CHAPTER – I
INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH DESIGN
1.1. Introduction
Fishing has been a traditional occupation of a large section of the people
who are residing at the seacoast all over the world. Until the turn of the last
century, not much attention was paid to exploit the wealth from the sea. Human
race has been depending largely on land resources for their welfare and survival.
The land resources are rapidly getting depleted and it is believed that within the
coming 25-30 years many raw materials that are at present obtained from land will
be in short supply.1 Therefore, attention has been drawn towards the ocean which
covers 71 per cent of the earth.
The sea is not only a storehouse of water but also contains enormous
resources such as food, energy, minerals, petroleum etc. The sea as a biological
environment is the source of food and other valuable products to the people. With
increasing population and with the progress of human society, the dependence of
man on sea for food has been increasing steadily.
Fishery is concerned with economic exploitation of aquatic productivity. It
means the capture and processing of (sea, coastal and inland) aquatic animals and
plants as an occupation for profit. Fishery includes not only the business of
1 Qasim, S.Z., Diving Deep into Ocean, Yojana, 15 August, 1989, p.20.
2
catching fish in the ordinary sense but also taking of shell fish and other resources
of the sea and inland waters. The important fishing grounds are found within a few
hundred miles of the coast. They lie partly on the shore-belt of shallow water
which covers the continental shelf or the submerged platform surrounding the
continents. Others are located in the elevated parts of the sea floor at some
distance from the shore. Almost all the important fishing areas are confined to the
temperate zone which may be due to the warmth of the tropical water which
favours the growth of innumerable kinds of fish. The tropical regions of the
Atlantic, Pacific and the Indian Ocean hold out great promise for fisheries.
The fisheries sector in India has been recognized as a powerful generator of
income and employment. India has emerged as the second harvester of Inland fish
in the world with the inland fish production of 2.2 million tonnes and marine fish
production of 2.7 million tonnes. India is the eight largest harvester of fish in the
world. The annual average growth rate of the sector from 1984-1985 to 1995-1996
is 5.4 per cent.2 But during 2007, the annual average growth rate is 3.24 per cent.
India with a long coastline of 8,129 k.m., 2 million Sq. k.m. of exclusive
economic zone, and 1.2 million hectares of brackish water bodies, offers vast
potential for development of fisheries. As against the estimated fishery potential of
3.9 million tonnes the country has been able to tap 2.6 million tonnes.3
2 Market Survey, Fish - A Source of Cheap and Nutritious Food”, Facts for You, Vol.28, 1997,
p.47. 3 Rama Prasad, M.V., Facts for You, Vol.23, 2003, p.23.
3
Fishes are caught from every stretch of water in India. The chief sources of
supply are the coastal margins of the seas, river-estuaries, back-waters for marine
and estuarine fish, rivers for irrigation and other animals, lakes, inundated tracts,
etc., for fresh-water fish.4
Before 1960, the markets for Indian marine products were largely shifted to
neighboring countries like Srilanka, Myanmar and Singapore. This position
continued as long-as dried items dominated exports from India. When the frozen
and canned items increasingly figured in exports, the sophisticated affluent
countries like U.S., France, Australia, Canada and Japan became important buyers.
Japan is the top importer of marine products from India.5
Fishing is the traditional occupation of a community of fishermen living
along the seacoast. Fishing and allied activities constitute an industry and have
created employment opportunities for more and more people having different
skills in different fields of fisheries. It offers a wide scope to fulfill the objective of
production-cum-employment envisaged in the development plans in India. It
provides direct employment to millions of people and indirect employment
through associate works like net making, boat making, boat repairing, fish
processing, fish trade, fish transportation etc. In this context the fisheries sector is
given high priority since it has the potential of employment generation. The
4 Gopalakumar, K., Fishery Technological Research and Extension the Central Institute of
Fisheries Technology, Indian Farming, Vol.47, 1997, p.16. 5 Rama Prasad, M.V., Facts for You, Vol.18, 1998, p.16.
4
marine fish and its products have very good export potential for earning
considerable amount of foreign exchange for the nation.6
Fisheries sector occupies a very important place in the socio-economic
development of the country. It has been recognized as a powerful income and
employment generator as it stimulates growth of a number of subsidiary industries
and is a source of cheap and nutritious food besides emerging as an important item
of export trade. This sector is thus an important source of livelihood for a large
section of economically backward population of the country, particularly in the
coastal areas.7
The state of Tamilnadu has a coastal length of 1076 k.m. which constitutes
15 per cent of India’s coastal line. There are 591 fishing villages in 13 coastal
districts of Tamilnadu starting from Tiruvallur district to Kanyakumari district.
The fishermen living in these coastal fishing villages are 6.79 lakh, which includes
3.58 lakh fishermen and 3.40 lakh fisherwomen during 2007-2008. The literacy
rate is 66 per cent. About 2.70 lakh marine fishermen are actively engaged in
fishing. The marine fishermen are taking out livelihood by fishing in the
continental shelf of 41,412 Sq. Km. engaging 8,500 mechanized fishing crafts and
41,000 traditional crafts. About 3.70 lakh metric tonnes of fish are caught in
Coramandal Coast, Palk Bay, Gulf of Mannar Coast throughout the year.8
6 Selvaraj, P., Seafood Export Journal, 1989, pp.23-24.
7 Shah, K.C., Action Plan to Boost Exports of Indian Marine Products, Fishing Chimes, 38(23):
1991, pp.14-16. 8 www.sipcot.com
5
1.1.1. Statement of the Problem
Fishing workers, particularly in the fishing communities are the most
disadvantaged group. They have a very low status in the society. There are about
6.79 lakhs fishermen in Tamil Nadu. Of which 2.70 lakh are productively
employed in fishing and its related activities.9 Fishing workers are actively
involved in the economic activities such as making and mending of nets, fish
processing, dry fish preparation, marketing of fresh fish, dry fish and fish handling
such as sorting, weighing, gutting, icing, etc. Their contribution to the
development of small-scale fisheries is not recognised and compensated properly
due to the social and cultural discrimination against them. They have acquired a
secondary status in social life, economic activities and decision-making. A number
of socio-economic constraints limit their work productivity and role in
employment and income generating activities. They have the potential to play an
active and sometimes dominant role in fishing related activities.
In India, not much research work has been done in the field of fisheries
economics.10
The thrust of fisheries research in India so far has been centered
around biological and technological aspects, mainly the exploitation of fishery
resources. A social and economic aspect of marine fisheries research has been
9 Department of Fisheries, Tamil Nadu Marine Fisherfolk Census, Tamil Nadu, 2000, pp.1-2.
10 Selvaraj, P., Senthilathiban, R., Sundaraj, V., Perspectives of Research-Teaching and Extension
in Fisheries Economics, Symposium of Tropical Marine Living Resources, Abstract, 1988,.
6
completely ignored.11
Recently there have been some contributions through micro
level studies which specifically relating to economics of fishing methods, impact
of mechanization of craft and gear making, etc.
Thoothukudi district is one of the important maritime districts of
Tamil Nadu, the fishing workers are busily engaged in all the sea shore-based
activities like sorting, weighing, salting, drying, marketing, etc. However, their
economic activities go unnoticed. There is no scientific and extensive study on the
economic activities of fishing workers. Hence, a research is required inevitably to
weed out the exploitation of the weaker section with total illiteracy living along
the coastal line. It will throw light on their real contribution for economic
development. This will also pave the way for providing proper compensation for
their activities through suitable policy measures. The present research aims at
studying the Labour Conditions of Marine Fishing Workers in Thoothukudi
District.
1.1.2. Scope of the Study
In the present research, the investigator tries to study the labour conditions
of marine fishing workers in Thoothukudi district. The study is confined to the
socio-economic status of fishing workers. It is based on their role estimated using
the data collected during 2009-2010. The sphere of this research work is also
11
Subba Rao, N., Economics of Fisheries (A Case Study of Andhra Pradesh), Delhi: Daya
Publishing House, 1986, pp.17-20.
7
extended to the analysis of economic appraisal of fishing workers. This research
also attempts to build models for estimating the income, expenditure and savings
of fishing workers and also their historical background. Finally, the study also tries
to offer constructive suggestions for evolving a firm and suitable policy for
improving the conditions of fishing workers in India.
1.1.3. Objectives of the Study
The following are the important objectives of the present research study:
1. to asses the importance of marine fisheries in Tamil Nadu and to prepare
the profile of marine fisheries in Thoothukudi district specifically;
2. to determine the extent to which socio-demographic conditions that have an
impact to promote the living status of fishing workers;
3. to analyse the per capita income and demographic functionaries of the
marine fishing workers;
4. to bring out the different sources of income and the pattern of expenditure
of fishing;
5. to elucidate the pattern of expenditure and to construct consumption
function of the marine fishing workers; and
6. to find out the problem of fishing workers and to offer suitable policy
suggestions to strengthen the labour conditions of marine fishing workers.
8
1.1.4. Hypotheses of the Study
The following hypotheses have been framed based on the objectives of this
study which are subjected to testing:
1. There is no income variation among different categories of fishing workers.
2. Per capita income of the fishing workers could be improved by incurring
the number of earners in the family, level of employment and productive
assets.
3. There is no significant difference in the literacy status of heads of sample
fishing workers and their per capita income.
4. The earning members of the sample fishing workers have shown a negative
influence over the level of per capita income.
5. There is no significant relationship between consumption expenditure of
fishing workers and savings in the study area.
6. There is no significant association between the income of the marine
fishing workers and source of borrowing.
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1.2. RESEARCH DESIGN
1.2.1. Methodology
Specific objectives and hypotheses of the study as stated earlier require the
use of both primary and secondary data to verify the suitability of objectives and
to test the hypothesis of the study with reality. Methods used for the collection
and analysis of data are described with the help of statistical tools. Statistical tools
of analysis and empirical models are presented in the present study.
1.2.1.a. Period of Study
This study covers the gross section data pertaining to a period of one year
from April 2009 to March 2010.
1.2.1.b. Area of the Study
Thoothukudi district of Tamil Nadu has been taken as the area of study.
The scientific procedure of this microscopic study is so designed to bring out the
maximum result with minimum permissible outlay of time and labour. Therefore,
the researcher has selected the following 12 villages out of the 21 coastal villages
in the districts of Thoothukudi viz. Vembar, Keezhavaippar, Tharuvaikulam,
Thoothukudi North, Thoothukudi South, Punnaikayal, Singhithurai,
Veerapandianpatnam, Amalinagar, Alanthalai, Manapad and Periyathalai. The
present study area is purposely selected for two reasons. First, these villages have
a large number of fishing population, fishing workers and fishing crafts with
10
fishing as the major occupation. The second reason is that the researcher is
familiar with this area and is able to get the co-operation of the officials and also
fishing workers which helped him to select 600 respondents from among 14,765
active fishing workers in the study area.
1.2.1.c. Pilot Study
The researcher had attempted several visits to Vembar, Keezhavaippar,
Tharuvaikulam, Thoothukudi North, Thoothukudi South, Punnaikayal,
Singhithurai, Veerapandianpatnam, Amalinagar, Alanthalai, Manapad and
Periyathalai coastal villages of Thoothukudi district before the inception of the
present research study. A pilot study was conducted to check whether the
interview schedule contained all necessary information. The results of the pilot
study highlighted that the fishing workers were broadly divided into vallam craft
fishing workers, mechanized boat fishing workers and fibre boat fishing workers
and thus the samples were further classified as above. The homogeneity of the
vallam craft fishing workers, mechanized boat fishing workers and fibre boat
fishing workers mark significant differences in gross income among villages and
hence the samples of these villages were pooled for the purpose of analysis.
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1.2.1.d. Sampling Design
The present research has considered Thoothukudi district as the study area
since it has the lengthiest coast of Tamil Nadu and is also strategically located in
Gulf of Mannar. In addition, fishery is the major source of employment in the
costal economy and it also consists of different types of activities in fisheries
ranging from production, marketing of fishes and dried fishes, fish processing,
exporting etc. In all these, labour conditions of marine fishing workers play an
important role.
Marine fishermen population in the coastal villages in each zone of the
district and active fishermen in the coastal villages form the universe. On the basis
of the zone in the coastal line, out of the 21 marine fishermen villages, 12 villages
have been selected for the present study. The selected marine fishermen villages
are Vembar, Keezhavaippar, Tharuvaikulam, Thoothukudi North, Thoothukudi
South, Punnaikayal, Singhithurai, Veerapandianpatnam, Amalinagar, Alanthalai,
Manapad and Periyathalai. These fishermen population of these 12 fishing villages
constitute 92.09 per cent of the total marine fisherfolk population of the district of
Thoothukudi. A major share of crafts like vallam, mechanized and fibre boats are
operated in these villages apart from the traditional non-mechanised craft. The
traditional non-mechanised craft like catamaran, catamaran with outboard engine,
hand fulling wooden vallam are not given much importance in these fishing
villages after 2004 tsunami. In the present research study the major crafts like
vallam craft (wooden and plywood) mechanized boat and fibre boat have selected.
12
The motorised vallam craft mentioned in the present study is called as vallam
craft.
As far as the present study is concerned, the investigator proposed to collect
the data required by adopting stratified percentage sampling technique. The total
respondents are belonging to vallam craft fishing workers, mechanized boat
fishing workers and fiber boat fishing workers. The total active fishing workers
are 14,76512
in 12 selected villages.
Since it is very difficult and time consuming to cover the entire fishing
workers in the present study, the researcher proposed to use sampling techniques.
A sample of 4.06 per cent of the fishing workers were selected randomly from
each village in the present study. Hence, a total of 600 sample respondents were
selected. Among them 200 respondents were vallam craft fishing workers, 200
were mechanized boat fishing workers and remaining 200 were fibre boat fishing
workers. It is shown in the Table 1.1. The data collected from these sample
respondents were carefully processed, edited and tabulated for analytical purposes.
12
District Hand Book, Thoothukudi District, 2008-2009, p.38.
13
Table: 1.1 - Sampling Design of the Study
Sample
Villages
Total
Active
Fishing
Workers
Sample
Fishing
Workers
Vallam
Craft
Fishing
Workers
Mechanised
Boat
Fishing
Workers
Fibre
Boat
Fishing
Workers
Alanthalai 763 31 0 0 31
Amalinagar 459 19 0 0 19
Keezhavaippar 419 17 10 0 7
Manapad 1,250 51 18 0 33
Periathalai 1,372 56 0 0 56
Punnaikayal 1,877 76 47 0 29
Singhithurai 306 12 6 0 6
Tharuvaikulam 1,121 46 36 10 0
Thoothukudi North 4,429 180 75 90 15
Thoothukudi South 1,934 79 0 79 0
Veerapandianpatnam 380 15 0 11 4
Vembar 455 18 8 10 0
Total 14,765 600 200 200 200
Source: 1. Assistant Director of Fisheries Office, Thoothukudi, 2010.
2. Field Survey.
1.2.1.e. Sources of Data
This study is based on both primary and secondary data. Analyzing the
labour conditions of marine fishing workers in the study area, primary data have
been used. An interview schedule was used to collect primary data required for the
study, while selecting the fishing workers for collecting primary data, stratified
percentage random sampling technique was used. The requires secondary data
14
have been used for analyzing the growth of fish production and employment
potential of fisheries in India, Tamil Nadu and Thoothukudi district from various
published and unpublished literature.
1.2.1.f. Collection of Data
This study is based on both primary and secondary data. Population figures
were taken from the Census Report. General particulars about the district and
villages were collected from the District Statistical Office, District Collector
Office, Department of Fisheries and Village Administrative Offices. The other
required secondary data were made available from various journals, periodicals,
books and websites.
The required primary data were collected from the selected households with
the help of a comprehensive pre-tested interview schedule through personal
interview method. The data were collected over a period of one financial year
commencing from 1st April 2009 to 31
st March 2010. Data were collected
personally by the investigator from the respondents who have not maintaining any
records. Therefore, care was taken at every stage of study to minimize the bias by
suitable crosschecks.
1.2.1.g. Tools for Analysis
The research tries to identify the most important economic determinants of
the various economic and social elements of the fishing workers. The study has
15
adopted Chi-Square test, ANOVA, F-test, regression and other descriptive
statistics. Lorenz curve and Gini ratio are used to measure the income inequality.
Various trend models are also adopted to forecast fish production and export of
various fishery products. In this an overview of the statistical techniques are also
presented.
Chi Square test
The Chi Square statistics is a non-parametric test adopted here to test the
magnitude of the discrepancy between theoretically expected values and the
observed values. The statistics for the test of independence summarizes how close
the expected frequencies fall to the observed frequencies.
χ2
is useful to establish and measure the existence of the association
between any two attributes. This χ2
takes only positive values and is given by the
formula,
χ2 = ∑ (Oij – Eij)
2
i-j Eij
where
Oij – Observed value in the (ij)th
cell
Eij - Expected value in the (ij)th
cell
On the assumption of independence of attributes
(Ai) (Bj)
Eij = -----------
N
where,
16
Ai - Total of ith
row
Bj – Total of jth
column
N – Total number of observation
If χ2
calc < Calc < χ25% for (r-1) (c-1) degrees of freedom, then it is accepted
that the two attributes A and B are independent or there is insignificant association
between them at 5 per cent level. But if χ2
calc > χ2
5% then it is accepted that, there
is significant association between them at 5 per cent. This tool is used to study the
significance of association between influencing factors and level of age, education,
occupation and income.
Average Annual Growth Rate (AAGR)
The average annual growth rate shows the average percentage change of the
base year to current year.
The formula used for this computation is:
1 Yt – Yt-1
AAGR = -----Σ --------- X 100
n Yt -1
Where Yt and Yt-1 are values for current year and base year respectively and
n is the number of years of the time series.13
13
Acharya Madnani, Applied Econometrics for Agricultural Economics, (Vdaipur: Himalaya
Publication, 1988), p.82.
17
Analysis of Variance
The method of comparing mean values of the various group is called the
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). It compares the variability of the sample mean
value about the overall mean to the variability of the sample observations about
their separate means. The test is the ratio of two estimates of the population
variance, σ2, of the measurements in the group. One of the two estimates uses the
variability between within each sample. This estimate is called with-in group
estimate of variance or simply within estimate. If H0 is true, the between estimate
tends to be equal to within estimate, apart from sampling error. Within Sum of
Squares (WSS) and Between Sum of Squares (BSS) and the respective estimate of
variances are given below.
_
WSS = Σ(Yij - Yj) 2
_
BSS = Σ(Yj - Y ) 2
∧ 2 Σ (n j -1) s j
2
σ w = -------------
N-g
_
∧ 2 Σ n j (Yj – Y )
2
σ B = -------------------
g - 1
Where,
Yij = are the individual values of the sample
____
Yj = mean of the jth
sample
_
Y = mean of the items by pooling all the samples
i = 1 to n j ; j = 1 to g ; Σ n j = N
18
(N-g) = within group degrees of freedom
(g-1) = between group degrees of freedom
g = total number of samples
F – Statistics
The F-statistics for H0 is the ratio of the between estimate to the within
estimate i.e.,
Between Estimate BSS / (g - 1)
F = ------------------------ = ----------------
Within Estimate WSS / (N - g)
A significant ‘F’ value provides strong evidence against Ho and an
insignificant ‘F’ value provides no evidence against H0 at a designated level of
significance.
Regression Analysis
In the analysis of estimation of various elements of the income and
expenditure of fishermen, regression analysis is employed. Regression analysis is
concerned with the study of the dependence of one variable the dependent
variable, on one or more other variables, the explanatory variables with a view to
estimate and predict the mean population or average value of the former in terms
of the known or fixed values of the latter. A regression containing one independent
variable is known as a simple linear regression whereas a regression with more
than one explanatory variable is termed as a multiple regression.
Simple Linear Regression:
19
Y t = β0 + β1 X t + u t
Multiple Linear Regression:
Y t = β0 + β1 X 1 t + β2 X 2 t + u t
is the simplest multiple linear regression with two explanatory variables. In the
above models,
Y – is the dependent variable
X1 , X11, X21 are independent variables.
β0, β1, β2, are the regression co-efficients.
Ut is the error variable
Here, Ut is assumed to follow a normal distribution with zero mean [E(Ut) =
0] and constant variance [E(Ut 2
= σ2] is popularly known as the assumption of
homogeneity. The other important assumptions are Ut is independent of the
explanatory variables. The independent variables are uncorrelated to one another
(assumption of multicollinearity) and the error values are uncorrelated with their
previous lagged values (assumption of autocorrelation).
Lorenz Curve Approach
The measure of the degree of inequality in the distribution of income of
fishermen is carried out by using Lorenz curve. Lorenz curve is given as a box
diagram and the 450
line represents the line of equal distribution. Actual
distribution is represented by their cumulative frequency curve. If the cumulative
20
curve is far from the line of equality, then the inequality is higher for the
distribution.
Gini ratio co-efficient is estimated with the help of the Lorenz curve. Gini
ratio is the ratio of the area between the observed cumulative frequency curve and
the line of equality and the 450
line. The Gini ratio-nearing zero indicates less
inequality and the ratio approaching unity implies greater inequality.
Trend Analysis
Trend models that are otherwise .called deterministic models often catch
the variations observed in business and economic variables. Most frequently used
trend models are linear, logarithmic, quadratic, and exponential. The trend models
applied in this study are given below.
Linear Trend Model - Y = a + b T + u
Logarithmic Trend Model - log Y = a+b log T+u
Quadratic Trend Model - Y = a + b T +c T 2 + u
Exponential Trend Model - Y = a + b ecT
+ u
Where, T = Time variable
a, b, c = co efficients of the regression model to
be estimated
u = value of error variable
21
1.2.2. Importance of the Study
This study leads to the proper recognition of the labour conditions of
marine fishing workers and to the formulation of new policies for the
remuneration of their work. This may go a long way to eradicate discrimination
and gender inequality in general and empowerment of rural fishing workers in
particular.
This study will also help the boat owners in the study area and to take
necessary steps to rectify the defects and also to adopt precautionary measures to
have a cordial relation with the fishing workers in future
The findings of this work would be of immense help to planners, policy
makers and institutions who are concerned with fisheries development,
particularly with ways and means of improving the socio-economic life of fishing
workers.
1.2.3. Limitations of the Study
This study covers the labour conditions of marine fishing workers and does
not include cost of production, internal and external marketing aspects. The
secondary data collected were restricted to the length of time. Most of the
fishermen households are illiterates and poorly educated and did not have the
practice of maintaining any records for their daily gross income, net income,
operating expenses for fishing, disposable income and consumption expenditure.
The heads of the households could furnish the information for the questions from
their memory and hence the information furnished by them was subject to the
22
recall bias. However, the reliability of the data were ensured by repeated
questioning in different ways and by cross-checking with similar information
provided by other well-informed fishermen in the study area.
Moreover, the present study is basically carried out at the micro level and
limited to a sample size of 600 fishermen households in 12 coastal villages and
hence, the findings of the study can not be generalized at the macro level. With
all these limitations the generalization of the inferences of this study has been
done with maximum care. Therefore, the conclusion of this study is indicative
rather than imperative.
1.2.4. Organization of the Thesis
The study has been structured into the following chapters;
Chapter I - Introduction
It deals with the introduction, importance of the marine fisheries, the
research problem, scope, objectives, hypotheses, importance, limitations and
frame work of the study.
Chapter II - Review of Related Literature and Relevant Concepts
This chapter indicates a precise review of the previous related studies and
various concepts used in the fishery occupation.
23
Chapter III – Historical background and profile of Thoothukudi Fisheries
This chapter presents an account of the historical background and profile of
Thoothukudi fisheries and fishermen.
Chapter IV - Socio – Demographic Characteristics of Sample Fishing Workers
In this chapter, an attempt has been made to deal with socio-demographic
characteristics of fishing workers in the study area.
Chapter V - Economic Appraisal of Sample Fishing Workers
This chapter elucidates the economic appraisal of fishing workers,
estimates their role in the marine fisheries and brings out their expenditure,
income, savings and indebtedness.
Chapter VI – Summary of Findings and Suggestions
A summary of work done and salient findings of the study are presented.
Suggestions and conclusion are drawn after analyzing the objectives and
hypotheses of the study.