CHAPTER 9 LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Q1: How is a language acquired?Q2: How can any language be acquired by children in a very short time?

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)Children & Language AcquisitionChildren can acquire a language in a very short time because there is something ( the LAD) endowed in the brain.

LADThe LAD will generate the grammar of a language so that language is acquired naturally just like a child acquiring the ability to walk.

Acquired vs. LearnedChildren do not need to learn, when times come or when their cognition development reaches to such an extent, they can speak.

OUTLINE

1. Research Methodology 2. Theories of Language Acquisition3. Stages of Language Acquisition4. Basis of Language Acquisition5. Summary

1. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The target of first language acquisition is focused on phonology, syntax, morphology & pragmatics. How to collect data is one of the most important steps. Two important methods for LA are:

(1) Observations(2) Experiments

1.1 Observationswhen & howFirst language acquisition began with observation.When and how are first sounds produced?

example-Yuanren Chao & his granddaughterYuanren Chao reported what he observed (weekly, 3 hours a week) about the language acquisition of his granddaughter, resulting in important documents.

(3) example-Timithy Shopen & his sonrecorded his son’s history of language acquisitionTimithy Shopen (a linguistic scholar) observed and recorded his son Paul’s history of language acquisition.

phonological, morphological & syntactical developmentsA detailed record on phonological , morphological, and syntactical developments was the basis of his diary, which has become one of the most important documents in the field of first language acquisition.

1.2 Experimentsa topic & knowledgeThe researcher of an experiment has to prepare himself with a specific topic and some basic knowledge about child’s language acquisition.

general procedures 1. select a topic2. review related literature3. preparation (ex. prepare pictures for words)4. recruit potential subjects5. have a pilot study 6. find more subjects to conduct a research

example 1. Select a Topic the acquiring of /s/ preceding /p, t, k/ of children under 3

2. Review Related Literature ---the /s/ preceding /p, t, k/ is quite different from the /s/ in other contexts ---the sound /s/ as in seat, sun, sock is acquired quite early for American children, about at 2-3 years old ---the /s/ before /p, t, k/, e.g. spoon, sky, stick, is not stable for most American children before 5

3. Preparation: prepare some pictures for words like following

a. soap [sop]

b. bus [bs]

c. spoon [pun]

4. Recruiting: recruit potential subjects under 3 from neighbors or kindergartens

5. A Pilot: have a pilot study

6. A Research: conduct a research with more subjects

2. THEORIES OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Some theories have been proposed with a view to characterizing the nature of language acquisition.

2.1 Theory of Imitation2.2 Theory of Reinforcement2.3 Theory of Grammar Construction

2.1 Theory of ImitationTenetThe tenet of imitation theory lies in the observation that language acquisition begins with imitation.

ImitateWhen children are exposed in a language environment, they imitate what is heard.

Imitate---copy their parents Most 4-5 years old children talk almost the same way of their parents. Tones, gestures, intonation, and manners are, to the effect, an exact copy of what their parents usually do.

---no models If parents are not able to speak, e.g. deaf or suffered from other diseases, children usually fail to acquire a language due to the fact that they have no models to imitate.

The WeaknessNot all language behaviors result from imitation(simplification, making errors & creation)

---simplification Simplification is an essential step for children’s language acquisition. e.g. banana [bnn] [nn] spoon [spun] [pun]

---errors Children can never avoid errors in their early acquisition. Most American children commit errors in tense. e.g. I wented to the park yesterday. I don’t want nothing.

---creation Most of children language is, amazing enough, full of creation. Some innovation can be found in their sentences or vocabulary. e.g. Children like to pretend to take their toys far away to the sky or to where they think is interesting.

2.2 Theory of ReinforcementBehaviorismThis theory is in spirit based on behaviorism. Reinforcement (+ / –)---positive: A positive reinforcement refers to speech like praising, encouraging, or saying something good to children when they achieve well. ---negative: Negative reinforcement refers to punishments or scolding or finding faults, by which children would realize that learning is important.

Two Disadvantages-1: having no idea of reinforcement Parents are concerned with is speech act or behaviors (polite in expressions, gentle in tones…).

e.g. Child: I wented to the park yesterday. Parent: No, that’s not true. You went to Grandma’s. care less: the wrong use of ‘wented’ care more: the true information---It is Grandma’s that the child went to, but not to the park. )

content > word / language Parents pay more attention to contents than what word or language is used.

Two Disadvantages-2: ignorance ignorance Before a certain age even if a child is taught how to speak the child may ignore what is taught.

example-other spoon vs. other one spoon Although the child has been reinforced (trained) in the use of ‘other spoon’, he still returns his own use of ‘other one spoon.’

CHILD: Want other one spoon, Daddy. FATHER: You mean, yow want “the other spoon? CHILD: Yes, I want other one spoon, please, Daddy. FATEHR: Can you say “the other spoon?” CHILD: Other…one…spoon. FATHER: Say…“other.” CHILD: Other. FATHER: Spoon. CHILD: Spoon. FATHER: Other…spoon. CHILD: Other…spoon. Now give me other one spoon.

No Need for Reinforcement After a certain age, depending on individual difference, a child would get rid of such errors, There is no need to have reinforcement.

Cognition The theory of reinforcement fails to account for the mystery of language acquisition. Cognition might play a role in this respect.

2.3 Theory of Grammar ConstructionThe LAD ( Language Acquisition Device)innate / part of the Universal Grammar (UG)biological / it grows (immature mature) The Application of the UGA language is acquired in lieu of the application of the UG.

The Application of the UG(exposure) exposed to a language environment (LAD) the language initiates the LAD (generating) a fixed x-bar structure will be generated (lexicon + subcategorization) acquired more & more lexicon + related subcategorization (sentence structure) a proper lexicon is inserted to the terminal node of a sentence structure according to the x-bar of that language

e.g. rule internalization Children: I “wented” to the park yesterday. Children: I “goed” to the park.

Children construct the rule (in a past tense):all the vowels are suffixed with -ed words like went, go, like…work the same adding -ed

more exposure more adjustmentThe more exposure to the language, the more children will adjust their rules.

Berko’s experiments:the use of -s for English plural nouns [s] : the suffix -s is added to words ending with a voiceless consonants (e.g. tapes, works, seats). [z]: the -s is suffixed to words ending with a voiced consonant, it is read voiced (e.g. combs, bags, beds).

participantsstudents of 1st,2nd, 3rd grades

(1) Berko drew a weird animal. Berko: This is a wug. There are two of them now. There are two ___ ? Students: There are two wugs [wgz].

(2) He drew another weird picture for an animal called bik. Berko: There are two of them. Now there are two ___ ? Students: There are two biks[bks].

Implicationsword-for-word vs. rule-for-ruleBerko’s experiments strongly argue for the theory of grammar construction that children do not acquire word for word, they acquire rule for rule.

grammar construction (+)It is grammar construction that helps account for why children can acquire a complicated language system in so short a time with so limited exposures.

3. STAGES OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Language acquisition is examined or observed according to different stages of children’s cognition.

3.1 Babbling3.2 One Word Stage3.3 Stage of Two Words3.4 Phonological Acquisition3.5 Syntactic Acquisition3.6 Semantic Acquisition

3.1 Babbling3-4 months---begin to show babbling ---only mothers can guess what is meant---bilabials alveolar consonants

6 months ---begin to use their mother tongue---suprasegments (tones, stress, & intonation) are acquired in the beginning

suprasegments segmentExperiments indicate that suprasegments are acquired before segments.

(1) in English (rising & falling intonation) Children of the English language are able to distinguish rising intonation from falling intonation.

(2) in Mandarin (rising & falling tone) In Taiwan, it has been noted that children of six months are able to distinguish the rising tone (the second tone) from the falling tones (the fourth tones) of Mandarin Chinese.

3.2 One Word Stage (12 months old)holophrastic sentencesChildren use one word for a sentence or a semantic unit, which is also called holophrastic sentences. e.g. milk I want milk. / That is milk.

substituted soundsChildren begin to have clearer sounds, though sounds are substituted.

e. g. Amhhl’s data

In (a), the [s] is substituted with [t], and in (b) & (c), [g] with [k], [l] with [g], respectively.

word adult Amhhl’s readinga bus [bs] [bt]b leg [lg] [gk]c lie [la] [da]

insertion or simplificationSometimes, insertion or simplification takes place at this stage.

e.g. a Chinese data

words adult Chia-chia’s readingfish [u_] [yu]

to see [kan] [ka:]pain [tung] [du:]

patterns of simplificationThere are patterns for children’s simplification in phonetics.

(a) syllable simplification: stop [tap], desk [dk],[kan] [ka:](b) substitution: bus [bt], sea [tiy], tung [du:](c) assimilation: tell [dl], big [pk]

perception productionperception + productionLanguage acquisition is composed of perception and production.

perception > productionChildren are much better in perception.

perception productionMost children are able to understand what is heard at this stage.

e.g. a dialogue GUEST: (pointing to fish in the aquarium) What is it? CHILD: It’s [fs] (fish ). GUEST: Oh, so it is [fs]. How beautiful [fs]. CHILD: No. It is [fs], not [fs]. GUEST: Is it not [fs]? CHILD: No. GUEST: No? It’s not [fs]. It is [f]. Child: (Happily) Yes. It is [fs].

perception (V) & production (X) The child, though failing to pronounce the [] sound, can fully understand fish should be pronounced [f].

3.3 Stage of Two Words (24 months)after 24 monthsChildren step to the stage of two words, using two words instead one for expression.e.g. Baby chair, Daddy car, Here doggie…

referring to different meaningsA phrase of two words can be referred to different meanings.e.g. Baby chair This is the baby’s chair. Baby (I) want to sit on the chair. Baby (I) am now on the chair.

telegraphic stageThe phrases are telegraphic without involving with morphological suffixes (e.g. -s, -ed, etc.) or syntactic derivations (e.g. nominative, objective, possessive inflections ). a telegraph (short & brief)be verbs (X) inflectional suffixes (X)morphological suffixes (X)

e.g. Get there by 10. Wait reply. I will get there by 10, and now I am waiting for your reply.

e.g. The two-word phrases are straightforward, without having any suffixes.

a. Daddy come (S+V)

b. Mommy cry (S+V)

c. Eat apple (V+O)

d. Sit car (V+O)

Stage of Three-Word (X)Three words (X)There is no stage of three-word in the literature of LA.

speak like adults doSoon after the stage of two words, children get to the world of infinity for they are able to speak like what adults do.more words (V)phonological changes (V)transformation in sentences (V)

3.4 Phonological Acquisitionafter 50 tokensChildren begin to build their own phonological knowledge after they are able to speak 50 tokens.

phonological knowledge phonetic inventoriesphonemes syllable structurestresstonal rules

bee [bi] & pea [pi]Children can distinguish voicing, e.g. bee [bi] from pea [pi], at an early stage. perception (V) production (X)---[s] or [] Even if they fail to pronounce [s] or [], children try to show that they are different in their mind. mouth [maut] & mouths [maudit] vs. mouse [maut] & mice [maut] An experiment shows that children who pronounce mouth and mouse identically [maut] distinguish them in the use of plural forms, mouths being [maudit], but mice being [maut].

communication > errorsSome sounds are not correctly spoken.All the errors, if they should be termed ‘errors,’ are of patterns and they never stop children from communication.

simplification strategiesChildren have got phonological knowledge at an early age though using simplification strategies.

Children have got the ideas of a syllable, an onset & a vowel (the nucleus-cannot be eliminated)

CV / CVC (C: consonant , V: vowel)Simple structure is preferred. aunt [/at] To get a CVC syllable structure, a glottal stop is usually inserted to the onset position of a syllable without onset.

spoon [pun], sprite [rat]When they encounter with a complicated onset (CCV), one of the consonants in the onset position will be deleted.

It occurs to children that stress plays an important role.

banana & brownieIn the simplification of syllables with a stress, The stressed syllable remains intact. e.g. banana [bn@n] nana [n@n] brownie [brawni] [bawn] / [bawni]

3.5 Syntactic Acquisitionthe stage of one wordThe difference between statements and interrogative sentences is indicated by falling and rising intonation. the stage of two words The syntactic structure is full of diversities.

all the samples (only two words) in syntactic structure & theta-role (quite different)inflectional or derivational suffixes (X)

Syntactic Structure Samplesa agent + V John go.b V + patient Eat apple.c V + locative Sleep bed.d possessor + possessed John bed.e determiner + noun This chair.

From the same ‘this chair,’ mothers can judge what it means simply by contexts or by intuition, which helps communication to be successful between parents and children.

this chaira. (I want to sleep on) This chair.b. This chair (hurts me).c. (I like ) This chair, (not that one.)

different meanings vs. mothers communicationThe different semantic meaning is revealed by intonation or contexts.

the later stage (after 3 years old) grammatical functions instead of the forms ---begin to use inflectional & derivational suffixes e.g. -ing, -s/es---can distinguish the -s e.g. possessive (John’s brother, Micky’s Dad) plural nouns (books, toys, seats) verb of the 3rd singular nominative (He walks away. John comes here.)

the acquisition of sentential difference LA maturednegation sentences, interrogative sentences, sentences involved with transformation and / or movements

3.6 Semantic Acquisitionlexicon, social & cultural background, and cognition developments (close related)

arbitrary Children acquire lexical semantics by viewing a concrete object or a picture.e.g. cats, birds & mouse cats, birds, and mouse are arbitrarily endowed with the reference to specific objects

connotationsocial / cultural background meanings differ e.g. mice cute & lovely (Disney publications / films) mice dirty & devil (live in a far remote country)

abstractSemantics is quite abstract for children. It takes time for children to adjust the abstract referential point in the beginning.e.g. space: this & that (the speaker’s ‘that’ vs. the listener’s ‘this’)

categories, semantic difference & special expressionsa basis (50 words-17 / 18 months) basic semantics

semantic deviationThe actual meaning of a lexicon is somewhat different from what occurs to children.

two types(1) overextension Overextension refers to cases in which the semantic meaning is overextended to a bigger domain.(2) underextension Underextension means that children have cut part of the semantic meanings out of the original lexical meaning.

(1) overextension dogs: all the animals walking with four feet oxen, pigs…dogs ducks: the quacking sounds quacking sounds ducks

(2) underextension the dog walking in the street vs. the picture of a dog

acquiring semantics more exposuremore and more social and cultural exposure leads children to catch what is meant for some specific words

adjusted & readjustedthe acquisition of special expressions has to be adjusted and readjusted before it is successfully acquired

4. BASIS OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Q1:Why can children learn so complicated a language in so short a time?Q2: What is the age for puberty?Q3: What is Universal Grammar?

4.1 Innateness Hypothesis4.2 Critical Period Hypothesis4.3 Universal Grammar

4.1 Innateness Hypothesis (Nativism)Q1: Why can children learn so complicated a language in so short a time? (due to universal grammar)

Chomsky’s theoryThere is a universal grammar present somewhere in our brain. It is biological in nature, thus it can grow, get mature, and fade away when we are old.Universal Grammar Due to universal grammar, children are able to acquire a language in a very short time and to produce certain sounds when they are old enough.

language acquisition & organ / cognitive maturitytwo cases indicate the close relationship between language acquisition and organ (or cognitive) maturity

(1) American children: [] fail to produce the alveolar palatal fricative [] before they are 2.5 years old

(2) children in Taiwan: nasalized vowels found in difficulties in producing nasalized vowels, e.g. [i] ‘yard’, [a] ‘to bend’

4.2 Critical Period Hypothesis Q2: What is the age for puberty? (between 8 to 12 years old)

before puberty (acquire a language) If Innateness Hypothesis is on the right track, it implies that children may acquire a language before puberty. after puberty (have difficulties) After 12 years old, children who want to learn or acquire a new language would have difficulties.

two cases in support of the Critical Period Hypothesis

(1) Genie’s case (14 years old, over the puberty ) ---a no language provided environment before 14 ---trained by specialists in many fields in vin (psychology, special education, and linguistics) acquired (V): simple words & sentences acquired (X): auxiliary (can, is, may, etc.) derivational or inflectional suffixes (-s, -er, -est, -ing, etc.)

(2) Isabelle’s case (6 years old, before the puberty) ---a deaf and mute mother ---unable to speak until 6 years old ---trained in a few years ---speak fluently

the contrast between Isabelle and Genie language can be acquired before puberty

Isabelle’s case & SLACritical Period Hypothesis (V)Isabelle’s case in support of the Critical Period Hypothesis comes from second language acquisition.

over the puberty & native-like (X)Most students or learners of a second or foreign language are over the puberty. Few of them could produce a second language in a native-like manner. age & LAThis further implies that age plays a central role in language acquisition.

4.3 Universal GrammarUG: phonetics, phonology, morphology & syntaxUniversal Grammar comprises of knowledge of phonetics, phonology, morphology, and syntax. phonology: distinctive features & syllable structureIn terms of phonology, distinctive features and syllable structure are part of the universal grammar, because all the languages in the world are built up on features as well as on syllables. words: prefixes, suffixes or reduplicationWords in most languages can be decomposed into prefixes, suffixes, or reduplication, etc.

5. SUMMARY

5.1 Two Research Methods5.2 Three Theories for LA5.3 Stages of LA5.4 Basic of LA

5.1 Two Research Methods Observations and experiments play a key role. (1) Observations Observation is very essential in the study of language acquisition. Most of the early studies are based on cases recorded and reported by parents. (2) Experiments Observation is time-consuming, and usually there is no specific focus. To compensate, experiment methods are developed.

5.2 Three Theories for Language Acquisition There are three theories proposed for the study of LA. (1) Imitation Theory It accounts for part of language acquisition, but it misses more on the creativity of child language. (2) Reinforcement Theory It emphasizes the relation between stimulus and response and the reinforcement, which can hardly be found in empirical studies (parents do not use it).(3) Grammar Construction Theory There is an innate LAD, which is part of the UG. The LAD is biological (immature mature).

5.3 Stages of Language Acquisition-1 (longitudinal viewpoint)(1) Babbling Before 10 months, children are babbling. (2) One-word Stage They begin to be at the one word stage when they use one word for a semantic unit. (3) Two-word Stage After two-word stage, children are fast in their language production. In a very short time, children can speak like adults.

5.3 Stages of Language Acquisition-2 (grammatical components) (1) Phonology Children have acquired what a phoneme is. (2) Syllable Structure They are also sensitive to syllable structure. (3) Syntax They use intonation for the distinction between statements & interrogative sentences. (4) Semantics Children may run into difficulties in overextension or underextension (the real target or object puzzled).

5.4 Two Hypotheses (LA & UG Two Hypothesis) LA is more or less based on the theory of UG, which claims that all the language share a certain aspects in grammar structure. (1) Innateness Hypothesis The language acquisition device is biologically given. It is no different from other organs in that it grows up, it matures, and it fades away. (2) Critical Period Hypothesis Language can be acquired without difficulties before puberty. After puberty, language will be acquired with difficulties.

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