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Chapter 8: Consolidation of Political Chapter 8: Consolidation of Political PowerPower
1648 (Peace of Westphalia: end of religious wars) to 1815 (Congress of Vienna: end of Fr. Rev and Napoleonic wars) another time of tremendous change.
States are struggling with political questions, rapid economic change, growing secularism, and nationalism.
Continuing to question what had once been basic assumptions about life
Big Picture
Absolutism Peaks (standard form of gov’t except for constitutional areas in England and Netherlands)
Enlightenment creates interest in redefining government’s role- French Rev shakes traditionalists to their core
Political
European dominance expands locally and globally Nations around and engaged in Atlantic trade become dominant.
Industrialization creates a new standard for econ “leader” nations
Economic
Scientific knowledge spreads. Emphasis on rationalism encouraged people to approach other issues in the same way- say political or social problems- solve them with scientific tools/theories/methods
Popularity of Scientific Revolution/Enlightenment
Big pop. Spike in 16c- (due to changes in food, improved sanitation etc…) Widespread urbanization begins for 1st areas to go through I.R.
Population Change
What is Happening?
Consolidation of medieval (feudal) kingdoms into centralized states.
Europe is small- there is a limited amount of space- therefore constant competition
Church has lost power- which left more available for kings
Monarchs had complete control over kingdom- no limits to power
Spain, France, Prussia, Austria, Russia
Two Models: Absolutism and ConstitutionalismAbsolutism: Where?
Characteristics Philosophy of
The King IS the country, not subordinate to nobles or an assembly.
The king appoints/controls the bureaucracy. Large standing army.
Totalitarian (but w/o attempt of control daily lives of ordinary citizens)
Jean Bodin/Thomas Hobbes wrote during civil wars in Fr and Eng- both believed the state (king) needed to be strong to protect the people from themselves
Bishop Bossuet- “divine right of kings”
Decline of Spain
During 16c Spain was the most powerful country in Europe- but they fell almost as fast as they had risen
Inquisition- reduced population from 7.5-5.5 million- and the ones who left were best and brightest
Command econ controlled by crown- and not well. Trade fell 60% from 1600-1660 (lost out to Eng and Dutch)
Taxes very high for peasants- little incentive to start business etc…
Inflation from new world silver caused “price revolution”
Lots of $$ came in from vast colonial empire- but it only went to a few groups.
Castile controlled bureaucracy, Seville had monopoly on Atlantic shipping, Barcelona on Med. Shipping
Fought lots of wars- and lost a lot (expensive) New world silver started to dry up Lost Netherlands
Economic Difficulties
Defeat of Spanish Armada (1588)in their attempt to invade England a real turning point.
Also- on losing side of 30 years war (lost Netherlands)
By 1700 Spanish navy had 8 ships Treaty of Pyrenees 1658 (ended Fr/Sp conflict
from 30 years war- France took Spanish Netherlands) end of Spain as a great power- become a backwater dreaming of former glories
Political and Military Decline
“Spain” had been created by Ferdinand and Isabella out of Castile/Aragon- but there were still independent areas. Weak leadership of Philip III, Philip IV, Charles II encouraged them to challenge crown. 1630-40s revolts broke out- largest in Catalonia & Portugal (Portugal successfully independent 1668)
Also rebellions in Spanish holdings in Europe- like Italy (Sicily/Naples rebel) Losing power steadily
Revolt and Secession
Absolutism in France
Had a history of intermittently strong royal power since Charlemagne. Valois spent Renaissance building royal power- Bourbon planned to continue
Strong bureaucracy, invented concept of “divine right of kings”
Enhanced legitimacy of royalty all over Europe
Henry IV Louis XIII
1st king of Bourbon dynasty (r. 1589-1610) determined to strengthen Fr. by strengthening gov’t.
Weakened nobility by not allowing feudal nobility (nobility of sword) to hold bureaucratic positions- created new noble titles (nobility of robe) for those- therefore those nobles loyal to king
R. 1610-1643. Came to throne as child (Henry assassinated by RC fanatic)
Mother regent- but Fr. Ruled by his ministers (Richelieu) Irony- this is when Fr. Is becoming absolutist- but Louis never had strong personal power
Cardinal Richelieu
Minister to King 1585-1642.
Built royal power (which he used for himself, in name of king)
Rebuilt royal treasury after 30 years war- created intendant system for collecting revenue
A politique (like Henry IV) he cared more about power of France than personalities or religion. Ran policy during 30 years war- goal was to weaken the Hapsburg dynasty- supported whatever side needed to do that (so Fr. Flip flops around)
Began to push down Huguenots- whom he saw as a threat to power of Fr.- taking their rights to fortify towns and have independent armies
Duke of Sully Intendant System
Defined Mercantilism- use colonies to create favorable balance of trade (use colonies for raw materials/markets- don’t allow them an ind. Econ.)
Reformed tax system- encouraged gov’t to improve transportation system to improve trade
Civil servants (not noble- bourgeoisie) who report directly to king. Created greater efficiency in gov’t- more centralized control
The Fronde
1648-1653 When Louis XIII died- his 5 year old son
became king. Another regency made nobles unhappy- led to an uprising (fronde=slingshot)
Nobles demanded parlements w/right to approve taxes. Royal family in danger several times- made a big impression on young Louis XIV
Revolt ended in failure- primarily because competition between noble families prevented them from uniting effectively
Cardinal Mazarin Chief minister while Louis xiv a child
(not as ambitious as Richelieu) used power to gain $$ for himself.
Used army against population to ensure prompt/full payment of taxes- made him (and king) unpopular
Louis ended regency in 1652 when he was 14-Mazarin remained an “advisor” until he was 23
The Absolute Monarchy of Louis XIV
Ruled 72 years. Dominated Europe- this was the “Age of Louis XIV, the “Sun King” who said “L’etat C’est Moi”
Manipulated affections/ambitions of his courtiers- made sure all gov’t ministers loyal only to him- tolerated no opposition.
Tricky balancing act nobles/peasants/clergy all had to be managed
Golden age of France Louis Personified the
idea that the sovereignty and glory of the nation reside in it’s ruler. French Culture dominated Europe
France had the largest population in Europe- 17 million in 1650- allowed them to keep a big army, and collect a lot of taxes (taille- head tax)
Divine Right
Louis XIV was very religious. Believed kings were a race apart from mortal men, appointed and anointed by God.
Kings had to follow God’s laws (man’s, not so much)
Expected to rule for the good of their people, but could not be questioned
Louis believed France existed to serve his glory- that by living the most magnificent life possible- he was making France a better place
Building a Centralized Bureaucracy
Richelieu and Mazarin had cleared old nobility out of gov’t but there was still more to be done. Provinces and nobles still had lots of local independent power- and Louis didn’t want that
Continued and expanded intendant system- applied it to regional/local gov’t.
Blocked power of noble assemblies (parlements- which had been created in Fronde) by refusing to allow them to meet- never called Estates General
Forced labor for king. (rather like old feudal obligations to nobles)
All peasants required to work 1 month of the year on royal projects.
Also allowed peasants to be conscripted into the royal army
Corvee
Versailles
Made it not only his home- but the center of gov’t. Kept nobles and bureaucrats there- so he could keep an eye on them
Often called a “theater state” of formalized ritual. Also a “pleasure prison” for nobility- kept so entertained and frivolous, they didn’t notice they had lost their power
Finances were Louis’s weak point- assumed France was a bottomless well of wealth. Appointed Jean Baptist Colbert as finance minister- defined new econ concept
Mercantilism: A country’s wealth is based on their supply of gold- so countries must sell more than buy abroad so they maintain gold reserves. Thought France should be self sufficient- led to development of new industries. Colonies helpful to mercantilism as sources of raw materials and markets for manufactured goods.
Mercantilism
Goal of country is as much gold/silver as possible.
Originated French trading companies (French East and West India Co) to make $$ and a French Merchant Marine to protect French interests abroad. Sugar of Caribbean and early revenue stream
Bullionism
Created poor peasant conditions- and high taxes (nobles don’t pay taxes- Louis wants them happy)
Louis keeps a massive army- but virtually no navy- will end up causing colonial issues
Huguenots are not allowed to leave France for new world (which would have solved several problems)
Weaknesses
Court Culture at Versailles
Elaborate entertainments and rituals. Nobles vied for the honor of serving the king (took 3 hrs to get dressed) Everyone engaged in petty competition- nobles busy- and useless.
Most spectacular palace ever (and huge- 15,000 people lived there) Made France center of culture Europe- French became language of sophistication
Original structure built by Louis XIII as a hunting lodge. Architect Louis Louvois “enveloped” the lodge- incorporating it into new palace. Palace 1/3 mile long
Built on swampland (drained- 1400 fountains: gardens by LeNotre) so that Louis could prove his will was greater than even nature’s
60% of royal revenue EACH YEAR spent on building and maintaining Versailles
A French twist on the Renaissance ideals of order and symmetry- while keeping much of the lushness and drama of Baroque architecture. (grand and restrained at same time)
Nicholas Poussain- master painter of frescos of Versailles
Also extended into other arts: plays by Jean Baptiste Moliere and Jean Racine entertained nobles, as did the first French Operas
French Classicism
Henry IV had meant edict as a compromise measure to end conflict- not as a permanent solution.
Louis VERY catholic- 1685 ordered revocation- all Huguenots had to be baptized- or exiled. Popular- but probably bad for France in the long run.
One king, One law, One faith- Louis felt this was necessary for his absolutist power to be effective.
Revocation of Edict of Nantes
Edict of FontainebleauJansenists
The law which revoked Nantes. 200,000 Huguenots left France- most for Holland, England or other colonies of New World (can’t go to French colonies) Cut significantly into French middle classes
Catholics who either sympathized with or had some Calvinist ideas- they got cracked down upon as well
France has borders with many countries Marquis de Louvois (military advisor to king)
said army is the base of the strength of the nation. Increased size of permanent army from 25,000 in 1625 to 100,000 in 1642 to 250,000 in 1659.
This was a professional army- with all high
ranking officers appointed by the king, uniforms, weapons, and training all standardized
Louis XIV’s Wars
Balance of Power System
Alliances of various states (based on their goals) were constantly shifting
The idea of trying to create a balance was new (borrowing from Italy during Ren)
France often won their wars- but still they were really expensive.
William of Orange (Netherlands) most important in blocking ambitions of Louis- but needed many other countries to challenge France’s strength
Start of 2nd 100 years of Conflict between Eng and Fr
Louis invaded Spanish Netherlands and Franche-Comte (Burgundy) saying that Spain had not fully paid the dowry of his wife- so these lands should “devolve” to him.
France beat Spain, but had to draw
back when England, Sweden, and
Dutch joined the Spanish side. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle- French
got to keep towns in Spanish
Netherlands
War of Devolution 1667-1668
To break up the Eng/Swed/Dutch alliance the French convinced the Eng to make an econ alliance (Eng/Dutch were trade rivals)
Louis personally led the invasion- Dutch opened their dykes- flooded their country. Prussia/Austria joined Dutch side
Peace of Nijmegen- France gets Burgundy
Dutch War 1672-78
France moved against the Hapsburg dynasty- (whom they saw as rivals) Invaded Strasbourg & Lorraine- wanted to push the border of France to the Rhine. (and nervous b/c William of Orange just became king of England)
Opposed by coalition of Eng, Dutch,
Spanish, Swed, Austrian, and German
princes
Nine Years War (War of League of Augsburg) 1688-1697
Last Spanish Hapsburg king (Charles II) dies w/o an heir. Louis and Leopold (HRE) both claim throne of France. Charles had left throne to Louis’ grandson (Charles’ nephew) Philip of Anjou. Other nations worry this will give France too much influence.
Dutch/Austria/Prussia join against France (Grand Alliance- commanded by Duke of Marlborough- who defeats France at battle of Blenheim)
Peace of Utrecht 1714- most important since Peace of Westphalia. Philip of Anjou gets throne- but neither he nor successors can ever claim throne of France. Britain gets Asiento (slave trade) from Spain- as well as Gibraltar and Majorca.
War of Spanish Succession 1701-1714
Results of Wars
Destroyed the French economy- monster debt- France is bankrupt when Louis XIV dies.
20% of French population injured/killed in battle- or starved as result of conflicts (seeds of French revolution)
People spend the next 150 years worrying about French aggression
Austria, Prussia, and Russia dominated Central and Eastern Europe
All 3 used absolutism- Austria least, Russia most centralized in terms of royal power
Absolutism in Central and Eastern Europe
Different from France
France had strong king, efficient bureaucracy/town councils/free peasants. E. Euro had powerful nobles, and serf population
Austria- After the 30 years war- Hapsburg dynasty had lost most of their western territory- focus on consolidating what they still had.
Prussia was a new nation- a growing power. (they will eventually unite the German states into “Germany”)
Russia was also a new power- newly involved in Europe.
French middle class was coming to dominate econ (overseas trade and manufacturing) the influence of the nobility had been waning since end of 100 years war.
E. Euro had little heritage of centralization, and multi-ethnic, multi-religious empires (not Prussia) and size issues.
Also Faced threat of invasion from outside civ (esp. Ottomans- who attacked Austria multiple times) kept warfare pretty constant
Serfdom died a natural death in western Europe- but experienced a revival in East during 1300s after population devastation of Black death. By 1500 the vast majority of peasant population fully enserfed- at complete legal mercy of local nobility. Will hold them back during this time of dynamic change- most of their population can’t change
Econ stays fully agricultural- with far fewer large towns/cities to promote new ideas
Serfdom
Consolidation of Austria
Southeastern territory of HRE: large, un-homogenous empire (Germans, Hungarians, Italians, Serbs, Romanians, Czechs, Slovenes, Croats), held together by Hapsburg Dynasty. Looks impressive on paper- lots of land. Not so impressive in terms of power
Hapsburgs are already a fading dynasty- in 1500 they controlled 2/3 of Euro and new world, now have lost significant territory
No single constitutional system for empire- different parts tied to Emperor with different rules/obligations. Would like to be absolutist (and are in many ways)- but have multiple issues to deal with
Fought Louis xiv for Spain in the War of Spanish Succession (lost) Inherited HRE after 30 years war- tried to consolidate royal power. Often blocked by nobles who had significant local authority- and he had no way to block them
Devote RC- gave all gov’t positions to Catholics (tricky in an empire that is about 1/3 protestant)
Built Schoenbrunn in Vienna to Rival Versailles in France
Ottomans attacking- had to give a lot of attention to Hungary which was a battle zone, culminating in the siege of Vienna 1683.
Leopold I 1658-1705
Charles VI 1711-1740
Threatened by French expansion- allied with England to check French aggression
Father of Maria Theresa (Austria’s most famous ruler) knew he would be leaving throne to a daughter- issued “Pragmatic Sanction” asking rulers of Europe to respect his heir, and saying Hapsburg possession could never again be divided
Rise of Brandenburg Prussia
Small states in Northern Germany- ruled by Hohenzollern dynasty. Scattered territories at first- will be fused together and become leader of German identity
Brandenburg and Prussia originally separate areas (2 of the “electors” of the HRE) Brandenburg will come to be dominated by Prussia
Frederick William- The Great Elector 1640-1688
Not a king, but created a kingdom.
Will mold Brand-Prussia into an independent (and absolutist) state. 3 disconnected pieces after treaty of Westphalia
Collected taxes, created a professional army, which allowed him to rule w/o support of nobles
Calvinist- but allowed religious tolerance (allow about what was efficient- avoid hassles)
Involved with Sweden/Poland over control of northern territory in Europe
Began to lay groundwork for Prussian militarism- heavy taxes to pay for strong military (2x that of France)
Prussian nobility. Fred. William created tradeoffs to get royal power he was looking for- and keep nobles happy. (for
example, he collected the taxes, they had total control over their serfs)
Junkers came to dominate officer corps of new military- took oath directly to elector (later king) which gave him power.
Unlike many nobles- Prussians were interested in trade/industry (ex. Of Eng and Holland) Did try overseas trade- big failure, lack of ports and navy
Junkers
Frederick I 1688-1713
1st “king” of Prussia. Got recognition from Hapsburgs in return for his support against Louis xiv in War of League of Augsburg and War of Sp. Succession.
Very popular
Frederick William I 1713-1740 Often called the “anti”
Louis- in that he cared nothing for “fancy” (pawned crown jewels to buy artillery)
Army was of prime importance to the strength of nation (doubled size). Always appeared in uniform (the soldier king)
Canton System: soldiers in regiment all came from same area.
Fought infrequently- frugal, left a full treasury to his son
Goal was to make Prussia the “Sparta of the North”- not a state with an army, but an army with a state.
80% of gov’t revenue went to military- used deterrence to avoid actual war.
Very efficient bureaucracy- could come from any class, rise based on merit
Frederick the Great 1740-1786
Used army to invaded and capture Silesia- which doubled Prussia’s population, helped est. Prussia as a great power.
Known as an “Enlightened Despot” for his appreciation of new ideas of gov’t, (Voltaire) while keeping reigns for himself.
Mad his dad nuts, loved art, music, poetry etc…
Kiev Rus- during middle ages Slavic peoples of Eastern Europe had built a variety of cities connected by trade routes from Scandinavia to the Byzantine empire. (Kiev largest and most important)
Main cultural influence came NOT from Latin heritage of Europe- but Greek influences of Constantinople (Cyrillic alphabet, Orthodox Christianity)
Conquered by Mongols (1250-1450) Get “left out” of Europe (miss renaissance, reformation etc…)
Far inland- and to the north- outside of “normal” European sphere. Always seen as “backwards” and odd- Europe feared the size, but always looked down on Russia.
Russia: Emergence of an Absolutist State
Princes of Moscow became leading Russian nobles- Mongols use them as their tax collectors
As Mongol rule collapses, they will step in to lead Russia
Expansion of Russia before 1650
In 1480 refused to pay any more tribute to the Mongol Khan (who were weak anyway) and declared himself “Tsar” of Russia (means “Caesar” he was married to a byzantine princess, when Constantinople fell to Turks he felt Moscow would take its place)
Acquired land through war and marriagecreated a Cossack class of free peasants by giving
them freedom and land to settle in new areas (spread his power) Ivan the Great
Ivan III 1442-1505
Ivan IV 1533-1584
Russia was feudal- Boyars were Russian nobility- much more traditional style- with military obligations etc…
Ivan sought to control nobles by creating a new aristocracy Oprichniki- and killing boyars.
Killed son’s wife- and son/heir- Ivan the Terrible
Boyars resented newly created royal power. Ivan came to throne @ 3- they rebelled and threatened his life many times (killed mom)
Created 1st version of Russia’s secret police for reign of terror.
Gained territory in black sea (taking land from Poland- a Russian theme)
Increased serfdom to keep peasants tied to noble lands- also bound merchants to particular towns- limited capitalism
Time of Troubles Romanov Dynasty
1584- 1600ish Ivan died w/o an heir- so
competition, quasi war broke out between boyar families for who would control throne
Michael Romanov elected Tsar in 1613 (Romanovs favored keeping power in hands of boyars in return for their support)
Expanded Russia to East 1689 Russia is largest
country in World- 3x the size of Europe- most of Empire not IN Europe
Peter the Great 1682-1724
Tsar primarily responsible for transforming Europe into a western power. Understood that changes were happening in Europe- wanted to get on board
Not all boyars/peasants liked the idea of change- he didn’t care
Peter was a giant- literally- nearly 7 ft tall, could bend a horseshoe barehanded.
Russia is Feudal- Tsars technically “own” all the land- there are no representative political bodies.
Old Believers: people who resisted (severely persecuted)
Big focus on creating a modern military (75% of budget) each village had to send a certain # of troops for a 25 year enlistment.
St Petersburg
Wanted a warm water port for navy and trade. Gained access to Baltic Sea (through Great Northern War against Poland/Denmark)
Built a new capital as showplace of modernization- his “window on the west”
Copied Amsterdam (soggy territory) built Winter Palace to rival Versailles
Created a cosmopolitan city by inviting the people he needed (artists, musicians, philosophers) to live there
Program for Westernization As a young man, Peter
travelled (incognito) to Europe to observe and study other countries.
Imported western technicians and artisans to bring new industries (like shipbuilding) to Russia.
State controlled industry- not really capitalistic (Tsar gave monopolies) but had huge resources- but end of reign Russia out produced Eng in iron
Military Built army by drafting
peasants- created soldiers by offering them an alternative to serfdom (pay etc…) Royal army 200,000.
Introduced cannons and firearms to Russian combat- modern military technology
Built roads and bridges to transport army- and a navy from scratch (which decline after he died)
Peter required adoption of European cultural attitudes- styles of dress, cut the beards (by force if necessary) Women required to appear at court society Introduced French language to his court- required
all nobles to learn it and speak it exclusively. Kept taxes high (but not for nobles) used secret
police to enforce
Social
Reorganized bureaucracy for greater efficiency in tax collection and industrial production. Set education standards for bureaucrats.
Table of Ranks: you gain gov’t positions based on merit rather than just aristocratic status. Eliminated many titles- issued new ones (loyalty)
Bureaucratic
Results
Significant conflict of Slavic culture vs. westernization. Peter imitated selectively- not interested in business or capitalism
Brought Russia into Europe- but not really mainstream yet.
Alternatives to AbsolutismConstitutionalism: what is it?
The government (king) is limited by law- the law itself is the supreme power in the country.
Implies a balance between power of gov’t and rights of citizens
Used in Sweden, Poland, England, and the Netherlands
Opportunities for other voices/powers will allow capitalistic growth- allowing econ to grow particularly strong in Netherlands and England
Sweden
King Gustavas Adolphus (1611-1632) got Sweden involved in European affairs through 30 years war. Sweden dominated Baltic region (defeating Russia and Poland- until Peter...)
Riksdag: assembly of nobles, clergy, townspeople which had highest legislative authority. Shared power with king
Sweden began some Atlantic colonizing/trade (Delaware) then pulled back
Charles XII 1697-1718
Defeated by Peter the Great in Baltic. Nobles took advantage of that defeat (and king died in battle) to force Queen Ulrika to accept a constitution which gave nobles significant power.
Riksdag restructured to be more like Parliament (though with nobles in charge, not gentry)
In 16c was a Commonwealth bordered by Russia, HRE, Austria,and Ottoman Empire (included Belarus and Ukraine) Polish and Lithuania kingdoms united by
treaty of Lubin in 1569. Had a weak king elected by nobles- made country a “republic of nobles”
For a time was the most diverse, tolerant society in Europe. Eventually divided between Austria, Russia and Prussia
Poland Lithuania
A small country- but the Dutch ideasattitudes played a significant role inshaping the modern world view. Recognized as independent in the treaty of
Westphalia. Seven provinces- each with considerable autonomy
Religious tolerance- Calvinist- but not exclusive Amsterdam replaces Antwerp (in Sp
Netherlands) as banking/commercial center of Netherlands
The Netherlands
Greatest mercantile nation- went out in the world to trade (not conquer) Carrying Trade- served as shipping company for many colonies- charged a fee and made a profit.
Center of scientific, literary, and artistic achievements.
Gov’t dominated by bourgeoisie-
whose wealth limited power of king
Golden Age
Stadholders
Netherlands did not have ancient aristocratic families- they had oligarchies of merchants, financiers and traders, Burghers- town officials. “Regents” elected provincial “stadholder”- executive officer. House of Orange unofficial leader of stadholders (William the Silent)
In times of crisis (war) power of all 7 powers could be given to one stadholder- making him effective king.
Problems with England
During English Civil War Cromwell’s parliament passed Navigation acts- colonies cannot trade with anyone but Eng.
Seemed to target Dutch carrying trade
So Dutch begin to fight England (sometimes- also allies against Fr)
Had to rely on commerce b/c they have so few natural resources. Not big enough to create large colonies- but had largest fleet in Euro and Significant fishing trade.
Dutch East/West India Co.
Often preferred by native populations- seen as having less of an agenda
William II of Orange
War of League of Augsburg made him permanent head stadholder. In 1688 he became King of England (through his wife Mary- they were co-rulers) brought Eng. More into affairs of continent
Used balance of power to contain Fr. Ambition
Heavily involved in wars against Louis XIV- they fight all in (flooding countryside etc…) It was expensive – even when they were winning- they use up a lot of energy, never again quite as large a force in Euro politics
Constitutionalism in England
Began with Magna Carta. Kings willing to have a legislature, particularly if they could use it to legitimize their own ideas.
Really won POWER in English Civil War- they deposed (and beheaded) Charles I, reinstated Charles II
Capitalism played a significant role in constitutionalism- created social mobility. England had a larger middle class than anywhere in Europe (except Netherlands- also constitutional)
Beginnings Gentry
One Parliament for the whole country (unlike France)
House of Lords- all hereditary nobles
House of Commons -> gentry
Wealthy landowners w/o significant noble title (knight at best) Many had made fortunes in commerce, then retired.
Paid taxes (as did nobles) less stigma on making $$ than in other parts of Euro
Stuart dynasty had absolutist tendencies (spent too much time in France!)
Real issue of war- can king govern without consent of parliament (as Charles I was trying to do)
Petition of Right 1628: Parliament attempted to settle this question before war began- said only parliament can levy taxes, said there had to be due process of law (Habeas Corpus)
Problems with Stuarts (not on outline- add to side)
The Protectorate/Interregnum1653-1658
When Charles I executed in 1649 parliament declared martial law- then a Commonwealth. (Parliament technically in charge- Cromwell really ruling as a military dictatorship- Lord Protector)
England at its most absolutist during this period- just Puritan absolutism. Censored press, closed theaters & entertainments. Crushed Ireland (feared royalist stronghold)
Pride’s Purge- 1653 all non puritans removed from gov’t.
Act of Settlement- 2/3 of land in Ireland taken from Irish and given to English Landlords
The Restoration Charles II 1660-1685 England got tired of Cromwell and Puritanism. When
he died parliament decided to “restore” Charles II to his father’s throne.
Charles always careful not to provoke parliament- avoided extremes. Kept a permanent council of 5 men who were his advisors as well as members of Parliament- kept communication going- Cabinet
Charles had an affable personality. Did not punish parliament or country for war/father’s death- seemed just as anxious as they were for a good time. Known as the “merry monarch”
Tension between religious factions remains very strong in Euro during 17c. Stuarts nominally protestant- really very pro-RC (and pro French)
Whigs: (liberal) anti RC- did not want James II (openly RC) to inherit throne. Middle class, Calvinist, favored Business and Econ progress
Tories: (conservative) supported strong monarchy. Anglican. Nobility, clergy, favored status quo.
Political Parties
Charles II suspended laws against Catholics and Protestant dissenters.
Parliament responded by passing a law which said you had to be Anglican (or at least take Anglican Communion) to hold gov’t office or military officership
Religious Issues: Test Act 1673
Final chapter in English struggle over sovereignty.
England doesn’t have a single document as it’s constitution- significant acts join together as body of law- lots of them created here
Glorious Revolution 1688
James II
Charles II’s younger bro- became king in 1685 at 55 years old. Pro Catholic and Absolutist- and proud of it baby
Appointed Catholics to gov’t positions in defiance of law- passed Act of Indulgence: freedom of worship for RC
At first, parliament (and people) figure they will just hold on- he’s not a young guy, and his heirs (2 grown daughters) are both protestant
But he married again (20 year old daughter of Louis xiv) in 1686, she gave birth to a son 1688. Faced with a Catholic heir, and absolutist Fr. Regent- parliament decided they have to act
Complete the journey towards constitutionalism Parliament offered throne to oldest daughter
Mary (married to William of Orange- who offered Dutch army to force James out if necessary) James leaves (he and heirs become “pretenders” to the throne) William and Mary are crowned as co-rulers
“Glorious” b/c there is no bloodshed
William and Mary
Bill of Right Toleration Act
1688 W & M agree not to keep standing army w/o parliament’s consent. Parliament will meet every year and have elections every 3 years, have sole power to tax.
Says king CANNOT be RC
Ensures no Cruel and Unusual punishment and trial by Jury
1689 All forms of protestants have freedom of worship and may hold office
Did not offer those same rights to Catholics or Jews, but did not punish them for their faith either.
Act of Settlement Act of Union
1701 If W & M, or Anne (other sister) die w/o heir (which they did)- throne does not revert to heirs of James II, but to grandchildren of James I- the Electors of Hanover. George I of Hanoverian dynasty will become king in 1714
1707 United England and Scotland (reconquered by Charles II w/o much fuss) into Great Britain. Union was to prevent Stuarts from using Scotland as launching spot for invasion of England (which is what they were doing in Ireland) Scots fine- wanted access to Eng’s trade empire
NOT Democracy
Bloodless revolution- but not “by the people” Parliament only represented the top of society- voting rights were strictly limited to large landowners
Parliament represents the upper 10% at this point- but that is still 10% more than have a voice in most of the countries of Europe
John Locke: wrote to defend the Glor. Rev- saying that people have the right to overthrow a gov’t that is not defending their rights