Chapter 9Chapter 9

Classical Conditioning

Vs.

Operant Conditioning

Pavlov’s experiment Pavlov’s experiment (p. 243 of (p. 243 of book):book):

Pavlov’s experiment Pavlov’s experiment (p. 243 (p. 243 yellow book):yellow book):Pavlov’s experiment Pavlov’s experiment (p. 243 of (p. 243 of book):book): the tuning fork was a the tuning fork was a neutral stimulusneutral stimulus (nothing that (nothing that had to do with the response to had to do with the response to meatmeatprior to conditioning)prior to conditioning)

Unconditioned stimulus:Unconditioned stimulus:Event that leads to certainEvent that leads to certain predictable response withoutpredictable response without previous training.previous training.

Unconditioned response:Unconditioned response:The salivation—the reaction occurs The salivation—the reaction occurs naturally & automatically given naturally & automatically given unconditioned stimulus (a reflex)unconditioned stimulus (a reflex)

Conditioned stimulus (CS)Conditioned stimulus (CS)Neutral event which, Neutral event which, afterafter conditioning, leads to conditioning, leads to a a response.response.Conditioned response (CR) Conditioned response (CR)

The salivation caused by The salivation caused by the conditioned stimulus—the conditioned stimulus—the neutral event that would the neutral event that would not normally lead to not normally lead to salivationsalivation

Classical conditioningClassical conditioningControlling a response suchControlling a response suchthat an old response becomesthat an old response becomesattached to a new stimulus.attached to a new stimulus.Example in your lives:Example in your lives:Bells at school:Bells at school: begin/end passing begin/end passing periods or fireperiods or fire drills drills

Gradual acquisitionGradual acquisition (usually)—the (usually)—the conditioned, or learned, responseconditioned, or learned, responseis strengthened with each pairing of is strengthened with each pairing of the UCS and the CSthe UCS and the CS

GeneralizationGeneralizationAnimal responds to a secondAnimal responds to a second stimulus similar to the stimulus similar to the original CS, without prior original CS, without prior training in second stimulus.training in second stimulus.

Discrimination--Discrimination--Respond differently to Respond differently to different stimulidifferent stimuli

stop presenting food stop presenting food after sound of tuning after sound of tuning fork, sound gradually fork, sound gradually loses effect.loses effect.

ExtinctionExtinction

Classical conditioning in Classical conditioning in humanshumansHobart & Mollie Mowrer (1938) Hobart & Mollie Mowrer (1938) Bed-wetting:Bed-wetting: the the bell and pad bell and pad Alarm = UCS Alarm = UCS Waking = URWaking = URFull bladder = CSFull bladder = CSUCS + CS= UCS + CS= Child wakes (CR) Child wakes (CR)

Sickness after Sickness after eating something for the first timeeating something for the first time or or after not eating for some time—tend to after not eating for some time—tend to blame the new food.blame the new food.

Taste aversionsTaste aversions

Classical conditioning in Classical conditioning in humanshumans

Learning from the consequencesLearning from the consequences of behavior.of behavior.

Subject causes some change Subject causes some change in the environmentin the environment

Repeat or eliminate behaviorsRepeat or eliminate behaviors to get reward or avoidto get reward or avoid punishmentpunishment

Big Bang Theory

Reinforcement Reinforcement

stimulus or event that affects stimulus or event that affects the likelihood that an the likelihood that an immediately precedingimmediately preceding behavior will be repeated.behavior will be repeated.

Schedules of Reinforcement Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous schedule Continuous schedule Partial schedule Partial schedule BetterBetter

Fixed-ratio schedule Fixed-ratio schedule Reinforcement depends on a Reinforcement depends on a specified schedule of specified schedule of responses.responses.

Variable-ratio schedule Variable-ratio schedule Number of responses needed Number of responses needed for reinforcement changesfor reinforcement changes from one time to the next.from one time to the next.

Fixed-interval scheduleFixed-interval schedule Reinforce first response afterReinforce first response after a predetermined amount ofa predetermined amount of time has elapsed. Timetime has elapsed. Time interval always same.interval always same.

Variable-interval scheduleVariable-interval scheduleThe time at which the The time at which the reinforcement becomesreinforcement becomes available available changeschanges through- through- out the conditioning out the conditioning procedure.procedure.

More activityMore activity than fixed-than fixed- intervalinterval

Primary reinforcersPrimary reinforcers. . . satisfy or reduce a basic,. . . satisfy or reduce a basic,natural need, such as hunger.natural need, such as hunger.

Secondary reinforcers Secondary reinforcers conditioned reinforcers conditioned reinforcers because without the condition-because without the condition-ing process, it would be a ing process, it would be a neutral stimulus having noneutral stimulus having nopositive or negative value.positive or negative value.

Operant conditioning is not limited to Operant conditioning is not limited to simple behaviors—it is used to create simple behaviors—it is used to create new knowledge by building on old new knowledge by building on old knowledge.knowledge.

++

Shaping—the process in which Shaping—the process in which reinforcement is used to sculpt new reinforcement is used to sculpt new responses out of old ones.responses out of old ones.

My My assistant assistant coaches coaches and I use and I use shaping shaping when we when we teach our teach our team new team new plays or plays or

variations variations on existing on existing

plays.plays.

We do that by developing We do that by developing response chainsresponse chains: :

combinations of responses combinations of responses that follow one another in a that follow one another in a

sequencesequence..That’s right, Coach Posey. We start by That’s right, Coach Posey. We start by reviewing the basics. Then we teach reviewing the basics. Then we teach

the more advanced schemes, then how the more advanced schemes, then how to run a play with all 11 players and to run a play with all 11 players and then maybe some options. That’s a then maybe some options. That’s a

responseresponse chain—everything builds on chain—everything builds on something taught before itsomething taught before it..

Aversive control Aversive control Unpleasant consequences Unpleasant consequences or punishers.or punishers.

Negative reinforcement Negative reinforcement Takes away an aversive stimulus;Takes away an aversive stimulus;removes unpleasant consequences.removes unpleasant consequences.

I won’t let go I won’t let go until you until you

promise to promise to do my math do my math homework homework for a week.for a week.

OK, I’ll do OK, I’ll do your stupid your stupid homework, homework,

David.David.

Anything to get Anything to get his grubby his grubby

hands off me.hands off me.

All right! If All right! If I squeeze I squeeze

long long enough, I enough, I can get can get what I what I want.want.

Negative Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement

Punishment vs. negative reinforcement Punishment vs. negative reinforcement

Punishment is used to Punishment is used to decreasedecrease a a behavior behavior or reduce its probability of or reduce its probability of recurring.recurring.Negative Negative reinforcement—like positive reinforcement—like positive reinforcement—reinforcement—always increasesalways increases a a response’s probability of occurring againresponse’s probability of occurring again

Remember:Remember: positive and negative in this positive and negative in this context means add and remove. context means add and remove.

Escape conditioning Escape conditioning causes an unpleasant event to stop.causes an unpleasant event to stop.

Avoidance conditioning Avoidance conditioning preventing an unpleasantpreventing an unpleasantsituation from happening.situation from happening.

B. F. SkinnerB. F. Skinner

Written 1948; Written 1948; first printed in first printed in 19691969Walden Pond by H. D. ThoreauWalden Pond by H. D. Thoreau

Utopia: Thomas MoreUtopia: Thomas More

Behaviorism Behaviorism

Enclave in OhioEnclave in OhioWork 2-4 hours; remainderWork 2-4 hours; remainder follow own pursuitsfollow own pursuits

No possessions--communalNo possessions--communal

Planners, managers, andPlanners, managers, and scientists—menial tasks asscientists—menial tasks as wellwell

Self-contained communitySelf-contained community

No competitionNo competition

No “thank yous”No “thank yous”

A person’s work shall not taxA person’s work shall not tax his strength or threaten hishis strength or threaten his happinesshappiness

No personal freedom yet totalNo personal freedom yet total freedomfreedom

Children conditioned fromChildren conditioned from birth—communal rearingbirth—communal rearing

Behavioral engineering—Behavioral engineering— control physical and social control physical and social environmentenvironment

Imparting techniques of self-Imparting techniques of self- controlcontrol

Education—did not teach Education—did not teach subjects; taught techniquessubjects; taught techniques of thinking and learning.of thinking and learning.

Most people lived in separateMost people lived in separate quarters—even husbands quarters—even husbands and wives.and wives.

Your project:Your project:1.1.Form new groups of 4-5Form new groups of 4-52.2.Design a model classroom in Design a model classroom in

which all are happy and get an which all are happy and get an effective education BY effective education BY CONFORMING TO CONFORMING TO

ESTABLISHED RULES.ESTABLISHED RULES. 3.3.Establish rules and relate what Establish rules and relate what techniques you would use to get techniques you would use to get students to conform to them.students to conform to them.

4.Also discuss curriculum, activities4.Also discuss curriculum, activities and other aspects of educationand other aspects of education

Factors that affect learning Factors that affect learning

Feedback—Feedback—finding out the finding out the results of an action or results of an action or performanceperformance

Factors that affect learning Factors that affect learning

Feedback—finding out the Feedback—finding out the results of an action or results of an action or performanceperformance Transfer—transferring Transfer—transferring Skills you already have Skills you already have into appropriate responses into appropriate responses for another skillfor another skill

Factors that affect learning Factors that affect learning Transfer: Transfer: positive—transfer of a positive—transfer of a skill to help acquire another skillskill to help acquire another skillNegative transfer—a previously Negative transfer—a previously learned task hinders learning learned task hinders learning

Factors that affect learning Factors that affect learning

Practice—repetition of a taskPractice—repetition of a task—— binds responses together binds responses together

Physical & mental Physical & mental

I am I am Dr. Albert BanduraDr. Albert Bandura. In . In 1961 I performed an 1961 I performed an

experiment about experiment about social social learning—the process of learning—the process of

altering behavior by observing altering behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of and imitating the behavior of

othersothers..

Bobo doll Bobo doll

Children Children exhibited exhibited

aggressive aggressive behavior behavior

toward thetoward thebobo doll.bobo doll.

Edward Tolman and cognitive mapsEdward Tolman and cognitive maps

Cognitive learning—a form of altering Cognitive learning—a form of altering behavior that involves mental behavior that involves mental processes processes and may result from and may result from observation or imitationobservation or imitation..

a. Cognitive maps—a mental picture of a. Cognitive maps—a mental picture of spatial relationships spatial relationships or relationships or relationships between events (only way to account for a between events (only way to account for a rat quickly selecting an alternative route in rat quickly selecting an alternative route in a maze when the preferred route to the goal is a maze when the preferred route to the goal is blocked.)blocked.)

1. Cognitive learning—a form of altering 1. Cognitive learning—a form of altering behavior that involves mental behavior that involves mental processes and may result from processes and may result from observation or imitation.observation or imitation.

b. Latent learning—alteration of a b. Latent learning—alteration of a behavioral tendency that is not behavioral tendency that is not demonstrated by an immediate, demonstrated by an immediate, observable change in behavior.observable change in behavior.

a. Cognitive maps a. Cognitive maps

I’m not sure if I can find the doctor’s I’m not sure if I can find the doctor’s office. Wait a minute. I’ve been office. Wait a minute. I’ve been here before, and I remember that here before, and I remember that

building. OK, now I think I know how building. OK, now I think I know how to get there.to get there.

1. Cognitive learning—a form of altering 1. Cognitive learning—a form of altering behavior that involves mental behavior that involves mental processes and may result from processes and may result from observation or imitation.observation or imitation.

With this type of learning, With this type of learning, my fellow teachers and I my fellow teachers and I must be aware ofmust be aware of learned learned

helplessness:helplessness:too many rewards without too many rewards without effort, learned laziness; pain effort, learned laziness; pain no matter how much someoneno matter how much someonetries, that person gives up.tries, that person gives up.

1. Cognitive learning—a form of altering 1. Cognitive learning—a form of altering behavior that involves mental behavior that involves mental processes and may result from processes and may result from observation or imitation.observation or imitation.

2. Modeling: learning by imitating others 2. Modeling: learning by imitating others Much of teaching and coaching is Much of teaching and coaching is modeling. Here is another example. . .modeling. Here is another example. . .

Theory of Harvard Psychology Theory of Harvard Psychology Professor, Dr. Howard Gardner Professor, Dr. Howard Gardner

LinguisticLinguistic LearnerLearner The word player The word player

Logical/Mathematical Learner Logical/Mathematical Learner The Questioner The Questioner

The Spatial Learner The Spatial Learner The Visualizer The Visualizer

Musical Learner Musical Learner The Music Lover The Music Lover

Bodily/Kinesthetic Bodily/Kinesthetic The Mover The Mover

Interpersonal Learner Interpersonal Learner The Socializer The Socializer

Intra-personal LearnerIntra-personal LearnerThe Individual The Individual

The Naturalist Learner The Naturalist Learner Distinguish among and use Distinguish among and use features of the environment features of the environment

Much has been written about the deficiencies Much has been written about the deficiencies in American education today. Some in American education today. Some commentators cite the decline in test scores commentators cite the decline in test scores as evidence that the students of today do not as evidence that the students of today do not measure up to their peers of a generation measure up to their peers of a generation ago. Many reasons are given, including the ago. Many reasons are given, including the amount of time spent watching television amount of time spent watching television rather than reading or studying. Others rather than reading or studying. Others argue that television has had little or no argue that television has had little or no impact on the quality of education in the U.S.impact on the quality of education in the U.S. Write an essay Write an essay supporting both viewpointssupporting both viewpoints..Be sure to include what you have learned Be sure to include what you have learned in this chapter about how people learnin this chapter about how people learn..