is synthesized from bromobenzene,piperidine, cyclohexanone, and a cyanide salt (Table66–10). There are two specific hazards associated with thissynthesis. First, the cooks must create the organometallicreagent phenylmagnesium bromide (Grignard reagent). TheGrignard reagent is water-sensitive, creating an exothermic(heat-producing) reaction which may cause a fire. Thereagent must be made using diethyl ether as the organicsolvent. Although phenylmagnesium bromide is availablecommercially, many PCP cooks prefer to make their own.Another hazard comes from the decomposition of the inter-mediate compound using a strong mineral acid, usuallyhydrochloric acid. The intermediate compound contains acyanide group that, on addition of the strong acid, evolvesas hydrogen cyanide gas. Thus, the decomposition of theintermediate in a small, confined, minimally ventilatedspace may produce lethal levels of cyanide gas.
Clandestine Drug Laboratories / 66 759
� Methamphetamine Synthesis: BirchReduction (a k a "Nazi" Method)
Ephedrine → Methamphetamine
Reagents/catalysts Solvents Sodium or lithium metal Diethyl ether Anhydrous ammonia gas Tetrahydrofuran Hydrogen chloride gas Ethanol
Methanol
� Precursor Synthesis: Hydriodic Acid
Iodine → Hydriodic acid
Reagents/catalysts Solvents Red phosphorus Water Hypophosphoric acid Hydrogen sulfide Hydrochloric acid Phosphoric acid Iron wool or filings
The syntheses of methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) andmethylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) closely mimicthe syntheses of amphetamine and methamphetamine. MDAis usually synthesized by the lithium aluminum hydride(LiA1H4) reduction of the intermediate 3,4-methylenedioxyl-phenyl-2-nitropropene (Table 66–11). Other reducing mediaare viable, including a number of the catalytic methods usingmetals, hydrogen gas, and a hydrogenator. The LiA1H4reduction is performed in either diethyl ether or tetrahydro-furan. The excess LiA1H4 must be decomposed prior toworking the final product up, and is extremely water-sensi-tive. MDMA is synthesized using 3,4-methylenedioxypheny-lacetone, methylamine, and an aluminum-amalgam reducingmedium. This reaction carries the same hazards as the con-version of P2P to methamphetamine. Some of the precursorsfor MDA and MDMA synthesis are natural products andrequire some processing. There are some procedures occa-sionally encountered that use bromine gas or bromine waterto facilitate these conversions.
LYSERGIC ACID DIETHYLAMIDE
The major health risk from an LSD laboratory (Table 66–12)is the potency of ergotamine, an LSD precursor, and LSD.LSD is typically encountered in blotter paper squares forconsumption at a dosage of 30 to 60 µg. Thus, LSD andergotamine dust that might be inhaled either by the cook oran investigator may cause a physiologic reaction. Picric acid,used in the synthesis of LSD, may form crystals on the
threads of an improperly sealed container, which can age andexplode from the friction of opening the container.
METHCATHINONE
Methcathinone (CAT) is a synthetic substance also madefrom ephedrine or pseudoephedrine (Table 66–13). Insteadof reducing the hydroxy group of the ephedrine, it is oxi-dized to a ketone group. This oxidation is usually facili-tated with sodium dichromate, potassium permanganate, orchromium trioxide. These laboratories tend to be small inscale, producing 20 to 40 grams of finished product, andare easily transported. Many CAT laboratories have beendiscovered in hotel and motel rooms. The oxidation mustbe performed in a strong acid, usually concentrated sulfu-ric acid. Hydrogen chloride gas, used to “powder out” thefinished methcathinone, is usually generated either fromheating of muriatic acid or by using a rock salt generator.
AMPHETAMINE
Recently, amphetamine has been synthesized from phenyl-propanolamine, an over-the-counter decongestant andappetite suppressant, using the reduction method previ-ously described for ephedrine, with similar hazards.Historically, amphetamine has been synthesized using P2Pand formamide in a Leuckart reaction.
MARIJUANA EXTRACTION (HASH OIL)
A hash oil laboratory is probably one of the simplest typesof laboratory. Marijuana is soaked in alcohol, petroleumether, or chloroform to extract out the active tetrahydro-cannabinol (THC). The solvent is decanted from the soak-ing vessel and is evaporated, usually over an open flameburner. The use of any open flame near a flammableorganic solvent creates a high risk of fire. The gooeyresidue left over is used as the final product.
Health Effects
Health risks occur from exposure to explosions, fires,spills, and uncontrolled reactions, as well as exposure to avariety of hazardous materials. The extent of potentialadverse health effects varies with the characteristics of the
760 SECTION III / Environmental Toxicology
� Synthesis of 3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) and3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine(MDMA):
laboratory and the exposure victim. Exposure victim char-acteristics include the type of involvement in the chemicalprocess, duration of exposure, kind of personal protectiveequipment used (if any), and overall sensitivity to chemi-cals. Illness has been reported in cooks, their family mem-bers, and other individuals present in the laboratories; lawenforcement personnel involved in the arrest of individualsin clandestine laboratories and the collection of evidence;and in some cases medical personnel who treated patientsexposed to hazardous chemicals in the clandestine druglaboratories. Levels of chemical contamination varygreatly from laboratory to laboratory, given the variety ofsynthetic methods, level of ventilation, and cleanliness ofthe cooks.
Explosions and fires are the most common occurrencesin illicit drug laboratories that result in contaminated indi-viduals presenting to emergency departments. The combi-nation of highly flammable solvents, an open flame orother heat source, and reactive chemicals poses a real dan-ger. Often the exposure victims will not admit that theywere involved in the synthesis of illicit drugs and willinstead make up a different story.
Inhalation or skin exposure may result in injury from cor-rosive substances, with symptoms ranging from shortness ofbreath, cough, and chest pain to skin burns. Most solvents areabsorbed through inhalation and, at sufficient concentrations,may cause intoxication, dizziness, lack of coordination, nau-sea, and disorientation. Dermal absorption may also occurthrough direct contact. Ingestion of chemicals can result insignificant toxic effects. However, except in intentional druguse, a suicide attempt, or accidental ingestion of these chem-icals, toxicity by ingestion is a remote possibility. In addition,there are risks at the laboratory site of exposure to blood-borne pathogens from puncture by contaminated needles.
Information on documented, persistent adverse healtheffects of illicit drug synthesis is difficult to find.Anecdotally, chronic exposure has resulted in multiple ill-nesses, but it is difficult to sort out the illnesses due tomethamphetamine use and associated lifestyle from theeffects of chemical exposure during drug synthesis. Certainlythe cooks are at highest risk of exposure, owing to their prox-imity to the chemical reactions and prolonged duration ofexposure, often without personal protective equipment. Lead-contaminated methamphetamine has caused lead poisoningin methamphetamine users, but the route of exposure wasthrough intentional parenteral administration.1,6
Children living in drug laboratories have a high potentialfor exposure because of the risk of accidental ingestion ofchemicals, in addition to inhalation or skin exposure.Elevated results on liver function tests in children exposedto methamphetamine synthesis have been reported, and inone study more than 30% of children tested had drugscreens positive for methamphetamine.3 Most of the positivetests were believed to reflect environmental exposure ratherthan direct use or abuse. Anecdotal reports of increased res-piratory symptoms, mucous membrane irritation, nausea,and headache in children exposed to methamphetamine labsare not uncommon. Children with preexisting disease suchas asthma may be at increased risk of respiratory illness.
Adverse health effects have also been anecdotallyreported in neighbors of clandestine drug laboratories andin subsequent occupants of laboratories that were not ade-quately decontaminated. Residual chemicals may posehealth concerns in residential structures even after the lab-oratory equipment has been removed. The actual risks varydepending on a number of factors, such as the presence ofgross contamination and the type of chemicals used.Elevated levels of metals such as mercury and lead can bepresent if these chemicals were used in drug synthesis.Surface wipe samples have also revealed the presence ofmethamphetamine and caustic substances.
In a number of incidents in Washington State, individualsexposed to large amounts of chemicals used in metham-phetamine synthesis through explosions have presented tohealth care professionals without adequate decontamination.In these instances, adverse symptoms were reported in per-sonnel transporting these patients, including headache; nau-sea; and eye, throat, and chest irritation. Concern over theeffects of this contamination has in at least one incidentresulted in prolonged emergency department closure.
HEALTH EFFECTS: LAW ENFORCEMENTPERSONNEL
As part of their duties, law enforcement personnel oftenenter clandestine drug laboratories to arrest individualsinvolved in the synthesis and distribution of illicit drugs.The phases of a typical laboratory investigation includeentry, preassessment/assessment, processing, and disposal.Entry is a short (usually 5- to 30-minute) phase duringwhich suspects are apprehended and the laboratory issecured. In preassessment and assessment, chemical andphysical hazards are evaluated and the contents of the lab-oratory are determined. Processing is the longest phase(often up to 8 hours or longer), during which the labora-tory contents are removed and representative chemicals aresampled. In the disposal phase the chemicals and associ-ated laboratory apparatus are transported from the labora-tory for destruction.
Law enforcement responders typically wear chemical-resistant clothing and respiratory protection. However, it isonly in recent years, following recognition of potentialchemical hazards, that adequate personal protective equip-ment has become widely used, and even now many inves-tigators do not routinely wear respiratory protection duringlaboratory investigations.
In a questionnaire study of law enforcement chemistswith 2255 total laboratory investigations, 17% of all respon-ders had become ill at some time during their laboratoryinvestigation career. The chance of developing illness duringan “average” clandestine drug laboratory investigation wasmore than 0.75%. In the same study, in a group ofWashington State clandestine drug laboratory investigationteam members with more than 564 combined investigations,3.4% of all investigations were associated with reports ofadverse health effects. The majority of reported exposureswere through inhalation, and a large number occurred in theyears prior to use of adequate personal protective equip-ment. Symptoms were primarily headache and respiratory,mucous membrane, and skin irritation (Table 66–14). Mostillness episodes occurred during the processing phase of lab-oratory responses. In this same study, more than 50% of ill-nesses occurred in laboratories where fires, explosions,spills, or uncontrolled reactions had occurred, although theselaboratories constituted a minority of all laboratoriesencountered. Responding to an active laboratory was asso-ciated with a 7- to 15-fold risk of becoming ill, comparedwith responding to set-up, in-transit, or former laboratories.
This study also demonstrated an increased risk of illnessin P2P-methylamine laboratories. This may be a result ofhistorical bias, not necessarily increased toxicity of thechemical reagents. Since this type of synthetic process wasmore common in earlier years, when law enforcementinvestigators did not have as much experience with pro-tecting themselves from chemical exposures, illness mayhave been more common than in present laboratory inves-tigations, where more precautions against chemical expo-sure are taken.
TREATMENT
Prevention of exposure is the most effective means of “treat-ing” individuals working with clandestine drug laboratories.Individuals exposed in clandestine drug laboratories are oftensent to health care facilities for evaluation. Since no antidotes
are available for exposure to the majority of chemicals pres-ent in these laboratories, treatment is primarily orientedtoward appropriate decontamination and symptomatic relief.A medical treatment guideline is listed in Appendix 66–1.Cooks and inhabitants of drug laboratories usually have thegreatest extent of exposure. Generally, asymptomatic indi-viduals do not require evaluation. Symptomatic individualsshould receive supportive care and substance-specific testingand treatment when appropriate. Specific blood testing doesnot often reveal abnormalities related to clandestine labora-tory exposure. If medicolegal documentation is important,biologic samples should be collected under a chain-of-cus-tody protocol.
Reoccupancy
Owing to the potential medical hazards of chemical con-tamination of clandestine laboratories, local health depart-ments have developed regulations covering thecondemnation and reoccupation of suspected drug labora-tories. Prior to reoccupation, the structure must be cleanedto acceptable standards. These standards may vary betweenstates and change over time. The reoccupation standardsused in Washington State at the time this chapter was writ-ten included a final lead standard of <20 µg/ft2 (wipe sam-ple), provisional methamphetamine standard of <5 µg/ft2
(wipe sample), air sampling for mercury of <50 ng/m3, anda volatile organic compounds (VOCs) standard of <1 ppm.
Testing for lead and mercury in clandestine laboratoriesis potentially problematic. These materials were commonlyadded to paints, with lead paints used for the interior ofresidential structures until 1978 and mercury-containingpaints used until 1990. One course of action is to test forlead and mercury only if there are indications that thesechemicals were used in illicit drug synthesis. If the amal-gam method was not used, then testing for lead or mercurymay reveal preexisting conditions rather than contamina-tion due to illicit drug synthesis. If there is no clear indi-cation which method was used, or in cases where multiplemethods were used and also where precursors were syn-thesized, specifically P2P, testing for lead and mercury isrecommended. As an illustration of this problem, Chandleret al. measured houses used as methamphetamine labs incomparison with “uncontaminated” control houses andfound no statistically significant difference between thetwo groups.7
Coordinated DrugLaboratory Response
The ideal structure for responding to clandestine drug lab-oratories is a cooperative process between national, state,and local agencies.25 Generally, law enforcement offi-cials/agencies are responsible for arresting suspects andnotifying environmental and local/state health agencies.The state ecology department or equivalent is responsiblefor the removal, transport, and disposal of bulk hazardous
762 SECTION III / Environmental Toxicology
� Symptom Description DuringClandestine Drug Lab Responses
From Burgess JL, Barnhart S, Checkoway H: Investigating clandestine druglaboratories: Adverse medical effects in law enforcement personnel. Am J IndMed 20:488–494, 1996.
TABLE 66–14
Clandestine Drug Laboratories / 66 763
materials and for conducting environmental risk assess-ments. State health departments are responsible for train-ing, testing, and certifying illegal drug laboratory sitecleanup contractors and workers, maintaining a list of ille-gal drug laboratory sites, maintaining a list of certifiedillegal drug laboratory site cleanup contractors, providingtechnical assistance to local health departments, develop-ing cleanup guidelines, and developing sampling and test-ing methods for surface water, groundwater, soil, andseptic tanks. Local health departments are responsible forposting properties, notifying property owners and otherswith an interest in the properties, inspecting properties,determining contamination, prohibiting use until cleanup iscompleted, and overseeing cleanup of properties andauthorizing reoccupation.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Roger A. Ely, Senior Forensic Chemist,DEA Western Laboratory, San Francisco, California, forhis invaluable contributions to and review of the manu-script.
Appendix 66–1
EXPOSURE TO CLANDESTINEMETHAMPHETAMINE LABORATORIES:GUIDELINES FOR PATIENT EVALUATIONAND TREATMENT
Persons present in clandestine drug laboratories forextended periods such as cooks and family members havethe greatest potential exposure to hazardous chemicals.Short exposure to methamphetamine laboratories, espe-cially if they are not actively synthesizing methampheta-mine, are usually not associated with any persistentmedical effects. However, methamphetamine laboratoriescontain a wide variety of chemicals that have the potentialto cause serious harm in certain circumstances, and seriousillnesses have been reported. The need for and extent ofmedical treatment should be guided by the individual cir-cumstances of each exposure.
Decontamination
The need for decontamination should be determined on acase-by-case basis. Clandestine drug labs usually contain anumber of corrosive substances, such as strong acids andbases, which can damage skin. For exposure to hazardouschemical liquids and solids, exposed areas should be thor-oughly washed with soap and water. Decontamination maynot be necessary for exposures to a gas or vapor, but it isrecommended for patients reporting skin irritation. If thepatient smells strongly of the chemical exposure, removingand bagging their clothing may be helpful. Minimal expo-sures such as walking near a drug lab do not require decon-tamination. Regional Poison Centers may be able to provideimmediate information on the need for decontamination.
Recommended Medical EvaluationComponents
The need for hospital or outpatient medical evaluationshould also be determined on a case-by-case basis. A listof the possible chemicals to which exposure may haveoccurred, if known, should accompany the patient to themedical facility. If the exposed patient has been transportedto a health care facility, the following recommendations areprovided:
� A thorough physical examination. � Laboratory tests. Most exposures do not require
extensive laboratory testing, and many do not requireany testing. Specific laboratory tests should be basedon clinical indications: � If indicated by the history or physical examination,
liver function tests, a complete blood cell count,and urinalysis should be obtained.
� Testing of urine for methamphetamine may beindicated for legal documentation, especially inchildren, and samples should be obtained underproper chain-of-custody protocol.
� Blood lead levels are not indicated for routine expo-sures unless the patient has ingested chemicals inthe clandestine laboratory, uses methamphetamine,or was chronically exposed to methamphetaminesynthesis using a lead-containing synthetic process.
� For significant exposure to mercury, biologictesting should be considered.
� Urine mercury levels are preferred for chronicexposure. For urine mercury assays, either a spoturine sample sent for both mercury and creatinineconcentrations or a 24-hour urine collectionobtained in a metal-free (e.g., acid-washed plastic)container should be sent.
� Pulmonary function tests (FEV1 and FVC) and achest radiograph are recommended if the patient hassignificant persistent respiratory symptoms.
Specific concerns should be addressed to the state orlocal health department. Substance-specific testing infor-mation as well as medical toxicologist consultation areavailable through Regional Poison Centers.
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