34

CHAPTER II

ADVAITA VEDËNTA – A BRIEF SKETCH

Ved¡nta means the end of Vedas. Advaita Ved¡nta is one version of

Ved¡nta. Advaita Ved¡nta has an important position in Indian philosophy. This

is connected with the name of the great philosopher áa´kar¡c¡rya. He was born

during the 8th century B.C., in the village of Kalady, South India. He defeated

many contemporary philosophers in philosophical discussions. Advaita is often

translated as non-dualism that means non-secondness. Although áa´kara is

regarded as the promoter of Advaita Ved¡nta, the origin of this school is dated

before the arrival of áa´kara.

Among Indian systems of philosophy Advaita tradition existed in the

early part of the first millennium. Only two names that would have some

historical certainty are Gau·ap¡da and Govinda Bhagavatp¡da. Gau·ap¡da was

the first systematic exponent in Advaita Ved¡nta; he is the teacher of áa´kara’s

teacher, and is the author of M¡¸·£kyak¡rika, the first systematic book on

Advaita Ved¡nta.

The essential philosophy of Advaita is an idealist monism. According

to Advaita, Brahman is ultimate reality. The world has no separate existence

apart from Brahman. According to áa´kara, there is only a single element (sat)

in the universe from which everything developed1 because of the power of m¡y¡.

1. Sadeva somyedamagra ¡s¢t, C.U. 6.2.1

35

Brahman associated with m¡y¡ is called God: the creator, preserver and

destroyer of the world.2 The appearance of the world is false; it is the

modification of m¡y¡, which is neither existent nor non-existent. This

indefinable knowledge is the means of liberation.

The important source books of Advaita Ved¡nta are the UpaniÀads, the

Brahmas£tra and the Bhagavadg¢t¡. These three are known as Prasth¡natraya.

áa´kara wrote commentaries on Prasth¡natraya. All these books explicate first

about non-duality of Brahman, secondly the non-difference between Brahman

and j¢va. Finally, they express that the empirical world is not real, only

Brahman is real.

The main principles of the Advaita Ved¡nta are the reality, the identity of

Brahman, J¢va, M¡y¡, Ì¿vara, Vivarta and MokÀa. All these are set forth in the

K¡rik¡ of Gau·ap¡da. In this K¡rik¡, an admirable summary of the teachings of

Advaita is found. This K¡rik¡ already contains the main concepts of Advaita

Ved¡nta. The basic doctrines of Advaita Ved¡nta are supported by ¿ruti.

In the Brahmas£trabh¡Àya, áa´kara maintains the view of Vivartav¡da. It

is meant that the world is an appearance of Brahman. Advaita Ved¡nta is also

called the M¡y¡v¡da. áa´kara stated that Brahman is the only reality. He

attempts to prove the unreality of the world. He established the identity of J¢va

2. Yato v¡ im¡ni bh£t¡ni j¡yante, T.U., 3.1.1

36

with Brahman. In Ved¡nta, Brahman is real, but the world is illusory and the

individual self is non-different from Brahman.3

áa´kara prescribes that one who seriously studies Veda must have

followed the four fold qualifications. The four fold qualifications are the

following.

1. Nity¡nityavastuviveka (the ability to distinguish between the

external and the transitory.)

2. Ih¡mutr¡rthaphalabhogavir¡ga (aversion towards the enjoyment

of fruits of ones actions in this world and the other world.)

3. áam¡diÀa¶kasampatti (the attainment of the group of six

attributes) that are ¿ama (calmness), dama (self control), uparati

(self-withdrawal), titikÀ¡ (forbearance), sam¡dh¡na (constant

concentration on Brahman), áraddh¡ (faith in the instruction of

the scriptures and the Guru)

4. MumukÀutva (the yearning for freedom.)

áa´kara emphasizes the reality of Brahman, which is unqualified and

unconditioned. He deals with the God (Ì¿vara), the individual soul (j¢va) and

m¡y¡, which is neither real, nor unreal, nor both real and unreal. The Brahman,

associated with m¡y¡ is called God, and the J¢va is in essence, identical with

Brahman. áa´kara recognized the empirical reality of the individual soul that is

3. Brahmasatyam jaganmithy¡ , V.C., ¿lokam 30.

37

J¢va. He maintained the P¡ram¡rthikasatt¡ of the unconditioned and

unqualified Brahman. The theory of causation according to áa´kara is

Vivartav¡da. It is also known as M¡y¡v¡da. The effect is an appearance of the

cause. The cause of the world, which is Brahman, is real and the effect, which is

the world, is its appearance. According to áa´kara, Ëtman is the universal self

and J¢va is the individual self.

áa´kara stated that worship is not the direct method of the realization of

Brahman, but the way of knowledge is the direct method of the realization of

Brahman. It consists in hearing the instruction of a teacher (árava¸a), reflecting

on its meaning (Manana) and meditating on truth with single-minded devotion

(Nidhidhy¡sana). Ved¡nta shows the attributes of the non-self (An¡tm¡), which

are falsely superimposed upon the self (Ëtman). According to áa´kara, the

universe of names and forms cannot be denied as a fact of everyday experience

for people under the spell of ignorance.

áa´kara describes God, the individual souls and the world as

appearances due to the indefinable principle called m¡y¡. God is Brahman

associated with m¡y¡ in its excellent aspect4. The J¢va is Brahman associated

with m¡y¡ in its inferior aspect. He regards the J¢va, non-different from

Brahman.

4 M¡yopahitamcaitanyam ¢¿varaÅ

38

áa´kara had complete faith in the authority of ¿ruti. To understand

philosophy of áa´kara, the concepts of Brahman, J¢va, Ì¿vara, M¡y¡, Vivartav¡da

and MokÀa are to be considered. Advaita Ved¡nta is summarized in the

principle: Brahman is the only reality. The world is ultimately false and the

individual soul is non-different from Brahman.5

2.1. Brahman

The upaniÀads negate all worldly objects through the process of

elimination: ‘Neti Neti.’6 What remains at last is Brahman.7 According to

áa´kara reality must be one without second and that reality is alternately called

Brahman. Only ¿ruti can yield the means for the intuition of Brahman, the

infinite, since it is free from all defects. If these are anything real, logic demands

that it should be not contradictable for the past, present and future.8

In the upaniÀads there is a beautiful description of Brahman. The

Taittir¢ya upaniÀad Bh¤guvalli begins with the dialogue between Bh¤gu and

5. Brahma satyam jaganmithy¡, quoted áa´kara’s Vivekac£d¡ma¸i , ¿lokam

20

6. B.U., 2.3.6.

7. V. Sisupalapanicker, Dvaita Advaita polemics, Swantham books, Trivandrum, 2004.

8. Trik¡lab¡dhyatvam satyatvam.

39

Varu¸a. Bh¤gu asked his father Varu¸a about Brahman. Varu¸a answered-

‘(understanding) food, vital breath, sight, hearing, mind speech (as Brahman).’

He further said- ‘That verily from which beings are born, that by which those

that are born live, into which they finally reach and merge-seek to know that.

That is Brahman.’ The same upaniÀad again said ‘the knower of Brahman

attains the supreme.’9 Realization of Brahman is the ultimate goal of

man’s life.

According to áa´kara the source of this world is Brahman. It is the

material and efficient cause of the world.10 Brahman is also known as Atman.11

The Brahman is one without second12. The ultimate reality is neither objective

nor subjective. Advaita imparts that the individual is one with the universal.

The existence of Brahman is proved through the self of all beings. Brahman is

the truth, the knowledge and the infinite13. The finite is always passing beyond

itself, but there is nothing which the infinite can pass into. If it did so it would

no longer be the infinite. If we call it infinite, it is not to be equated with a mere

negation of the finite. Human beings cannot understand the nature of

9. Brahmavid¡pnoti param. T.U. Brahm¡nandavalli.

10. Yathor¸an¡bhiÅ s¤jate. B.U., 2.1.10.

11. Ëtm¡ ca Brahma. S.B.S., 1.1.1.

12. Advit¢yam Brahma., T.U., 2.1.5.

13. Satyam jµ¡namanantam Brahma. Tai.Up. 2.1.5.

40

Brahman until we let go the formal and the finite. Brahman is the only being or

reality. A thing which does not change the nature that is as curtained to be its

own is called Satyam. ‘Satyam Brahma’ distinguishes Brahman, from

changeable things. Jµ¡nam is knowledge. It is used to rule out all

instrumentality. It is not limited by time, space and objects.14 It should not be

subjected to change and what is give existence in time is destined to end and

that which changes and it have and cannot be real. It is very difficult to define

Brahman. It is described as incomprehensible by word and mind.15 It is full of

bliss.16 For, the real nature of Brahman is incomprehensible and hence,

inexpressible, it can be known only through realization. The definitions of an

object are of two kinds of essential characteristics (svar£palakÀa¸a) and

secondary characteristics (ta¶asthalakÀa¸a). Existence, knowledge and bliss

are the essential characters.17 They constitute its nature of having no parts and

properties. The later upaniÀads says ‘saccid¡nandam brahma.’18 Sat is

14. De¿ak¡laparicchinnatvam.

15. Av¡´manasagocaram

16. Ënando brahmeti vij¡n¢y¡t. Tai.Up. 6.6.

17. Satyam jµ¡namanantam brahma iti Brahma¸o lakÀa¸astham

v¡kyam. S.B.T.U. 2.

18. Saccid¡nanda lakÀa¸aÅ, AparokÀ¡nubh£ti, 24

41

indicating the positive character of Brahman (being), consciousness (cit) shows

that it is spiritual and ¡nanda stands for peace. Brahman is atributeless

(nirgu¸a). However consciousness and bliss constitute its svar£pa lakÀa¸a, they

are not separate qualities of Brahman. Sat, cit etc. are Brahman, but they

appear to be its attributes. Hence sat etc., can be conceived in themselves as far

as each goes as a possessor of attributes and an attribute with regard to itself.

Bliss, experience of objects and eternity are attributes. Although they are not

separate from Brahman, they appear to be so.19

The ta¶asthalakÀa¸a is based on the relation between the world and the

individual selves. Several passages teach that the world has only an appearance;

it is not an ultimate reality. Being the cause of the origin, sustenance and

dissolution of the universe, it is the secondary characteristic of Brahman.20

Existence etc. are independent characteristics of Brahman. Likewise origin,

sustenance and dissolution of the universe can be taken as separate definitions

of Brahman. The beings are born out of Brahman, live by Brahman and finally

become one with Brahman.21

19. V. Sisupalapanicker, Dvaita advaita polemics, Swatham Books, Trivandrum, 2004.

20. Jagajjanm¡dik¡ra¸atvam, V.P. p. 153.

21. T.U., 3.1.1.

42

Brahman is being of all beings. It is free from negation, alteration and

limitation. The world is negated by the knowledge of Brahman. Brahman is

devoid of homogeneous, heterogeneous and internal differences.22

Truth is never sublated. Absolute truth can never be contradicted.

Appearance is relative existence, but Brahman is absolute existence. Brahman is

opposed to all empirical entities. It is not conditioned by space or time. It

cannot to be described by the positive qualifications. So to describe Brahman is

to negate all worldly conceptions of it; for example nirgu¸a nirvi¿eÀa,

nirahamk¡ra etc. The existence of world is sublated by the knowledge of

Brahman. A negation is only an affirmation of absence. Truly, negative

judgment is simply negative; the negative is excluded because of a positive. The

principle of ‘Neti Neti’ does not negate Brahman; it negates only the

characteristics ascribed by thought to Brahman. Brahman is the underlying

reality beyond sense, thought and language. 23 It is beyond human experience

and it is beyond all limitations.24 It is one which is attributeless and

indeterminate real being. Indeterminate Brahman is apprehended by right

22. Saj¡t¢yavij¡t¢yasvagatabhedarahita.

23. A¿abdamaspar¿amar£pamavyayam, K.U., 1.3.15.

24. Sarvasiddh¡ntas¡rasa´graha, 2.

43

intuition.25 It is the supreme reality. From this negative descriptions it shows

that Brahman is so vast and it is so different from worldly things.

Brahman is the only reality. Brahman is everything and everything is

Brahman. The proof of the reality of Brahman is that it is the ground of the self

of each one. There is no duality. In the UpaniÀads, Brahman is defined as the

pure being, the eternal unchanging reality. One, who knows Brahman, becomes

Brahman. Brahman is nirgu¸a, nirvi¿eÀa and sat. The Parabrahman is the

supreme reality; there is nothing higher than this. The entire universe is

Brahman itself. It has no activity. It has no quality and it is indefinable. To

attribute any quality to Brahman is to limit it; while Brahman is beyond all

limitation. Brahman is eternal, unmixed, beyond empirical pleasure, pain and

all in one26.

Brahman is the birthless, deathless, eternal and real substance in every

individual.27 It is the unchanging reality. Brahman being a self identical and

self complete reality, never fails to be and never undergoes any change like

25. Saj¡t¢yavij¡t¢yasvagatabhedarahitam.

26. Nirguºo niÀkriyo nityo nirvikalpo niraµjanaÅ

Nirvik¡ro nir¡k¡ro nityamuktosmi nirmalaÅ, Sri áa´kara Ëtmabodha.

33

27. Na j¡yate mriyate v¡ vipa¿cit

44

growth, decrease, etc. Brahman is a pure consciousness. It is unaffected by time,

space and it is limitless. The unchanging reality in the individual is called

Ëtman. The unchanging reality in the universe is called Brahman. It alone

exists; names and forms are illusory. One sees multiplicity on account of

ignorance. It is not in any point of space, though it may be said to be

everywhere, since all things imply and depend on it. Brahman has no genus, it

possesses no qualities, and it does not act, and is related to nothing else. It is

devoid of anything of a kind or of a different kind and has no internal variety.28

When the Brahman is said to be nirgu¸a, this means it is trans-empirical, since

gu¸as are products of Prak¤ti and the Brahman is superior to it. The Brahman

is eternal because its perfection and completeness are related to time. It is the

highest truth, perfect being and fullest freedom. Brahman is the only existent

Being if at all something exists. The definition of Brahman as saccid¡nanda29 is

imperfect though it expresses the reality in the best way possible. UpaniÀads

give very fantastic description of Brahman. In the Taitir¢ya UpaniÀad Bh¤gu

approached his father Varu¸a and asked him to teach about Brahman. Varu¸a

answered - from which beings are born, which those that live and which they

28. Saj¡t¢yavij¡t¢yasvagatabhedarahitam.

29. Satyam jµ¡namanantam brahma, T.U., 2.1.5.

45

finally reach and seek, know that is Brahman and again this UpaniÀad says

that one who knows Brahman attains the supreme.30 Realization of Brahman is

the ultimate goal of man.

The UpaniÀads speak about the parabrahman and the Aparabrahman.

The former is nirup¡dhi, nirvi¿eÀa and nirgu¸a. The latter is opposite to it.

Parabrahman is niÀprapaµca and Aparabrahman is saprapaµca. Existence,

consciousness and bliss are the essential characters of Parabrahman. The

Aparabrahman is also called Ì¿vara. Brahman conditioned by m¡y¡ is Ì¿vara31,

who is the creator, preserver and destroyer of the empirical world. Creation is an

unreal appearance due to avidy¡. It does not affect the non-dual, identical

nature of the Brahman.

Brahman is pure consciousness. It always illumines itself and

illuminates other objects of the world. All luminaries follow Brahman and with

its glory everything else is brightened.32 Brahman is one without second. No

plurality exists in Brahman.

Two forms attributed to Brahman are unqualified Brahman and

qualified Brahman. The unqualified Brahman is free from all limitations.

30. Brahmavid¡pnoti param, T.U.

31. Mayopahitam caitanyam ¢¿varaÅ

32. Mu.U., 3.15.

46

Qualified Brahman is intended for worship. Brahman associated with m¡y¡ is

sagu¸a Brahman which is also called Ì¿vara. It is the controller and dispenser of

the world and individual souls.

The knowledge of Brahman is the supreme end of life. Inference cannot

prove the existence of Brahman independently of the ¿ruti, which is an

embodiment of experience. Brahman is known from the ¿ruti. Brahman is

eternally fulfilled. It is the full reality. Brahman does not depend upon any

means of knowledge. It transcends the distinction of subject and object. It is the

eternal light of consciousness which manifests the entire universe.

The absolute is, without forms and without any element of duality or

gu¸as. In the supreme Brahman there is a natural dissolution of all relativities.

The infinite is not an object constructed by philosophy; it is an ever-present part.

Brahman is the ultimate cause of this universe. In the philosophy of áa´kara acit

is not an integral part of Brahman, but it is the creation of m¡y¡.

2.2. J¢va

The pure consciousness getting reflected in different minds is j¢va. The

individual self or J¢va is an empirical reality. The Ëtman presiding over the cage

of the body and senses and becoming associated with the fruit of work is called

j¢va. According to Advaita Ved¡nta, Brahman is the only ultimate reality. So

47

J¢va is not an ultimate reality. This is the empirical self. Each J¢va has its own

peculiar features. The J¢va is identical with the absolute. áa´kara describes the

individual self as a reflection of Brahman. The reflection of the flower in the

mirror is an example. áa´kara says that J¢va is Brahman, limited by internal

organ33. J¢va represents the spiritual element in the universe.

J¢va is the self in association with the ego and other personal experience.

If one undergoes any suffering, it is the cause of world experiences. J¢v¡tman is

the reflection of the supreme self in the human constitution of body. The

relation of Ì¿vara to the world is exactly parallel to that of the J¢va to its own

organism. The individual is the Ëtman limited by the adjuncts of the body, the

sense organs, the mind, the intellect and the ego, when the adjuncts are

destroyed, J¢va vanishes and Ëtman persists. All living things possess naturality

of J¢va. J¢va is the individual soul. It is the doer and enjoyer of the pleasure and

pain. According to áa´kara J¢va is not different from Brahman. The J¢va hood

is created through the ignorance. The causal body of the J¢va is nescience and as

qualified by the body, it is known as Pr¡jµa. The K¡ra¸a¿ar¢ra is so called

because, as a particular aspect of prak¤ti which is the parent of the subtle and

gross bodies, it is the cause so it is destroyed by the true knowledge. The subtle

33 Antakara¸¡vaccinnam caitanyam j¢vaÅ .

48

body or the S£kÀma¿ar¢ra consists of the five sense organs (jµ¡nendriya) the

five of action, (karmendriya) the five vital airs, (pr¡¸a, ap¡na, vy¡na, ud¡na,

sam¡na), mind and intellect. áa´kara says that, all living beings, it is evident, are

born from food which when eaten is converted into blood and semen (ann¡d

bhavanti bh£t¡ni)34. It is through what is eaten and drunk that the J¢va stays in

the body and the character of what is eaten and drunk is always, in keeping with

the J¢va, is manifold. Each J¢va has its own particular feature although agreeing

with the rest of its class in many respects. J¢va’s essential associates, however, is

avidya. The individual’s share of m¡y¡ is the adjunct of Ì¿vara. The whole

universe is the effect of m¡y¡.

Among the Advaitins some hold that there is only one J¢va (ekaj¢vav¡da)

and some others hold that there are many J¢vas. The first section argues that,

there is only single J¢va giving life to only one body. The other bodies are non-

animated like the ones seen in dream. But áa´kara accepted the theory of

Anekaj¢vav¡da. The J¢va which we have assumed to be many are the

consequences of avidy¡ only empirically one so, and the individuality

characterizing each is due to its adjuncts such as the body and the senses.

Essentially they are but one, for each is like the supreme reality. That is the

34. B.G., 3.14.

49

significance of ‘tattvamasi.’35 áa´kara describes the J¢va basically as Brahman

itself.

2.3. Ì¿vara

Brahman associated with m¡y¡ is called Ì¿vara. Ì¿vara is considered as

the creator, sustainer and destroyer of the universe. It witnesses everything in

the world and leads all beings properly. It is also known as sagu¸a Brahman.

The logical belief that all facts belong to a system, expressing the mind of God is

only an idea. We can infer only a finite creator from the finite world. They

assume the universality of the principle that every effect has a cause36. Brahman

associated with m¡y¡ is sagu¸a Brahman which is also Ì¿vara37. M¡y¡ is the ¿akti

inherent in Ì¿vara through which he manifests the objective world with all the

diversity of names and forms. If Ì¿vara is the cause of the world, he must be

within the space time frame work. Ì¿vara is ever free from avidy¡. The

limitations of Ì¿vara do not affect his knowledge. Residing the hearts of all

living beings, it is controlling the whole universe. Ì¿vara is omnipresent and

omnipotent. Ì¿vara is the material cause and the efficient cause of the world.

35. Cch¡ndogyopaniÀad. 6.8.7

36. Yatk¡ryam tat sakart¤kam.

37. Mayopahitam caitanyam ¢¿varaÅ

50

Though it appears as different from Brahman, actually there exists no difference

between the two. It continues to existence as a witness to all activities of the

world. If such being exists, it would be unable for seeable extension of our

knowledge to be determined. His nature and existence, such a God, more over,

working through, instruments analogous to the human ones, is neither infinite

nor omnipotent. Ì¿vara is the material cause and efficient cause of the world.

According to Advaitin, m¡y¡ is the source of the physical universe. But it cannot

act by itself. This source, for reasons already assigned, altogether depends upon

the s¡kÀin. The very fact that it serves as the cause of the visible universe shows

that it should be so far positive. It is again, on the analogy of avidy¡, described

as having two powers- ¡vara¸a and vikÀepa. In its vikÀepa power it projects

names and forms constituting the world. Nature does not veil spirit from

Ì¿vara. Ì¿vara has no selfish desires in creating the world, he is called akart¤.

Ì¿vara is always free from avidy¡. The limitations of Ì¿vara do not affect

knowledge. Ì¿vara is the highest reality. It is Brahman endowed with the power

of m¡y¡ that manifests itself as Ì¿vara. Ì¿vara is the lord of the universe. He is

the lower manifestation of Brahman. Ì¿vara is an object of prayer and worship.

From the p¡ram¡rthika point of view, Ì¿vara is also an appearance.

51

Advaitins cannot explain the origin of Ì¿vara, because it is being

associated with m¡y¡, which is not reality but appearance. In Vivara¸a view,

Ì¿vara is the material cause of the world. Ì¿vara being infinite is regarded as

both the efficient and material cause of the world. Advaitins said that, the

omnipotent and omniscient Ì¿vara is the cause of the universe and must be

rejected. áa´kara considers God as consciousness or spirit conditioned by m¡y¡

for it is adjunct of Ì¿vara. God has reality only on the empirical level; though in

the final analysis it has only relative reality. Ì¿vara is the supreme person.

Brahman is the supreme reality. When Brahman is realized, all the objects

associated with Ì¿vara are destroyed. Here in, it is understood that Ì¿vara is the

effect of Brahman. The highest truth is Brahman. Ì¿vara is illusory impositions

on Brahman. The Advaita Ved¡nta Ì¿vara has little importance. The highest

truth is Brahman, both J¢va and Ì¿vara are but illusory impositions on it.

2.4. M¡y¡

áa´kara uses the term m¡y¡ in the sense of illusion and the power of Lord.

M¡y¡ is one of the chief concepts in Advaita Ved¡nta. áa´kara’s theory of

causation is also called M¡y¡v¡da or vivartav¡da. To find out the relation between

the real Brahman and the unreal world is the main problem of the Indian

Philosophers especially Advaitins. Through the help of the M¡y¡v¡da the

52

problem could somehow be solved. The concept of m¡y¡ as conceived by áa´kara

has helped him to a great extent in establishing his theory of absolute monism.

So through the doctrine of M¡y¡v¡da, Advaita Ved¡nta is supreme. M¡y¡v¡da

proved that Brahman is the only absolute reality and the world is m¡y¡ and

mithy¡. According to áa´kara Ved¡nta, the appearance of world created by m¡y¡,

is not completely unreal. M¡y¡ is the peculiar energy of Brahman. The relation

of m¡y¡ and Brahman is unique and is called t¡d¡tmya.38 Ì¿vara, with his power

of creation, created the world. So Ì¿vara is the nimittak¡ra¸a of the world and

m¡y¡ is the up¡d¡nak¡ra¸a. It is a cosmic power of projection. M¡y¡ is the source

of the physical universe. It is the divine power. This m¡y¡ is the source of all

elements fire, water and food. These gave birth to many things. M¡y¡ is An¡di.

It means beginningless. It has end when the right knowledge comes, so it is

á¡nta. This m¡y¡ is neither sat or eternally existent like Brahman, nor asat or

totally non existent like hare’s horn. It is different from both the existent and

non-existent and is called anirvacan¢ya.

38. Chandradhar Sarma, A critical survey of Indian philosophy, Mottilal Banarsidass

Publishers, 1987, p. 274.

53

M¡y¡ is made of pure satta and avidy¡ is made of impure satt¡. M¡y¡ has

two powers that of the ¡vara¸a and vikÀepa. The ¡vara¸a is being negative aspect

of concealment and the vikÀepa the positive aspect of projection. The

vikÀepa¿akti projects the world of appearances in place of Brahman. On the

other hand, avidy¡ carries a power of ¡vara¸a¿akti. It covered the true nature of

Brahman. These powers are however ineffective in the case of Ì¿vara, from

whom the real nature of the non-dual Brahman is not concealed. Ì¿vara is never

subjected to bondage and ignorance. The world created by m¡y¡ is illusory, like a

dream object.

M¡y¡ is the nature of three qualities the Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. Rajas is

the vikÀepa¿akti and Tamas is the ¡vara¸a¿akti of m¡y¡. As Tamas, m¡y¡

conceals the Brahman. As Rajas, it creates the forms of the world, and as sattva

it enables consciousness to appear and know the forms as objects. M¡y¡ is not

real, for it has no existence apart from Brahman. It is not unreal because world

of appearance is projected. It has Vy¡vh¡rikasatt¡. It is an appearance only.

Avidy¡ can be regarded as a subjective principle of illusion, while m¡y¡ is

an objective principle. The nescience in m¡y¡ is of cosmic nature, while in avidy¡

it is of individual nature. Thus nescience works with the help of these two

54

powers-one conceals the original nature of Brahman and the other projects the

same as different objects39.

M¡y¡ is not only absence of knowledge it is also positive wrong

knowledge. The world appearance created by m¡y¡ is not completely unreal,

because it is indiscrimination of m¡y¡. M¡y¡ is not permanently sat or asat but

different from both. So it is called anirvacan¢ya. M¡y¡ is also the ¿akti of

param¡tman because m¡y¡ alone can not create the world. Ì¿vara with his power

of m¡y¡ is the creator of the world.

1. M¡y¡ is the inherent power of the potency of Brahman.

2. It is not the beginning.

3. It is neither real nor unreal nor both (sadasadanirvacan¢ya).

4. It is an appearance only. It has phenomenal and relative character

only.

5. It is the nature of the superimposition.40

6. It is removable by right knowledge.41

39 V. Sisupala Panicker, Dvaita-Advaita Polemics, Swantam Books,

Trivandrum, 2004. P-64.

40. Chandradhar Sarma, A Critical Study of Philosophies, Mottilal Banarsidass, 1987.

p. 275.

41. Ibid.

55

áa´kara does not differentiate between m¡y¡ and avidy¡. He uses these

two terms in the same sense. But later Advaitins finds a distinction between the

two. M¡y¡, avidy¡, ajµ¡na are used as more or less synonyms. M¡y¡ is the adjunct

of Ì¿vara and avidy¡ is the adjunct of J¢va. M¡y¡ is necessary because Brahman

created the world out of itself. M¡y¡ has no separate existence apart from the

Brahman.

áa´kara criticizes the asatk¡ryav¡da of Ny¡yavai¿eÀika. They said the

effect is a new beginning and the effect does not pre-exist in its cause. The effect

is different from the cause. For example, the curd (effect) is different from the

milk (cause). áa´kara said the effect must pre-exist in its cause. If it does not

pre-exist in it, it can never arise from it. If the curd does not pre-exist in the

milk, the curd does not arise from the milk. The effect pre-exists in the cause as

non-different from it since particular effects spring from particular causes. For

example jars come from earth. Jars do not come from milk. Any effect may arise

from any cause if the effect does not pre-exist in its cause. The effect pre-exists

in its cause, in the form of ati¿aya¿akti. This ati¿aya¿akti is not different from

the cause. It is the essence of the cause. The effect is the essence of the causal

power. Ì¿vara, the cause of the world exists in it always. World is the effect of

Ì¿vara. So the effect, that is, the world is non-different from the cause, Ì¿vara.

56

The effect in the appearance of the cause is called vivarta. The cause is real and

the effect is unreal.

áa´kara uses the nine characteristics of m¡y¡.

1. Ja·a : The prak¤ti which is stated in the S¡´khya is

called ja·a. In Advaita Ved¡nta the ja·a is

accepted as empirical reality.

2. áakti : The ¿akti of Brahman, which is completely

depended on Brahman. The ¿akti has no

separate entity different from Brahman.

3. An¡di : The m¡y¡ has no birth. The m¡y¡ is

an¡di through with Brahman.

4. Bh¡var£pa : He covered the reality and placed the

Universe in that place.

5. Anirvacan¢ya : It is not sat and not asat. So it is not

describable. The m¡y¡ has no separate

entity from Brahman. But m¡y¡ is not

unreal. It is not describable as sat and asat.

So it is anirvacan¢ya.

6.Vy¡vah¡rikasatt¡: The ordinary people must agree the

Vy¡vah¡rikasatt¡ of the m¡y¡. áa´kara used

many examples to prove the vy¡vah¡rika-

57

satt¡ of the world. The world is unreal from

the apparent reality and the world is real in

the empirical reality. So the world is

sapekÀasatt.

7. Vijµ¡nanirasya : The m¡y¡ is sublated by the real knowledge

of Brahman. For example the rope snake.

The knowledge of snake is vanished when

one realizes the rope.

8. Adhy¡sa : The functioning for the world is made

possible by superimposition. The world

which is unreal is superimposed on Brahman

which is real.

9. Ë¿raya : The m¡y¡ is completely depending upon the

Brahman. Brahman is free from m¡y¡. But

m¡y¡ is not free from Brahman. So m¡y¡ is

Brahm¡¿rita. M¡y¡ is the absence of

knowledge but it is the stage of wrong

knowledge.

2.5. World

58

The ¿ruti ‘neha n¡n¡sti kiµcana’ showes that the jagat is mithy¡. The

universe is categorized into three i.e., sat, asat and neither sat nor asat. The

empirical world and the objects are neither sat nor asat. So it is mithy¡. But the

mithy¡tva of the world is not an ultimate reality. According to Advaita the

ultimate reality is only Brahman. Different from Brahman, all are unreal or

mithy¡. The world is indicating with sense of describability. It is neither sat nor

asat and it is not even both sat and asat. So it is mithy¡. It is not real because it

is sublated by the knowledge of Brahman. It is not unreal because it is

perceived.

There are three types of reality absolute reality, empirical reality and

apparent reality. The Brahman is absolute reality, the world is empirical reality

and the shell silver is apparent reality. Here is a problem among these three

entities. Advaitins showed that everything other than Brahman is only an

appearance. They have no independent reality apart from Brahman.

Ved¡ntin explains that the cause of the world has to satisfy an important

condition, which will make Ì¿vara not only the efficient but also the material

cause of the world. This point was elaborated in the Cch¡ndogya. ‘The world’

cause is laid down to be such that its comprehension includes that of everything

viz. all its products.42 It can show that the Ì¿vara in the Ved¡nta, is the material

42. C.U., VI. 2.3.

59

cause of the world. In the basis of the world áa´kara argues the supreme Reality.

Dr. Radhakrishnan points out –‘The world of becoming is the interruption of

being. M¡y¡ is the reflection of reality. The world process is not so much a

translation of immutable being as its version. Yet the world of m¡y¡ cannot exist

apart from Pure Being.’43

The concept of world is mainly differentiating Advaita Ved¡nta from

other philosophies. According to Advaitin the world is a product of m¡y¡.

Traditional code is “My m¡y¡ which is difficult to be the material cause.”44 The

world is originated and destroyed hence it is illusory.45 ‘Ekamev¡dvit¢yam’,

‘V¡c¡rambha¸am vikaro n¡madheyam’46- These ¿rutis proved that there is no

multiplicity, and there is only non-dual Brahman, all objects having mere

appearance.

M¡¸·£kyak¡rika of Gau·ap¡da tells that the dream experience is not

authentic because they are falsified after waking. The dream experiences are

similar to waking experience. These two are equally false. áa´kara proved the

43. I.P., Vol, I, p. 36.

44. B.G., VII. 14.

45. S.U., IV. 10.

46. C.U., VI.

60

falsity of the world through an example “What does not exist in the beginning

and at the end also does not exist in the middle is illusory.”47

áa´kara also proves the illusory nature of the world in his adhy¡sabh¡Àya

of Brahmas£tra. The world is superimposed on Brahman and hence it is unreal.

The world is of manifold changing phenomena, feeling events and finite things.

The world is the product of m¡y¡. The world which is the illusory manifestation

of Brahman, has not the capacity to create discord and distress in the blissful

self. Both Brahman and m¡y¡ cannot independently be the material causes of

the world. Brahman and m¡y¡ are the material cause of the world, in a relation

of equal primacy.

The world of creation is an illusory product of m¡y¡. Evidences like

scripture, traditional code, perception, inference and presumption go to prove

the illusoriness of creation. ‘Know m¡y¡ to be the material cause’48 shows the

world is a product of m¡y¡. The origination and destruction of the world are

unintelligible in the absence of illusoriness.

According to V¡caspati the superimposed objects are cognized as real,

but originally they have no reality.49 Although the viÀay¢ and viÀaya are totally

47. M.K., II. 6.

48. S.U., IV.10

49. Bh¡mat¢, p.17.

61

different like light and darkness, self is not absolutely beyond apprehension

because it is apprehended as the content of the concept. So the superimposition

is possible. Ëtman is the substratum of the superimposition. According to

Advaitin whatever is superimposed that is mithy¡. In the opinion of áa´kara the

world is mithy¡.50 It has no identity with the absolute. M¡y¡ is the creative

principle, and the world is its evolution with the help of m¡y¡, Ì¿vara creates the

world. So Ì¿vara is the material cause of the world.

The inner structure of the world is seen as both contradictable and

uncontradictable. It is contradictable in that it somehow participates in non-

being but is contradictable because it essence is being.

The world is seen as an appearance of Brahman, an appearance which is

at heart identical with Brahman. According to áa´kara, the world of experience

is a fact as is implied when he suggests that it should no more pay attention to a

man who while perceiving external things with the senses denies their existence,

than believe the report of a man who while eating and experiencing the feeling

of satisfaction states that he does not do so.51

50. Brahmasatyam jaganmithy¡. Quoted Vivekac£d¡ma¸I, ¿lokam 20.

51. B.S.S.B., II. 2.28.

62

In the Taitir¢ya upaniÀad it is said that “Where the world is said to

originate and it subsist in him. It also goes back to him in dissolution.”52

áa´kara says that the world is attributed to Brahman, like the shell-silver. A

man mistakes a piece of shell for silver and he takes it, and makes out it is not

silver, it is only a shell. Through the basis of the world áa´kara argues the

supreme reality of the Brahman. The world has no ultimate reality. The world is

regarded as real, until the realization of Brahman. When the Brahman is

realized the world is fully sublated. According to áa´kara m¡y¡ is the power of

the supreme Lord, and it creates the whole world. áa´kara’s theory of causation

is vivartav¡da. It holds a false transmutation of the ultimate in to the world

through m¡y¡. M¡y¡ is the reflection of reality. áa´kara also accepted the

pari¸¡ma of Ì¿vara that is a lower kind of causation theory. M¡y¡, the direct cause

is controlled by Ì¿vara, not the pure Brahman.53 So the world is mithy¡.

áa´kara emphasizes the idea that is the world is mithy¡, only in the sense

that it is indescribable. The world cannot be completely written off as absolutely

unreal even by the great áa´kara. In order to get rid of the difficulty in

interpreting the universe áa´kara accepts the three fold reality. That is the

absolute reality, the empirical reality and the phenomenal reality. Brahman is

52. Tai.Up., III. 1.

53. B.S.S.B., I. IV. 23.

63

the absolute reality. The world possesses only the empirical reality. It is not

non-existent, for it can be apprehended.54 It is quite different from the eternal

being and absolute non-being.55

áa´kara states the world as an illusory experience like the appearance of

shell silver. The world is unreal only from the transcendental point of view.

That means for all practical purposes the world is real.

2.6. Vivartav¡da

There are three theories of causation that is ¡rambha, pari¸¡ma and

vivarta. áa´kara’s theory of causation is known as vivartav¡da. Vivartav¡da is

also known as m¡y¡v¡da. It is against the theory of Ërambha (Ny¡ya) and

pari¸¡ma (S¡´khya). Vivartav¡da means that the effect is an appearance of the

cause. It is a denial of real causation and at the same time, an affirmation of its

empirical validity. Universe is superimposed on Brahman. Vivarta may be

defined as the appearance of a higher reality as a lower one. The effect is an

appearance of the cause. It is opposed to the view of creation and is not

contained in its cause, and the relation between cause and effect is that

54. B.S.S.B., 2.2.28

55. V. Sisupalapanicker, Dvaita Advaita polemics, Swantham Books, Trivandrum, 2004,

p. 59.

64

difference and it is also opposed to pari¸¡mav¡da which means the effect is the

real modification of its cause which continues into the effect. The relation

between the cause and effect is that of substantial identity. áa´kara criticizes the

both and show that the relation between the cause and the effect can be neither

that of identity nor that of difference. Causation is a category of thought

therefore it has an appearance not reality. The cause cannot undergo real

modification and the effect can be treated as its appearance only. Vivartav¡da is

a real denial of real causation meanwhile in affirmation of its empirical validity.

The creation is valid only for empirical life. The texts declare the reality of the

cause alone and treat all effects as appearance of the cause which is ultimately

false. Vivarta is used in the sense of unreal change or appearance. The effect

has no existence independent of the cause. It has no existence by itself. This is

the fundamental position of the theory of illusory appearance.

2.7. MokÀa

MokÀa means liberation and it is by the knowledge as means of

attaining liberation. People’s highest aim is called liberation or mokÀa. It is

also called Brahm¡vagati. It consists of release from the process of birth, life,

death and transmigration. According to Advaita Ved¡nta, liberation is nothing

more or nor less than considering and experiencing one’s true self. The

65

Brahman is one without second. The individual souls are intrinsically one with

the Brahman. One who knows Brahman becomes the very Brahman.56

Liberation is the attainment of the knowledge of that has existed from all entity.

MokÀa is attained through knowledge. It is said that Jµ¡n¡deva Kaivalyam. The

knowledge of Brahman is the only means through which ignorance is removed.

Dharma, Artha, K¡ma and MokÀa are the four ends of human beings.

Among them mokÀa is the most supreme goal; one, who has realized it, is not

lost. It is also regarded as paramapuruÀ¡rtha. Brahman is the highest good,

because it destroys all afflictions. It is not an object of activity. Liberation is the

ontological nature of Brahman. The liberation is the purpose of all Indian

philosophies. MokÀa is the intrinsic nature of the Ëtman. The attainment of

Brahman which is the bliss and also the cessation of grief is liberation. One who

knows Brahman becomes Brahman.57 One who attains Brahman becomes free

from fear, delusion doubt and sorrow.

MokÀa is not produced because it is eternal. According to áa´kara the

realization of the identity of J¢va and Brahman is MokÀa. Liberation is neither

nothing more nor less than being known and experiencing ones true self. It

56. Brahmavid Brahmaiva bhavati, Mun.Up. 3.2.9.

57. Brahmavid bramaiva bhavati.Mun.Up.3.2.9.

66

does not depend upon verbal, mental and bodily actions. MokÀa is the essential

nature of Brahman. It is the attainment of celestial happiness. The attainment

of Brahman, which is bliss and also cessation of grief is liberation.58 The

knowledge of Brahman is the only means through which avidy¡ is removed.

Liberation is destruction of avidy¡. It does not mean attainment of another

world or happiness derived from the worldly objects. Avidy¡ is said to be the

worldly existence Sams¡ra. The Sams¡ra is the cycle of births and deaths. When

the limitations are removed, the soul is liberated. MokÀa is absolute and eternal

freedom.

The realization of the identity of J¢va and Brahman is mokÀa. The

knowledge that brings out release from worldly bondage is Brahmavidy¡. When

Brahman is known, nothing is left behind to be known. All worldly objects are

destroyed forever. All bondage is broken and all doubts are cleared. áa´kara

gives three definitions of mokÀa.

1. MokÀa is the realization of Brahman.59

J¢va and Jagat, souls and universe are not distinct from Brahman. But

Brahman is free from all relation to the world. While manifesting himself as the

58. V.P., Dharmar¡j¡dhvar¢ndra, English.

59. BrahmasakÀ¡tk¡ra eva mokÀaÅ.

67

world, he remains apart from the world. Brahman is immanent and

transcendent, when one realizes that such a self is one’s real nature. One’s

ignorance gives rise to the false identification with physical body, senses or

mind, is removed. One should understand that the empirical world is like a

dream. It has only apparent reality, in this sense everyone is involved in the

dream objects. Thus the realization of ones own identity with the ultimate

reality of the consciousness and bliss nature becomes free from all bonds,

sufferings and ignorance. This is realization and that is called liberation or

mukti or mokÀa.

2. MokÀa is the cancellation of avidy¡.

Avidy¡ is the main cause of Bondage. It has to be removed for attaining

liberation. There after there is nothing to be done. So avidy¡n¡¿a is said to be

liberation. Positively it is said that Brahmapr¡pti is liberation. Negatively it is

avidy¡n¡¿a. If the limitations are removed, the soul is liberated. According to

áa´kara, the J¢va does not know its real nature, because of Avidy¡. áa´kara holds

that liberation from bondage can be attained here and now. When avidy¡ is

destroyed, the self is revealed. áa´kara shows that heaven which is present here

always. The knowledge about the true nature of Brahman is opposite of ajµ¡na.

When Avidy¡ vanishes the true soul stands self, like the shining star in the

68

cloudless night. Avidy¡ is the cause of all bondage. Therefore the cancellation of

avidy¡ causes emergence of vidy¡. Avidy¡, the basis of all finite life must be

overcome.

3. MokÀa is eternal unembodiedness

When limitations are removed the soul is liberated. According to

áa´kara, the J¢va does not know real nature because of avidy¡. áa´kara holds that

liberation from bondage can be attained here and now. A person makes himself

fit for it by treating the path prescribed by scripture and following the guidance

of a competent teacher. The condition of mokÀa differs from sams¡ra.

áa´kara described the doctrine of J¢vanmukti on two grounds. It is

wrongly thought that two kinds of liberation are J¢van mukti and videhamukti.

There are differences between these two, not in respect of the nature of

liberation, but in respect of the presence. It may be mentioned here that áa´kara

on the authority of scripture accepts Kramamukti that is gradual liberation like

an arrow shot from the bow; the body continues to reach the fruits until it

expires, but do accumulated new actions.

árava¸a, manana and nididhy¡sana are the three methods which is the

realization of Brahman. The fourfold qualification is essential for a seeker after

69

truth. They are discrimination of the eternal and non-eternal, detachment from

the deeds of this world and that of the other, the treasure of ¿ama and others

and ardent desire for liberation. Some hold that jµ¡na-karmasamuccaya is the

single means for liberation. áa´kara logically refuted the jµ¡nakarmasamuccaya

theory. In his Bhagavadg¢t¡bh¡Àya he cleared it. He also states that the path of

knowledge is the way of liberation.

2.8. Conclusion

áa´kara established the system of Advaita having absorbed the

philosophical teachings of earlier teachers. So áa´kara can be considered the

illustrious propagator of Advaita Ved¡nta.60 Advaita means non-dual.

Brahman alone is real, the world is false, J¢va is identical with Brahman. This

was the chief tenet of Advaita Ved¡nta. áa´kara established the Advaita with the

help of m¡y¡. To clear the dvaitamithy¡tva áa´kara established some concepts

different from other philosophers. Ved¡nta school is based on UpaniÀads. The

doctrines of Ved¡nta are scattered in the prasth¡natraya-bh¡Àya i.e.,

commentaries on upaniÀads, Brahmas£tra and Bhagavadg¢t¡. The basic

doctrines of áa´kara are supported by ¿ruti. Among the anubandhacatuÀ¶aya

60. V. Sisupalapanicker, Dvaita Advaita Polemics, Swantham Books, Trivandrum, 2004,

p. 71.

70

adhik¡r¢61 had a most important position. The adhik¡ris of Brahmavidy¡ are to

have qualities. So the four fold qualifications are very important

The only reality of Advaita system is Brahman. Nirgu¸a Brahman is

pure consciousness in character. Different from Brahman everything is unreal.

The Brahmman is saccid¡nandasvar£pa. Brahman is the ultimate cause of the

universe. The world is only n¡mar£pa.62 The sagu¸a Brahman is intended for

worship. It is the consciousness associated with m¡y¡.

J¢va is empirical reality. J¢v¡tman is the reflection of the supreme self in

the human constitution of body. J¢v¡tmaikya is also called mokÀa. J¢va is not

different from Brahman. Ì¿vara is the controller. It is also known as sagu¸a

Brahman. M¡y¡ is the cause of the world. So it is a very important concept in

Advaita Ved¡nta. áa´kara’s theory of causation is very different from the theory

of causation of other philosophers. So vivartav¡da or m¡y¡v¡da is very important.

The highest aim of human being is mokÀa. It is paramapuruÀ¡rtha. Through

the empirical standpoint all this world is mithy¡. The only Brahman is satya.

These are the brief sketch of the philosophy of áa´kara.

61. Adhik¡r¢ tu vidivadadh¢tavedaved¡´gatven¡…. Ved¡ntas¡ra of Sad¡nanda.

62. V¡c¡rambha¸am vik¡ro n¡madheyam m¤ttiketyeva satyam, Chan.Up. 6.