Chapter 9: MemoryChapter 9: Memory

MemoryMemoryMemory:Memory:

persistence of persistence of learning over time learning over time via the storage via the storage and retrieval of and retrieval of information.information.

Gives us our Gives us our sense of self and sense of self and connects us to connects us to past experiences.past experiences.

The Unusual Case ofClive Wearing

What are your three most What are your three most vivid memories?vivid memories?

Vivid MemoriesVivid Memories

Flashbulb Flashbulb Memories:Memories: clear clear memory of an memory of an emotionally emotionally significant event or significant event or moment. moment.

Usually personally Usually personally meaningful or meaningful or historically significant. historically significant.

Episodic Memory:Episodic Memory: refers to your specific refers to your specific memory of events that memory of events that occur in your life. occur in your life.

Types of MemoriesTypes of Memories

Types of MemoriesTypes of Memories

Semantic Memory:Semantic Memory: General knowledge – General knowledge – facts you learn at facts you learn at school.school.

Types of MemoriesTypes of Memories

Implicit Memory:Implicit Memory:

The skills you have The skills you have learnedlearned

Memory as Information Memory as Information ProcessingProcessing

Memory is similar to a computer (write Memory is similar to a computer (write to file, save to disk, read from disk). to file, save to disk, read from disk).

3 Basic Steps to Memory:3 Basic Steps to Memory:

1.1. Encoding:Encoding: getting information into getting information into the memory system.the memory system.

2.2. Storage:Storage: the retention of the the retention of the encoded information over time.encoded information over time.

3.3. Retrieval:Retrieval: process of getting process of getting information out of the memory information out of the memory system. system.

Three Stage Processing for Three Stage Processing for EncodingEncoding

Stage One:Stage One: The initial recording of The initial recording of sensory information in the memory sensory information in the memory system is referred to as system is referred to as sensory sensory memory.memory.

Stage Two:Stage Two: sensory memories are sensory memories are processed into processed into short term memoryshort term memory your your activated memory which can only hold a activated memory which can only hold a minimal amount of information.minimal amount of information.

Stage Three:Stage Three: short term memories are short term memories are encoded into encoded into long-term memorylong-term memory, the , the relatively permanent and limitless relatively permanent and limitless storehouse from which we retrieve.storehouse from which we retrieve.

Concept of Short-Term Concept of Short-Term MemoryMemory

Short-Term Memory is limited in Short-Term Memory is limited in capacity and duration. capacity and duration.

You can only hold so much You can only hold so much information in your working memory information in your working memory at one given time. at one given time.

Magic Number tends to be 7 +/- 2.Magic Number tends to be 7 +/- 2.

12 Days of Christmas12 Days of Christmas

List as many of the gifts mentioned List as many of the gifts mentioned in the song as you can.in the song as you can.

12 Days of Christmas12 Days of Christmas

Answers:Answers:

1.1.PartridgePartridge

2.2.Turtle DovesTurtle Doves

3.3.French HensFrench Hens

4.4.Calling BirdsCalling Birds

5.5.Golden RingsGolden Rings

6.6.Geese A-layingGeese A-laying

7.7. Swans A-swimmingSwans A-swimming

8.8. Maids A-milkingMaids A-milking

9.9. Ladies DancingLadies Dancing

10.10.Lords A-leapingLords A-leaping

11.11.Pipers PipingPipers Piping

12.12.Drummers Drummers DrummingDrumming

Types of RehearsalTypes of Rehearsal

Encoding and storage can be aided by Encoding and storage can be aided by maintenance rehearsal:maintenance rehearsal: simple rote simple rote repetition of information in consciousness repetition of information in consciousness or;or;

even more successfully by even more successfully by elaborate elaborate rehearsal:rehearsal: processing of information by processing of information by relating it to something you already know relating it to something you already know well. well.

The PresidentsThe Presidents

On a sheet of paper, list the Presidents On a sheet of paper, list the Presidents of the United States in order. Do your of the United States in order. Do your best. best.

King of Memory Experiments King of Memory Experiments is Hermann Ebbinghausis Hermann Ebbinghaus

Wanted to research Wanted to research capacity of verbal capacity of verbal memory.memory.

Looked to study to see Looked to study to see capacity of peoples’ capacity of peoples’ memories to study memories to study strings of non-sense strings of non-sense syllables.syllables.

Ex: JIH, FUB, YOX, XIR, Ex: JIH, FUB, YOX, XIR,

Findings of EbbinghausFindings of Ebbinghaus1. 1. Practice makes perfect.Practice makes perfect. The more The more

rehearsal he did on day 1, the less rehearsal he did on day 1, the less rehearsal it took to learn the syllables rehearsal it took to learn the syllables again on day 2. Over learning increased again on day 2. Over learning increased retention.retention.

2. 2. The Spacing Effect:The Spacing Effect: the tendency the tendency for studying over a long period of time for studying over a long period of time produces better long term retention produces better long term retention than is achieved through massed study than is achieved through massed study or practice. SPACED STUDYING BEATS or practice. SPACED STUDYING BEATS CRAMMING!!!CRAMMING!!!

Findings of EbbinghausFindings of Ebbinghaus3. 3. Serial Position Effect:Serial Position Effect: our tendency our tendency

to recall best the last and first items in a to recall best the last and first items in a list. Ex: Presidentslist. Ex: Presidents

Explaining the Serial Position Explaining the Serial Position EffectEffect

Primacy Effect:Primacy Effect: explains how we explains how we remember concepts at the beginning remember concepts at the beginning of a list since these are often the of a list since these are often the terms we have seen the most when terms we have seen the most when reviewing. reviewing.

Recency Effect:Recency Effect: explains how we explains how we remember concepts at the end of the remember concepts at the end of the list a since these are the terms we list a since these are the terms we have seen most RECENTLY. have seen most RECENTLY.

MIDDLE IS FORGOTTEN MOST OFTEN. MIDDLE IS FORGOTTEN MOST OFTEN.

Encoding Activity Encoding Activity (Myers 9-3)(Myers 9-3)

Follow the instructions on the handout Follow the instructions on the handout as I read the 20 sentences. It is as I read the 20 sentences. It is important that you do not talk or important that you do not talk or communicate with anyone else during communicate with anyone else during this activity.this activity.

Types of EncodingTypes of Encoding

Semantic Encoding:Semantic Encoding: encoding encoding of meaning, including the meaning of meaning, including the meaning of words….yields best memory.of words….yields best memory.

Acoustic Encoding:Acoustic Encoding: the the encoding of sound, especially the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words….usually the least sound of words….usually the least effective.effective.

Visual Encoding:Visual Encoding: the encoding the encoding of picture images.of picture images.

Encoding ImageryEncoding ImageryImagery:Imagery: creating mental pictures, creating mental pictures,

helps effortful processing especially helps effortful processing especially when combined with semantic when combined with semantic encoding. encoding.

Recall of events is often colored by Recall of events is often colored by highest joys and lowest lows of events…highest joys and lowest lows of events…usually remember events differently usually remember events differently than you evaluated them at the time. than you evaluated them at the time.

Mneumonics:Mneumonics: memory aids, often use memory aids, often use vivid imagery and organizational vivid imagery and organizational devices. devices.

ROY G BIV ROY G BIV Every Good Boy Does FineEvery Good Boy Does FineHOMESHOMESPlease Excuse My Dear Aunt SallyPlease Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally

MNEMONICS

Some Examples of Some Examples of MneumonicsMneumonics

1. 1. Method of Loci:Method of Loci: memory device memory device used by linking items in a list with used by linking items in a list with physical locations in a place you are physical locations in a place you are familiar with. Ex: Link parts of brain familiar with. Ex: Link parts of brain with places in your house; with places in your house; Hypothalamus and refrigerator.Hypothalamus and refrigerator.

2. 2. Peg Word System:Peg Word System: works by works by prememorizing a list of words with prememorizing a list of words with numbers and associating new list with numbers and associating new list with the scheme. Ex: 1 is a gun, 2 is a zoo, the scheme. Ex: 1 is a gun, 2 is a zoo, 3 is a tree, 4 is a door, 5 is a hive. 3 is a tree, 4 is a door, 5 is a hive.

Try to remember these numbers:Try to remember these numbers:

14921776181492177618

61191412716119141271

9411963200194119632001

How confident are you How confident are you

that you correctly that you correctly memorized all 31 numbers?memorized all 31 numbers?

14921492

17761776

18611861

19141914

12-7-194112-7-1941

19631963

20012001

Now, try to remember these numbers:Now, try to remember these numbers:

Which was easier?Which was easier?

WHY?WHY?

group like things togethergroup like things togetherCHUNKING

How do you remember a phone #?95282953799528295379

You CHUNK it!

952- 829- 5379

Organizing Information for Organizing Information for EncodingEncoding

ChunkingChunkingorganizing items into familiar, organizing items into familiar,

manageable unitsmanageable unitslike horizontal organization- like horizontal organization- 17761492181219411776149218121941

often occurs automaticallyoften occurs automatically

HUMANISMHUMANISM – – a psychological a psychological approach that approach that focuses on focuses on

free willfree will

I want you to remember: So when you see the word “humanism” I tell you to think about:

Free Willy!

make it VISUAL

Imagine the route from your room Imagine the route from your room to the front door of your houseto the front door of your house

Place people / events along the Place people / events along the wayway

George Washington is in my bedroomGeorge Washington is in my bedroom

John Adams is right outside my bedroom doorJohn Adams is right outside my bedroom door

Thomas Jefferson is in the bathroomThomas Jefferson is in the bathroom

James Madison is at the top of the stairsJames Madison is at the top of the stairs

METHOD OF LOCI

Whose phone numbers do you Whose phone numbers do you remember? Why?remember? Why?

Make all kinds of material Make all kinds of material meaningful.meaningful.

Experiment - making meaning

make it

MEANINGFUL

““Columbus sailed the Ocean Blue Columbus sailed the Ocean Blue in 1492”in 1492”

The helping verbsThe helping verbs““The THALAMUS is a grand station, The THALAMUS is a grand station,

it sends and receives information.”it sends and receives information.”

make it

RHYTHMIC

FALSE MEMORIESFALSE MEMORIESAre you a reliable eyewitness?Are you a reliable eyewitness?

FALSE MEMORIESFALSE MEMORIESAre you a reliable eyewitness?

Recall vs. Recognition ActivityRecall vs. Recognition Activity

Retrieval: Getting Information Retrieval: Getting Information OutOut

Recall:Recall: a measure a measure of memory in which of memory in which the person must the person must retrieve information retrieve information learned earlier.learned earlier.Ex: Fill in the Blank.Ex: Fill in the Blank.

The hardest of the The hardest of the memory tasksmemory tasks

Retrieval: Getting Information Retrieval: Getting Information OutOut

Recognition:Recognition: a a measure of measure of memory in which memory in which the person need the person need only identify items only identify items previously previously learned.learned.Ex: Multiple ChoiceEx: Multiple Choice

The easiest of the The easiest of the three memory three memory taskstasks

Retrieval: Getting Information Retrieval: Getting Information OutOut

Relearning:Relearning: learning something learning something for the second (or for the second (or third or fourth or third or fourth or …) time. …) time.

Relearning an idea Relearning an idea or concept happens or concept happens more quickly than more quickly than learning something learning something the first time. the first time.

Retrieval CuesRetrieval Cues

Priming:Priming: activation, activation, often often unconsciously, unconsciously, of particular of particular associations of associations of memory. memory.

Retrieval CuesRetrieval Cues Context Effects Memory RetrievalContext Effects Memory Retrieval: able : able

to retrieve information better when you are to retrieve information better when you are in the same context you learned it in. in the same context you learned it in. Ex. Studying for a test in the same room you are Ex. Studying for a test in the same room you are

going to take the test in.going to take the test in.

Emotional/Mood Impact of Memory:Emotional/Mood Impact of Memory: State-Dependent Memory:State-Dependent Memory: information is information is

most easily recalled when in same “state” of most easily recalled when in same “state” of consciousness or mood it was learned in. consciousness or mood it was learned in. Ex. Under the influence of drugs or alcohol.Ex. Under the influence of drugs or alcohol. Feelings of happiness tend to bring back memories of Feelings of happiness tend to bring back memories of

another happy time. another happy time.

Retrieval CuesRetrieval Cues SchemasSchemas: mental representations that we : mental representations that we

form of the world by organizing bits of form of the world by organizing bits of informationinformation

Ex. Listen to the following story and than answer Ex. Listen to the following story and than answer the questions that follow. the questions that follow. (p. 382 of AP Book)(p. 382 of AP Book)

Ex. Car Crash Study by Elizabeth LoftusEx. Car Crash Study by Elizabeth Loftus

SchemasSchemas

Loftus had Loftus had individuals individuals watch car watch car accidents and accidents and then recorded then recorded results based results based on on questioning questioning procedures.procedures.

Depiction of actual accident

Memoryconstruction

Loftus’s ResearchLoftus’s ResearchSubjects were asked to reveal how fast Subjects were asked to reveal how fast

they thought the cars were going.they thought the cars were going.Question consisted of “How fast were the Question consisted of “How fast were the

cars going when they _______________ cars going when they _______________ each other.each other.

Loftus filled in the blanks with different Loftus filled in the blanks with different words including: bumped, collided, words including: bumped, collided, contacted, hit, or smash. contacted, hit, or smash.

Speed was elevated to great degree Speed was elevated to great degree when “smashed” was used as key verb when “smashed” was used as key verb and subjects were likely to remember and subjects were likely to remember broken glass when there was none. broken glass when there was none.