Chapter 9 Section 1

*Systems of Stratification

*Systems of Stratification

*Almost every society in the course of human history has separated its members on the basis of certain characteristics.

*Sociologists call this division of society into categories, ranks, or classes – social stratification.

*Levels of stratification and their characteristics differs from society to society.

*Ascribed statuses and achieved statuses can determine your social standing.

*Divisions based on such individual characteristics, abilities, and behaviors lead to social inequality – the unequal sharing of scarce resources and social rewards.

*Types of Stratification*Level of social inequality in society varies according

to the degree to which that society’s stratification system is open or closed.

*In a closed system, movement between the status levels is impossible.

*In an open system, movement between status levels is possible.

*Ease of movement depends on the degree of openness of the system

*Sociologists recognize 2 basic types of stratification systems in today’s societies:

*Caste systems

*Class systems

*Caste System*In a caste system, scarce resources and rewards are

distributed on the basis of ascribed statuses.

*A newborn child’s lifelong status – or caste – is determined by the status of his/her parents.

*Effort and talent may affect someone’s position within a caste, they cannot help the person move to a higher status

*Because status is inherited, a caste system has elaborate norms governing interaction among the different castes.

*To avoid problems, caste systems have traditionally forbidden the practice of exogamy, marriage outside one’s own social category.

*Generally practice endogamy, marriage within one’s own social category.

*Caste Systems*Caste systems were once a very common form of social

organization in South Asia.

*Indian caste system: Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras – Harijans (Untouchables)

*Indian constitution (adopted in 1950) outlawed the discrimination against the Untouchables.

* It also declared all Indians, regardless of background, were equal.

*Government programs set aside places in schools and government jobs for lower caste members.

*But dismantling the caste system has proved very difficult.

*Some blurring of distinctions among the castes has taken place in the cities due to modern transportation systems and work arrangements forcing missing among castes.

*However, in the rural areas, caste still plays a major role in organizing everyday life.

*Class systems*In a class system the distribution of scarce resources and

rewards is determined on the basis of achieved statuses.

*This linking means that individuals have some control over their place in the stratification system.

*Ability to move up social-class ladder as well as down

*Sociologists have defined social class in a various ways:

*Karl Marx theorists:

*Defines social class in terms of who owns the means of production (materials and methods to produce goods and services)

*Social class divided into 2 categories in this view:

* Bourgeoisie: owners of the means of production in a capitalist society

* Proletariat: workers who sell their labor in exchange for wages

* Bourgeoisie reaps all the profits, even though the proletariat does the work

*Dimensions of Social

Stratification

*Today many sociologists adopt Weber’s view of social stratification.

*They define social class as a grouping of people with similar levels of wealth, power, and prestige.

*Wealth

*An individuals wealth is made up of his/her assets – the value of everything the person owns – and income – money earned through salaries, investment returns, and other capital gains.

*In the USA, wealth is concentrated overwhelmingly in the hands of a small minority of the population.

*Richest 1% of population controls nearly one third of the country’s wealth.

*Power

*People with substantial wealth also usually possess considerable power.

*Power is the ability to control the behavior of others, with or without their consent.

*Power can be based on force, the possession of a special skill or type of knowledge, a particular social status, personal characteristics, or custom and tradition.

*Prestige

*Individuals can be ranked according to prestige as well as by the wealth and power they posses.

*Prestige is the respect, honor, recognition, or courtesy an individual receives from other members of society.

*Prestige can be based on any characteristics a society or group considers important.

*In the USA, occupation tends to be the most important determinant of prestige.

*Socioeconomic status

*To make the ranking of people according to wealth, power, and prestige possible, sociologists often calculate peoples socioeconomic status (SES).

*This is a rating that combines social factors such as educational level, occupational prestige, and places of residence with the economic factor of income.

*These combined factors are then used to determine an individual’s relative position in the stratification system.

*Explaining Stratification*Functionalist Theory – functionalists view stratification as a necessary

feature of the social structure.

*The functionalist explanation assumes that certain roles in society must be performed if the system is to be maintained.

*Higher rewards for the performance of these roles ensure their fulfillment – the more important the role and the more skill needed to perform the role, the higher the reward.

*Functionalists claim without varying rewards, may jobs would not be filled, and society could not function smoothly.

*Critics of theory say:

*Theory fails to consider that not everyone in society has equal access to such resources as education.

* Ignores the likelihood that there may be many talented people in the lower classes

*Cannot explain why rewards sometimes do not reflect the social value of the role

*Explaining Stratification

*Conflict theory:

*See competition over scarce resources as the cause of social inequality.

*Stratification comes from class exploitation.

*Various groups within society compete with one another for scare resources

*Once a group gains power, it is able to shape public policy and public opinion to its own advantage so it can maintain its position of power

*Critics:

*Fails to recognize that unequal rewards are based, in part, on the differences in talent, skill, and desire

Chapter 9 Section 2

*The American Class System

*The American Class System

*The U.S. has a fairly open class system. The law forbids discrimination based on ascribed characteristics such as race, religion, ancestry, or sex.

*In theory, all Americans have equal access to the resources needed for social advancement.

*However, the U.S. has a wide range of social classes, and the rate of social mobility is not equal for every segment of American society.

* Determining Social Classes

*Sociologists do not agree on the number of class divisions that exist in the U.S.

*3 social classes: upper, middle, and lower

*Other researches divide each of these 3 broad classes into upper and lower divisions

*Others use a five-category classification system of upper class, upper middle class, lower middle class, working class, and lower class

*Today most sociologists use a six-class system:*Upper class; upper middle class; lower middle class; working

class; working poor; and underclass

*Social Classes in the United States*Upper Class:

*1% of Population

*Controls a sizable proportion of the country’s wealth

*Generally can be divided into two groups:

*Old Money – refers to families that have been wealthy for generations (Rockefellers, Vanderbilt's, Kennedy’s); great bulk of their wealth comes from inheritance; yet in terms of social rank the family name and the accomplishments of previous generations are as important as the size of the fortune; members of this class born into an atmosphere of wealth and power

*New Money (newly rich) – generally have acquired wealth through their own efforts; not as prestigious as old money because it is not backed by the long family heritage

*Membership in upper class sometimes carries great power and influence

*Many members of this class hold traditional views and are politically conservative

*Upper Middle Class

*Members are primarily high-income businesspeople and professionals

*Most have a college education, and many have advanced degrees

*Money buys them larges houses, expensive cars, yearly vacations, college education for kids, and many added luxuries

*Class membership is generally based on income rather than on assets

*Career oriented

*Politically and socially active

*Power and influence limited to the community level and do not extend to the national level

*The Lower Middle Class

*Most individuals in this class hold white-collar jobs – work that does not involve manual labor

*Jobs require less education and provide a lower income than the jobs held by the upper middle class

*Jobs include nursing, middle management, sales, owners of small businesses

*Live a comfortable life but must work hard to keep what they have achieved

*Hold traditional values and are politically conservative

*The Working Class*Hold jobs that require manual labor

*Factory workers, tradespeople, less skilled jobs

*Some jobs pay as much or more than many of the positions held by members of the lower middle class

*Jobs do not carry much prestige

*Other working class people hold clerical, lower-level sales, and various service jobs that do not require manual labor – types of jobs called pink collar jobs because women have traditionally held them

*Few financial reserves thus unexpected crisis (such as medical emergencies or the loss of job) can push working-class individuals into lower class levels

*The Working Poor

*Work lowest paying jobs

*Jobs often temporary or seasonal such as housecleaning, migrant teamwork, and day laboring

*Even though they work hard, they rarely make a living wage

*Many depend on government support programs to make ends meet

*Most are high-school dropouts and because of their lack of education and skills their future prospects are often bleak

*Most not involve politically

*They believe their situation will remain the same no matter the party in power

*The Underclass

*Families that have experienced unemployment and poverty over several generations are considered part of the underclass

*Some members do work, but usually only at undesirable, low paying jobs

*Chief source of income is often public assistance

*Life for people in underclass is a day to day struggle for survival

*Social Mobility*Social mobility – the movement between or within social

classes or strata

*3 Types of Social Mobility

*1) Horizontal Mobility: movement within a social class or stratum. When an individual moves from one job to another of equal social ranking. An accountant moves from one firm to another

*2) Vertical Mobility: movement between a social class or stratum. Movement either upward or downward, depending on whether an individual moves to a higher or lower position in the stratification system. Promotion from secretarial to management position – may even move individual from working class to lower middle class

*3) Intergenerational mobility: status differences between generations in the same family – son or daughter of an automobile mechanic who becomes a doctor

Chapter 9 Section 3

*Poverty

*Poverty*The US is one of the richest countries in the world but

not everyone shares equally in the prosperity.

*More than 31 million people (11% of population) live below the poverty level. Many millions more make incomes that are too low to meet their basic needs but they make too much for public assistance

*Poverty: standard of living that is below the minimum level considered adequate by society

*Poverty is a relative measure. What is considered poverty in one society might be regarded as an adequate standard of living in another

*American Poverty*Poverty level is determined by calculating the cost of

providing an adequate diet and then the figure is multiplied by 3 because research has indicated that poor people spend a third of their income on food

*Characteristics that affect poverty:

*Age – children have the largest percentage in poverty

*Sex – 57% of the poor are women; women head about one half of all poor families

*Race and Ethnicity – Regardless of age or sex, African Americans and Hispanics in the U.S. are more likely than whites to live in poverty

*The Effects of Poverty

*Life chances: likelihood that individuals have of sharing in the opportunities and benefits of society

*Life chances include health, length of life, housing, and education

*Life chances vary by social class – the lower the class the less opportunity individuals have to share in the benefits of society

*Poor Americans are at a serious disadvantage for health and length of life

*Poor people have shorter life expectancies than do other members of society

*Life expectancy refers to the average number of years a person born in a particular year can expect to live

*The Effects of Poverty

*Poor children are more likely to be exposed to environmental hazards such as lead paint

*Poor Americans educational life chances are limited

*Divorce rates are high among low-income families

*Poor Americans are also more likely to be arrested, convicted, and sent to prison for crimes

*Poor people more likely to be victims of crimes

*Government Responses to Poverty

*The government attempts to reduce inequality through various social-welfare programs

*Programs use one of two approaches – either transfer payments or government subsidies

*Government uses transfer payments to redistribute money among various segments of society

*This redistribution involves taking a percentage of the money collected through taxes and then funneling it to groups that need public assistance such as those who are poor, unemployed, elderly, or disabled

*Major transform programs: Social Security Income and Temporary Assistance for Need Families

*Subsidies: transfer goods and services rather than cash

*Food Stamp Program – people receive coupons/cards that can be used to buy food