1
Chapter 7.
Applications of the Second Law
2
Consider entropy changes in various reversible (!!!) processes
We have: )1(dsvdT
P
T
du
T
qvPdduq
(a) Adiabatic process constants0dsso0q Hence a reversible adiabatic process is isentropic.
(b) Isothermal process:T
qs
T
qds
2
1
2
1
(c) Change of phase (isothermal and isobaric)In this case the energy transfer as heat is the latent heat of
transformation, so
Ts
(d) Isochoric process.In general u=u(v,T) and so, for an isochoric process u=u(T)
and dTcdu V
đđ
đ
đ
3
From (1) 2
1 T
dTcs
T
dTc
T
duds VV
If the specific heat is constant over the temperature range of interest
1
2lnT
Tcs V
(e) Isobaric process:In isobaric processes it is often convenient to employ the
enthalpy. PdvdudPvvPddudhvPuh (2)vPddhdu
)3(dhT
1dsvd
T
Pvd
T
Pdh
T
1ds
vPdTdsdu The 1st Law is:
T
vPd
T
duds Using equation (2) to eliminate du
so
(isochoric)
Since we are considering the case P=constant
dTcdTT
hdh P
P
For constant specific heat
1
2lnT
Tcs P
Consider h=h(P,T)
dPP
hdT
T
hdh
TP
T
dTcds PPlacing this in equation (3)
(isobaric)
5
Entropy of an ideal gas
Although it is possible to determine an absolute value for the entropy, we do not do so at the present time.
We have already shown for an ideal gas (students should review):
Q = CPdT - VdP _ _ _ (1)
Q = CVdT + PdV _ _ _(2)
T
dPV
T
dTCdS P Note that from (1) and so
P
dPnR
T
dTCdS P -------(1a)
SimilarlyV
dVnR
T
dTCdS V ------(2a)
đ
đ
6
Introducing molar quantities and integrating equation (1a):
Similarly, using equation (2a):
)3_(____l PPf
Pf
innRcnS T
dT
i
)4_(__ln VVf
Vf
inRcnS T
dT
i
)5_(__lnlni
nRT
TncS
i
f
VV
Vf
From this last equation we deduce the following:(a) V fixed: the greater the temperature rise , the greater
the increase in entropy.(b) T fixed: the greater the volume expansion, the greater
the increase in entropy
7
Although we have been considering an ideal gas, these conclusions hold quite generally.
Consider, for example, an isentropic expansion of a gas.
)0( S The increase in volume will result in an increase in the entropy. This increase must be balanced by an equal decrease and this must come about by a drop in temperature.
8
T S Diagrams
A convenient representation of processes involving reversible cycles for various heat engines is a diagram with T along the y-axis and S along the x-axis.
For an isothermal process the curve (isotherm) will be a straight horizontal line.
For an adiabatic process, since đQ = 0 and so dS = 0, the curve (isentrope) will be a straight vertical line.
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isochor
isobar
isotherm
isentrope
T
S
From equation (1a)P
dPnR
T
dTCdS P and so, for an isobaric process
PP C
T
S
T
From equation (2a)V
dVnR
T
dTCdS V and so, for an isochoric process
VV C
T
S
T
Since CP>CVPV S
T
S
T
The plots then look like:
(slide 5)
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The TS diagram for a Carnot cycle (2 isotherms and 2 isentropes) will then be a rectangle.
T2
a b
dT1
T
S1 S2
S
c
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Area under ab is the heat absorbed (Q2) by system. Area under cd is the heat rejected (Q1) by system. The shaded area is then the work done during the cycle. W = Q1 + Q2 and the efficiency, , can be obtained from the graph.
Remember that is negative.
Remember that, with a PV diagram, the area under the curve is W.
We wish to consider all the entropy changes which take place when there is a reversible exchange of energy between a system and its surroundings dS (system) + dS (surroundings) = dS (universe)
2QW
1Q
12
The temperature of the system and its surrounding differ by only an infinitesimal amount at any time.
Suppose the surroundings (reservoir) absorbs an amount of heat đQ, then its entropy increases by đQ/T. In this process an equal amount of heat flows out of the system and its entropy decreases by đQ/T. Hence dS (universe) = 0.
In a reversible process, the change in entropy of the universe is zero.
13
Tds Equations. (Study derivations and examples in textbook.)
1st Tds equation: vdT
dTcvdT
PTdTcTds V
VV
2nd Tds equation: dPvTdTcdPT
vTdTcTds P
PP
3rd Tds equation: vdv
cdP
cdv
v
TcdP
P
TcTds PV
PP
VV
One way to begin the derivations is as follows:First equation: start with s(T,v)Second equation: start with s(T,P)Third equation: start with s(P,v)
Remember that in a reversible process d q=Tds
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These equations follow from the first and second laws of thermodynamics and thus contain much of the content of thermodynamics. They are often a good starting point for working problems or obtaining other useful relationships. Some examples of the use of these equations are: (a) to find the heat transferred in a reversible process
(Slide 19)(b) the entropy can be obtained by dividing by T and integrating.(c) equations express heat flow or entropy in terms of
measurable properties, such as(d) can be used to determine the difference in the specific heat
capacities at constant P and constant V(Slide 21)
(e) can provide relationships between pairs of coordinates in areversible adiabatic process ( ds=0 )(Slides 18,20)
and,, PV cc
15
Derivation of the 1st Tds equation
Consider )1(vdv
sdT
T
sds)v,T(ss
Tv
sovPdvdv
udT
T
uPdvduq
Tv
)2(vdPv
u
T
1dT
T
u
T
1ds
Tv
Comparing (1) and (2)
Pv
u
T
1
v
s
T
u
T
1
T
s
TTvv
Since s is an exact differential:or
v
s
TT
s
vvTTv
đ
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vTTv
Pv
u
T
1
TT
u
T
1
v
vvTT2
Tv T
P
T
1
v
u
TT
1P
v
u
T
1
T
u
vT
1
=
vT T
PTP
v
u
Placing in equation (2)
vdT
PTdT
T
uTds
vv
vdT
PTdTcTds
vV
17
Helpful expansion:
1x14
x
3
x
2
xx)x1ln(
432
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Example: What is the change in temperature when a solid or liquid is compressed adiabatically and reversibly?
Using the 1st TdS equation and remembering that for an adiabatic process, dS=0
0vdT
dTcV
Assuming that the experimental quantities are approximately constant over the range of interest and integrating:
vdcT
dT
V
)vv(cT
Tln if
Vi
f
)vv(cT
TTln if
Vi
i
In such a process the change in temperature is generally small, so
)vv(cT
Tif
Vi
constantS)vv(c
TT if
V
i
If the volume decreases, the temperature must increase!
19
To obtain the change in temperature in terms of pressure, we could start with the 2nd TdS equation and go through a similar analysis.The result is (show):
constantS)PP(c
TvT if
P
i
Example: How much energy is released during an reversible isothermal compression of a solid or liquid?
We use the 2nd TdS equation and for an isothermal process, dT=0
TdPvdTcTds P TdPvTds
We make the approximations that are nearly constant. vand
)PP(Tv)ss(T ifif
constantT)PP(Tvq if
If the pressure increases, the temperature must increase!
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Example: During a reversible, adiabatic compression, how are the volume and pressure changes related?
Use the 3rd TdS equation and again dS=0
0vdv
cdP
cTds PV
vdv
cdPc P
V
Assuming constant specific heats and experimental quantities:
iP
i
fPifV v
vc
v
vlnc)PP(c
)PP(c
cv)vv( if
P
Viif
(reversible adiabatic process)
Of course, we already know that if the pressure is increased, the volume will decrease. The above expression permits a calculation of the change in the volume for a given change in the pressure.
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EXAMPLE: Determination of Is this difference constant? If not, what does it depend upon?
)( VP cc
We equate the first two Tds equations. Brings in the two specific heats.
vdT
PTdTcdP
T
vTdTc
vV
PP
Volume expansivityPT
v
v
1
Isothermal compressibilityTP
v
v
1
vdT
PTdTcdPvTdTc
VVP
vTPV T
P1
P
v
v
T
T
P
vdT
dTcdPvTdTc VP
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Solving for dT dP)cc(
vTvd
)cc(
TdT
VPVP
But we can write dPP
Tvd
v
TdT
VP
Comparing gives )cc(
vT
P
T
)cc(
T
v
T
VPVVPP
vTcc)v(
T
T
vT
vTT
cc2
VPP
P
VP
This shows that always. is easy to determine experimentally, but is difficultIf is measured, then can be obtained if the quantities on the right hand side have been measured. An example is given on the next slide.
VP cc Pc Vc
Pc Vc
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EXAMPLE: Calculation of the specific heat at constant volume forCu at 1000K and 1 atm. For Cu:
PaKKkmole
JcP
1253 105.9105.6
1029
atomic weight=63.6 331096.8
m
kg
kmole
m1010.7v
mkg
1096.8kmole1
kg6.63
n
m
n
Vv
33
33
vT
cc2
VP
112
2153
33
3
105.9
)105.6(1010.7)10(
1029
Pa
Kkmole
mK
Kkmole
JcV
)R3c :note(Kkmole
J1026c V
3
V
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EXAMPLE: Consider a reversible adiabatic process, then ds=0
From the 3rd Tds equation: giving:vdv
cdP
c0 PV
)constants(vddPvvdc
dPvc PV
SS P
v
v
1v
P
v
We define an adiabatic ( or isentropic) compressibility
SS P
v
v
1
SS 1
We can understand how this comes about.
25
An increase in pressure results in a decrease in the volume.
Consider a small increase in pressure ΔP.For an isothermal process (heat will leave the system) there will be a certain decrease in volume (ΔV)T
Now consider an isentropic process (no heat leaves the system) with the same increase in pressure. The increased pressure leads to an increase in temperature which tends to increase the volume. Hence, in this case, (ΔV)S will be less than (ΔV)T
TS )V()V(
S
But and S
S P
v
v
1
TP
v
v
1
Hence
The isentropic compressibility is smaller than the isothermal compressibility
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Example: How much work is performed during a reversible, adiabatic compression of a solid or liquid?
Starting with the definition of the isentropic compressibility:
)constantS(dPvvdP
v
v
1S
SS
2
PPvdPPvdPvPvdPW
2i
2f
SSS
2f
2i
S PP2
vW
(reversible, adiabatic)
Work is done on the system!
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Irreversible processesWe defined entropy in terms of reversible processes. What about irreversible processes?
Entropy is a state variable and change of entropy between any two equilibrium states is the same regardless of the process. Hence we can calculate S for any irreversible process between two equilibrium states by choosing any convenient path (reversible) between the same two states!
Of course, regardless of the process, the change in entropy of the system must be the same, but the change in entropy of the universe will depend on the process.
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As an example consider the following situation in which we have a large reservoir at temperature T2 and a small body (system) at a lower temperature T1. We let the system come into thermal equilibrium by means of some isobaric process, which is necessarily irreversible.
body T1
reservoir T2
Qadiabatic walls
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Now we imagine a reversible process, by which we bring about the change in T of the body through a whole series of reservoirs between T1 and T2, and keeping constant the pressure. In this manner the body passes through a large number of equilibrium states. For the reversible process, and using the second Tds equation and since dP = 0
dS = CP
Upon integration S (body) = CP ln
TdT
1
2
TT
The heat absorbed is )( 12
2
1
TTCdTCQ P
T
T
P
30
The temperature of the reservoir remains constant and the heat flow out of the reservoir is -CP(T2 -T1). Hence, for the reservoir,
This will always be greater than zero, regardless of whether T2 > T1 or T1 > T2.
(Students: Let x = T2/T1 and examine the function).
Hence S (universe) > 0.
2
12
TTT
PCreservoirS
2
12
1
2ln TTT
TT
PCuniverseS
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In this example the decrease in entropy of the reservoir is lessthan the increase in entropy of the body
In all real processes the entropy increases or, to put it in another way, entropy is created.
The entropy of the universe is constantly increasing.
It should be kept in mind that, for an irreversible process,
T
QdS đ
and hence this formula cannot be used to calculate any entropy change that occurs.
32
Free expansion of an ideal gas
For a reversible isothermal process we would have P0V0 = P1V1. However, this does not describe free expansion. Initially P1 = 0. This is an irreversible process!.
Regardless of the process there is a fixed difference between the final and initial entropies of the gas.
V0 T0
P0
V1 - V0
vacuum
V1 T0 P1
adiabatic container
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We can calculate S by assuming a reversible isothermal expansion between the two equilibrium states. Because of the adiabatic walls,
S (surroundings) = 0.
Even in this adiabatic process the entropy of the universe increases. Later we will provide some insight as to why this is so.
0
1
0
1
VV
VV
VV
V
ln
ln
nRuniverseS
nRsystemS
nRCdS dTdT
(1st Tds equation for an ideal gas)
The two processes, the free expansion and the reversible expansion, are completely different. What they have in common is that the initial and final states of the gas are the same.
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In a reversible isothermal expansion, the work done by the ideal gas is W = nRT0ln
dU = 0 Q = W S = S = nRln
In a free expansion no work is done, but the change in entropy is as if work were done in a reversible, isothermal process between the same endpoints.
To Summarize: reversible process S (universe) =
0 irreversible process S (universe) >
0
0
1
VV
0TQ
0
1
VV
If the entropy of the universe increases in some process, we knowthat it is irreversible.
35
Entropy change for a liquid or a solid
An approximate equation of state for a liquid or solid is
)]PP()TT(1[vv 000
2nd Tds equation: dPT
vTdTcTds
PP
Since and since the volume does not change drastically for a liquid or solid, we write:
PT
v
v
1
P0 T
v
v
1
Substituting into the Tds equation gives: dPvT
dTcds 0P
Integration gives )PP(vT
Tlncss 00
0P0
If T increases, s increases.If P increases, s decreases.
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Comments:
2nd Law: energy tends to disperse. Natural processes accompany the dispersal of energy
High quality energy is undispersed energy (energy in a lump of coal)or stored in coherent motion (flow of water)
A local reduction of entropy is possible (such as cooling something below surroundings).
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Example: Express in standard form. Evaluate this partial for an ideal gas. (Not obvious how to start.)
TP
u
v1
PdduT
ds
dPP
dTTT
PdP
P
udT
T
u
Tds
TPTP
vv1
dPPT
P
P
u
TdT
TT
P
T
u
Tds
TTPP
v1v1
But writing s(T,P) dPP
sdT
T
sds
TP
TTTPPP P
v
T
P
P
u
TP
s ,
T
v
T
P
T
u
TT
s 1
1
and comparing
(start with 1st law)
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Since ds is an exact differential:
PTTP P
s
TT
s
P
PTTTPP PT
P
P
u
TTTT
P
T
u
TP
v1v1
PTT2
PTT2
TPPTP
P
v
TT
P
P
v
T
P
P
u
TT
1
P
u
T
1T
v
PT
P
T
v
T
1
T
u
PT
1
TTP PT
P
P
u
TTT
v1v1
22
TPT PP
TT
P
u
vv
39
PTP
u
T
vv
For an ideal gas P
RTvRTv P
TP
R
T P
1
v
1v
v
1
PP
RT
P T
1
v
1v
v
12
Using these expression in the expression at the top:
gas) ideal(00v1
v1
TT P
uP
PT
TP
u
( measurable quantities)