1.1. CONCEPT, MEANING AND DEFINITION OF STRESS

Stress is a term heard to often that its meaning is frequently distorted and its

implications are taken for granted. In today’s world, everybody, radio and

newspapers. Stress is an universal feature of life and no one can live without

experiencing some degree of stress. On may assume that only serious or intensive

physical or mental injury can cause stress. This is not true ; in fact ; traveling in a

crowded bus / train or even sheer joy is enough civilization, human organism is

subjected to stressful events ; and it is self-evident that birth itself is stressful like

other biological milestones such as crawling and walking. Infants also experience

stress although independent of their own action in which aversive or defensive

coping behaviour (such as crying) are likely result. For the pre-school child,

environment plays an important role in experiencing stressful events. Stressful

experience may exert different effects at different events. Stressful experience

may exert different effects at different ages. Almost any unanticipated happening

or an anticipated events, with full of threat, causes the speeding-up of bodily

processes. Any kind of excitement is also a stress, in the physiologist’s sense of

interpretation. The term ‘stress’ means different things to different people ; and

the laymen and professional alike are familiar with it.

The term ‘stress’ has been derived from technical sciences where it

indicates an excessive and detrimental overloading of objects. Metals like steel

have a certain strain capacity, but on exceeding certain values a rupture or fracture

occurs. The term was used in this sense in the nineteenth concept appeared in

medical sciences to indicate overloading of the human body. Cannon (1935)

related it to homeostatic tendencies in the body. He contributed much to the

relation between stress and the development of somatic disorders like

cardiovascular diseases. Selye (1956) believed that if sympathetic nervous system

and endocrine system are activated in a certain way, for example, by extreme

coldness or great excitement an individual can be said to be under stress. Extreme

stimulations of a divergent nature bring about a certain typical endocrine reaction

pattern. Specific stimulations are not connected with specific reactions : Selye

was not particularly interested in the causes (stimuli) ; more importance to him was

to universal reaction pattern (General Adaptation Syndrome or GAS) occurring in

characteristics phases.

Although stress reaction depends on what an individual considers dangerous

or threatening, people very greatly in general vulnerability to stress. If a person is

marginally adjusted, the slightest frustration or pressure may be highly stressful.

Lack of external supports – either personal or material – makes a given stress more

severe and weakens an individual’s capacity to cope with it.

Generally, the determinants of stress include :

a) personality characteristics

b) role overload

c) role conflict

d) role ambiguity

e) role stagnation and mid-life crisis

f) absence of social support and

g) role incompatibility

In a study of managerial stress experiences, Shukla (1990) has concluded

that it may be more accurate to look at stress as a pattern of inter-related

experiences rather than as one single experience. The stress due to lack of freedom

at work is as the experience of stress due to an inter-personal encounter. He has

also conceded that pattern of stressful experiences appears to be unique to an

individual, or a group of individuals and it may be determined by the life-situations

of the individual(s), as well as their personality.

Every human being has his own understanding of stress, because all

demands of adaptability do evoke the stress phenomenon. Selye (1974) beautifully

summarized the nature of stress in the following words :

“Everybody knows what stress is and yet nobody knows what it is”.

The term ‘stress’ has been used in so many different contexts that there is

confusion regarding the exact meaning of the term. Few definitions of stress are

given below ; and they are useful according to scope and clarity.

“Stress is any condition and disturbs normal functioning”. (Arnold, 1960)

“Stress is a non-specific response of the body to any demand” (Selye, 1974)

“Stress refers to physiological, behavioural and cognitive response to events

appraised as threatening or exceeding one’s coping responses and options”.

Stress is the state of an organism where he perceives that his well-being is

endangered and that he must divert all his energies to its protection” (Coffer

and Appley, 1964)

“Stress is a dynamic state within an organism in response to a demand for

adaptation”. (Wolff, 1968)

“Stress is a stimulus or situation to whih man reacts with learned coping

mechanisms activated by homeostasis principle and fuelled by energies

which are in finite supply.” (Caplan, 1964, Marshal and Cooper, 1979)

Perhaps, no construct in psycho-social research has been more difficult to

define that stress. Therefore, there is clearly no satisfactory definition of stress

which encompasses the social, psychological and biological issues as they pertain

to individual. Stress is multi faceted in nature and stress respnse arousal involves

every set of organs and tissues in our body. Thoughts and feelings are clearly inter

wined with these physiological processes.

1.2. STRESSES IN LIFE

When we consider work stress in particular, research indicates six major

sources of pressures (Cartwright and Cooper, 1997). These are as follows :

Factors intrinsic to the job : When a person’s role to poor working

conditions, shift work, long hours, travel, risk and danger, poor technology,

work under load and overload.

Role in the Organization : When a person’s role in a organization is

clearly defined, stress can be kept to a minimum. Whereas Cartwright and

Cooper mention only three aspects, Pareek (1993) has provided a fairly

comprehensive list of stresses commonly encountered with reference to

one’s role in the organization.

Relationships at work : As early as in 1946, Selye has pointed out that

‘good relationships between members of a group are a key factor in

individual and organizational health’. There are three critical interpersonal

relationship at work relationship with one’s boss, those with one’s

subordinates, and those with one’s colleagues.

Career development factor : Includes the degree of job security, fear of

job loss, obsolescence of one’s skills and capabilities and retirement. For

many workers, career progression is of overriding importance. Performance

appraisals (actual or even the fear of potential appraisal) can be an

extremely stressful experience.

Organizational structure and climate : Non-participation at work and a

general lack of control in the organization are related to a variety of stress

related symptoms.

Non-work pressures : Include pressures on the home front due to job

stress. Another commonly seen effect is that due to dual careers, especially

for women. The dual career family model may be a source of stress for men

a swell. The amount of time they are able to devote to their jobs, the degree

of mobility they have, the acceptance of transfers change if the wife is also

working.

On the basis of this description, the causes of stress may be summarized as

follows :

Sources at Home

Daily hassles of life

Major life stresses

Stress and the life cycle (adolescence, adulthood, old age)

Relocation (due to man-made projects, natural calamities, bereavement of spouse,

retirement, old age)

Sources of Work

Daily hassles at work

Organizational role stress

Interpersonal relationships stress

Career development associated stress

Stress due to the organizational culture and climate

Since no individual is totally relegated to the home or the work sphere, the

various sources interact with each other. This produces a third source of stress.

Sources from the Home-Job Interface

Intrapsychic pressures due to the peculiar personality of the person, for

example, excessive anger, depression proneness, Type A authoritarian attitudes,

irrational thinking Dual career stress in the husband, the wife and children.

Transfers and relocation due to jobs

Stress associated with non-traditional families, e.g., single parent, divorce,

separation.

1.3. STRESS EXPERIENCED BY SCHOOL STUDENT

Student-life coincides with adolescence, and stress can manifest in children

as a reaction to the changes in life in addition to academic pressures. Children

become more self aware and self-conscious, and their thinking becomes more

critical and complex. At the same time, children often lack in academic motivation

and performance, as their attention is divided among a lot many things, especially

creating and identity for themselves.

Stress is created by parental pressure to perform and to stand out among

other children. When they cant rise up to the expectation, or during the

process of meeting it, children my suffer from frustration, physical stress,

aggression, undesirable complexes, and depression.

Students who are under-performers, develop negative traits such as shyness,

unfriendliness, jealousy, and may retreat into their own world to become

loners.

Over scheduling a student’s like can put them under stress. A child’s in

school and after school activities should be carefully arranged to give them

some breathing space. Parents may want him to learn music, painting or be

outstanding in a particular sport. So many things are crammed in to their

schedule, unmindful (often) of the children’s choices and capabilities that it

puts a lot of mental pressure on them in an effort to fulfill their parents

wishes.

School systems cram students with a tremendous amount of homework,

which they usually have to complete spending their evenings, weekends and

most of the vacations. Unable to find enough time of their own, students

often lose interest in studies and under perform. They often feel stress by

being asked to do too much in too little a time.

When ‘effortless’ learning does not take place, these students lose

confidence, motivation and interest, and this creates more stress.

Another major student stressor is perhaps the middle school malaises, which

refers to the physio-psychological transition of students from elementary to junior

high school. Researchers at the University of Michigan have studied this transition

from elementary to middle school and have found that :

On average, children’s grades drop dramatically during the first year of

middle school compared to their grades to their grades in elementary

school.

After moving to junior high school, children become less interested in

school and less self-assured about their abilities.

Compared to elementary schools, middle schools are more controlling, less

cognitively challenging and focus more on competition and comparing

student’s abilities.

CHAPTER – II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.0. Introduction

2.1. Need for Related Studies

2.2. Classification of the Studies

2.2.1. Studies Conducted in India

2.2.2. Studies Conducted in Abroad

2.3. Analogy of the study

CHAPTER – II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.0. Introduction

This chapter presents a review of studies related to the present investigation.

This chapter includes four sections. The first section deals with the need for the

study. In the second section, the studies conducted in India are presented briefly.

The third section explains briefly, the studies conducted in the related area abroad.

The fourth section covers the synthesis of the related studies.

2.1. Need for Related Studies

A review of related literature pertaining to the problem on the investigation

is a fundamental importance of the research. Every investigator must know what

source are available in his field of enquiry, which of them, the investigator is likely

to use and where and how to use them.

According to Best (1977) “A brief summary of previous research and the

writings of recognized experts provide evidence and research is familiar with what

is already known and with what is still unknown and untested. This step helps to

eliminate the duplication of what has been done and provides useful hypothesis

and helpful suggestions for significant investigation”.

for any worthwhile study in any field of knowledge the researcher needs an

adequate familiarity with the literary and its many resources ; Only there will

achievement of an effective search for specialized knowledge possible. Though a

time consuming process, review of related literature is a very fruitful process for

research programme.

2.2. Classification of the Students

The investigator reviewed 23 studies related to the present one and two

classifications, the first one deals with 12 studies identified on self and other

Psychological variables among Head Mistress / Head Mistresses and teachers in

primary school. The second one reports the 11 studies conducted abroad on stress.

2.2.1. Studies Conducted in India

The investigator identified 12 studies conducted in India on stress and other

psychological variables. As the investigator did not find more studies exactly on

stress, the investigator has taken the studies consisted on other psychological

variables like anxiety, emotion, attitude etc. Among not only he heads of the

institutions but also the teachers of different standards.

The study was conduced in simulation as well as in read classroom

situations using a non-equivalent control group design for both the pilot and the

final phases. The sample consisted of 30 (10 for pilot and 20 for final study) male

student-teachers of the B.Ed., class offering English as one of their teaching

subjects from teacher-education departments of two affiliated colleges of

Gorakhpur University, and 250 (50 for pilot and 200 for final study) students of

class VII of three practicing schools of those two teacher education departments

situated in rural areas. The tools of study were a self-made achievement test of

English language comprehension, the Baroda General Teaching competency scale,

observation schedules and evaluation pro-from as for each skill, and an audio-type

recorder. Child-square and t-test were the main statistical techniques used for

testing the hypotheses.

The major findings of the study were :

1. Student teacher treated with the technique of skill-based microteaching

were found to be more effective in General Teaching Competency then

those trained in the traditional method of teaching English.

2. Microteaching technique had proved itself to be a more effective teacher

training technique than the traditional method when subjected to factorial

analysis of variances.

3. Each of the five skills depicted significant improvement in the case of

microteaching when compared on the basis of the data of post teaching

sessions of both the methods under study.

4. The analysis of data demonstrated significantly higher effectiveness of

microteaching technique in the academic achievement of students in real

classroom settings.

Khan 91987) made a comparative study of Personality Characteristics of

Physical Education Teachers and General Education Teachers.

The purpose of the study was to evaluate and compare the personality

characteristics of physical education teachers and general education teachers in the

following areas : (i) home adjustment, (ii) health adjustment (iii) social adjustment

(iv) emotional adjustment (v) occupational adjustment (vi) general adjustment (vii)

neuroticism (vii) medical fitness and (ix) motor fitness.

The sample for the study consisted of 300 randomly chosen teachers from

selected districts of Jammu and Kashmir State. Out of these 300 teachers, 150

belonged to physical education and 150 to general education category.

The findings were

1. On the whole physical education teachers were found significantly better

adjusted, socially, emotionally, occupationally and also with respect to

health as well as home adjustment than the general educational teacher.

2. The neurotic tendency among the general education teachers was

significantly more predominant than among physical education teachers.

3. More than 50 percent of the physical education teachers failed to maintain

even normal physical fitness.

A study of meaning in Life, Stress and Burnout in Teachers of Secondary

Schools in Calcutta was conducted by Misra 91986).

The objectives of the inquiry were

1. To study if teachers varied in the degree of overall meaning in life and if

they showed a trend toward low or high meaning.

2. To identify important sources of meaning in the personal and professional

life of teachers and to investigate if teachers varied in the degree of meaning

derived from these sources.

3. To find out the relationship, if any, among the different measures of

meaning in life.

4. To identify the main sources of stress in teaching and to investigate if

teachers varied in the extent to experienced Stress.

5. To study if teachers varied in the extent of perceived burnout, and

6. To study the relationship between stress and burnout, meaning in life and

stress and meaning in life and burnout in teachers.

The tools used for data collection were moholick’s (1969) purpose in Life

Test, Maslach and jackson’s (1981) Inventory for study of Burnout, and a scale

and interview schedules prepared by the investigator for measurement of stress and

other background variables. The sample comprised 345 teacher training

institutions of the study. Descriptive and non-parametric statistical techniques

were used for analysis of data.

The findings of the study were

1. Meaningfulness of life of the teachers was quite high according to their own

perception.

2. Meaning in professional life was derived primarily from psychic rewards

obtained from task-related outcomes and relationships with students.

3. All the measures of meaning in life, namely, self-reported meaning in life,

sources of meaning in life, and sources of meaning in teaching had a

positive relationship with meaning of life.

4. The relationship between stress studied through test and stress reported by

teachers was highly significant.

5. Age difference was significant with regard to stress of teachers

6. The sample teachers had a lower degree of burnout.

7. Sex difference was significant on the burnout variable

8. Stress was positively related to burnout with regard to emotional exhaustion

of depersonalization

9. There was a negative relationship between meaning in life and stress and

stress variables measured by tests as well as self-reporting items.

10. A comparatively low level of meaning in life was identified among the

sample teachers.

Mistry (1985) conducted a study on need achievement, job satisfaction, job

involvement as a function of role Stress locus of control and participation in

Academic climate. A study of college and secondary teachers. The investigation

was an attempt to fill some of the gaps in the existing field of knowledge regarding

job satisfaction, job involvement and n-achievement as outcome variables of locus

of control, motivational climate, participation in academic climate and various

types of role stresses the teaching population faced.

In the study, six different research tools were employed to collect the data

the satisfaction – dissatisfaction Employer’s Inventory developed and standardized

by pestonjee, used to assess job satisfaction ; the social relation inventory

developed by Rotter and adapted by Hasan, used to assess the internality

externality dimensions of personality, a “Your feelings about your role” scale

developed by Pareek, used to measure the extent of role stress, a Motivational

analysis of organizations (MAO) questionnaire developed by Parreek, used to

asses organizational academic climate, a Psychological participation Index

developed and standardized pestionjee, used to assess the extent of psychological

participation and General inventory prepared for the study to gather general

information about age, tenure, socio-economic condition etc., and information

pertaining the job. Two hundred and two subjects were selected from colleges and

secondary schools of Ahmedabad. Multiple regression analysis was carried out to

estimate the contribution of various independent variables to three dependent

variables job satisfaction.

Major findings were

1. No significant relationships were observed between locus of control and

various dimensions of job satisfactions.

2. The climate of academic motivation was found to be significantly

associated with such dimensions as job satisfaction, involvement as well as

overall satisfaction.

3. The climate of control was found to be negatively correctively with on the

job aspect of job satisfaction and with total job satisfaction.

4. The climate of dependency has no effect on various aspects of job

satisfaction and job involvement.

5. Job involvement was found, to be significantly and positively related with

difference job satisfaction.

6. Self-role distance was found to be significantly but negatively correlated

with all the dimensions of job satisfaction.

7. Inter-role distance, role-stagnation, role-ambiguity, role-overload, role-

inadequacy and overall indices of role-stress had been found to be

negatively associated with all but social relations dimensions of job

satisfaction.

An evaluation of the factors that affect the teacher moral in school setting

was conducted by Mohan (1985). The objective of the study was to make an

evaluation of the various factors that affected teacher morale. The study employed

the normative survey method of reach. The toal sample included 400 teachers

working in secondary schools of Srikakulam, Visakhapatnam, and East Godavari

districts of Andhra University. The stratified sampling technique was employed.

Six variables, viz, six, educational, qualifications, designation of a teacher,

teaching experience, nature of school management and locality were considered

for drawing the sample. A secondary school teacher morale opinionaire – I

(SSTMO-I) was constructed on the lines of the Likert method of summated ratings.

This tool measured ten factors, viz, satisfaction with teaching, service conditions,

fringe benefits, teaching load, recognition, personal characteristics, a vocational

activities, change proneness, academic improvement and sharing of

responsibilities. The statistical techniques of central tendency, variability, skew

ness, kurtosis, t-ratio, Anova and correlation were employed for the analysis of the

data.

1. Six factors, viz academic improvement, change proneness, a vocational

activities, teaching load, recognition and personal characteristics, which

belonged to the major factor of professional growth, influenced teacher

morale.

2. Factors such as sharing of responsibilities, service conditions, satisfaction

with teaching and fringe benefits had no marked effect on teacher morale.

3. Factors relating to professional growth revealed that academic

improvement, change proneness and vocational influenced teacher morale.

4. Teaching load, recognition, personal characteristics of the teacher

influenced teacher morale to some extent.

Prabakaran, (2000) made a stud on learner’s and teachers stress in computer

science courses at tertiary level. The purpose of the study was to identify different

factors that are responsible for learners and teachers stress in computer science

courses at tertiary level. The sample for the study consisted of 260 learners and 18

teachers randomly selected from two college one is privte and the other is

government college at Salem. Two types of questionnaires were used for data

collection (one for learners and another for teachers). Descriptive and parametric

statistical techniques were used for the analysis of data. The salient findings of the

study were when compared with learners, teachers, undergo more stress, learners,

of high economic group have more stress and there exists relationship between

parental occupational background and learners stress scores.

A study of the Self – concept of the Prospective Teachers was conducted by

Rai (1983).

The objectives of the inquiry were :

i. To study the nature and extent of self-concept of prospective teachers.

ii. To study sex, rural-urban, religious and caste differences in the self-concept

of prospective teachers.

iii. To study the relationship of self-concept with intelligence and adjustment

and

iv. To predict self-concept on the basis of intelligence and adjustment scores.

The study was conducted with a normative survey design on a sample of

603 prospective teachers drawn from seven teachers training institutions of

Varanasi. The data were collected with the help of Joshi’s group test of general

mental ability, Sexena’s Adjustment Inventory and a teacher self-concept scale

constructed and standardized by the investigator. For analyzing the data and

drawing conclusions mean, SD, t-test, analysis of variance, coefficient of

correlation and multiple regression analysis were used.

Some of the important findings were :

1. The self-concept of prospective teachers was positive

2. Female unmarried, post graduate and Hindu prospective teachers had

significantly better self-concept than their male, married graduate and non-

Hindu counterparts respectively.

3. The relationship between self-concept, adjustment and intelligence was

positive and significant.

RAJ 91984) Made a study of the Organization and administration of student

teaching programmes in the secondary teacher education institution.

The purpose of the study was to provide and adequate description of the

present status of student teaching programmes in teacher training colleges in the

northern region of India. The objectives of the study were :

1. To determine the current organizational and administrative practices in the

student teaching programmes.

ii. To study the current supervisory practices in the student teaching

programmes.

iii. To ascertain the preparation of the student before going into actual student

teaching experience.

iv. To determine the current duties of the person in charge of students teaching

the college supervisor, and the cooperative teacher of the cooperating

school.

v. To identify innovative concepts in the student teaching programme

vi. To explore the most desirable features of the student teaching programme.

vii. To obtain opinions of teachers in charge of secondary student teaching for

the improvement of the present programme, and

ix. To make recommendations for the improvement of student teaching

programmes.

Statistical techniques such as percentage, frequency, measures of central

tendency and chi-square test were used. A representative sample of 80 out of 186

secondary teacher education institutions of the northern region of India was taken

for the study.

The findings of this study were

1. The nature of the organization and administration of student teaching

programmes showed considerable diversity in terms of practices.

2. The recommendations of several expert committees, seminars, conferences,

study groups and commissions regarding and qualitative improvement of

student teaching programmes had not been implemented in the teacher

training institutions so far.

3. In general, pre-student teaching experience provided to students by the

teacher training institutions was not sufficient in terms of skills and

techniques of teaching required and his classroom situation.

4. Many institutions had audio-visual materials and equipment available with

them but were not utilizing them properly.

5. In a majority of institutions the title of the person looking after the student

teaching programme was ‘In charge of student teaching’. These persons

devoted about 20 percent of their time for the student teaching programme.

Consequently, they could not attend to many important duties related to the

organization and administration of the student teaching progamme required

of the In charge of student teaching.

6. In general, the In charge of students teaching the college supervisor, and the

cooperating teacher held adequate academic and professional qualifications.

7. The majority of institutions assigned 20 student teachers to each college

supervisor.

A study of Role conflict and its effect on role performance of extrovert and

introvert senior secondary school teachers of Delhi University, Ramgopal (1987).

The objectives of the study were to find out (i) the role performance of

extrovert and introvert school teachers with regard to their high and low role

conflict, (ii) the difference between the high and low role conflict grous of

extrovert school teachers (iii) the difference between the high and low role conflict

groups of introvert school teachers.

The sample of the study consisted of 200 teachers selected from 20 schools

of two zones of the north district of the Delhi Administration. The tools used in

the study were :

1. The locally prepared Teacher’s Role conception inventory

2. The locally prepared Principal’s Friend’s and students Expectations of

Teacher’s Role Inventory.

3. The locally prepared Teacher’s Role performance Inventory

4. The Maudsley Personality inventory adopted by jalota dn Kapoor. The data

were analyzed with the help of t-test.

The findings of the study were :

1. The extrovert teachers who had high role conflict demonstrated poor role

performance as compared to those extrovert teachers who had low role

conflict.

2. The high role conflict resulted in poor performance among introvert

teachers.

3. The extrovert school teachers were not equally affected by the role conflict

persisting in their schools.

4. The introvert school teachers differed significantly with regard to their high

and low role conflict group.

5. The extrovert and introvert school teacher having high role conflict did not

differ with regard to their role performance.

A study of qualities, values, attitudes, activities and adaptation of teacher

educators, special reference to Avadh Area, was conducted by Srivastav, (1986).

The objectives of the investigation were to study the social, economic and

educational qualities of teacher educators.

1. To know the quantity and quality of their work

2. To study their service conditions, participation in co-curricular activities,

etc.

3. To analyze the attachment of teacher-educators to certain values.

The investigation was a survey type study. The sample of the study

consisted of 73 teacher-educators working in all the ten affiliated college of Avadh

University having B.Ed., classes. The tools of the study were a questionnaire and

a two-point scale for measuring job satisfaction. Besides these tools, personal

discussion with the educators and perusal of office, university and teachers

organization records was also undertaken. The data were tabulated and analyses

using percentages.

The main findings of the study were :

1. Teacher educators were mostly upper-caste Hindu, male, married and were

mostly upper-caste Hindu, male, married and were permanent and service.

None of the training departments of colleges had female teacher-educators.

2. Mostly the educators were form joint families. Their parents were more

educated than their grandparents. A sizeable number came from families

related to the teaching profession.

3. The educational background of the teaching-educators was of medium

level. They were not found to be much interested in co-curricular activities

during their student life.

4. A few teacher educators had also experience of teaching at primary level.

Vyas (1982) made a study on Relationship of selected factors with the

teaching success of prospective teachers of Rajasthan.

The main purpose of the study was to examine the relationship of certain

factors (predictors) such as age, academic achievement, verbal and nonverbal

intelligence, personality adjustment, self-perception, attitude towards teaching,

teaching aptitude and socio-economic status of the prospective teachers with their

teaching success criteria such as supervisor’s ratings, self rating, university

practical marks, total practical assessment university theory marks and university

total marks. Apart from this, other subsidiary objectives were

1. To study the relationship among the proposed predictors and teaching

success of prospective teachers in the case of total sample.

2. To study the relationship among the proposed predictors and the teaching

success of the prospective male teachers.

3. To study the relationship among proposed predictors and the teaching

success of prospective female teachers.

4. To study the relationship among the proposed predictors in the case of total,

male and female prospective teachers.

5. To study the relationship among the proposed criteria in the case of total

make and female teachers.

The findings of the study were :

1. Age was significantly related to the criterion variable, supervisors ratings in

the case of the total sample. It was also significantly related to criterion

variables, university practical marks and total practical assessment, in the

case of total and male sample. But age was not significantly related to the

criterion variables, self-rating, university theory marks and university total

marks, in all the categories of the sample.

2. Academic achievement was significantly related with supervisor’s rating,

university practical marks, total practical assessment, university theory

marks and university total marks, in the case of total, male and female,

samples of prospective teachers.

3. Verbal intelligence was significantly related with supervisors rating,

university practical marks, total practical assessment, university theory

marks, and university total marks in case of total and female samples. In

the case of the male sample this predictor variable revealed a significant

relationship with supervisors ratings and university theory marks.

Wangoo, (1984) conducted a study on Teacher personality Correlates and

Scholastic Competence as related to Teacher Effectiveness.

The major aim of the inquiry was to study teacher personality correlates and

scholastic competence as related to effective teaching.

The sample consisted of 500 teachers drawn from higher secondary schools

of Srinagar district and its out skirts (Jammu and Kashmir State), teaching science,

mathematics and English to pre-university classes. Only male teachers falling in

the age group of 30-35 years and holding an M.A / M.Sc., degree in his subject

along with a B.Ed., degree were taken into account. Further, only those teachers

were considered who had been teaching the same subject in the same school for

the last three years.

The major finding was : Personality adjustment, democratic leadership, a

high degree of intelligence and emotional control were the main characteristics that

went with teacher effectiveness.

A study of Relationship between Personal Values, Needs, Job Adjustment,

Temperament, Academic career of Secondary School Teachers with their teaching

behaviours, was conducted by Zuberi, (1984)

The objectives of the investigation were to study

1. Classroom behaviors of teachers

2. Classroom behaviors of indirect-direct teachers, and

3. The relationship between values, needs, job adjustment, temperament,

academic careers of school teachers and their teaching behaviours.

Data on the classroom behaviours of teachers were collected from a sample

of 200 male teachers with the help of a modified version of Flanders’s Interaction

Analysis category system. the relationship between these five independent

variables and teachers behaviours was studied by the help of the product-moment

coefficient of correlation and t-test for the significance of difference between

means.

The major findings of the study are (1) about two-thirds and one-sixth of the

total interaction time was spent on teacher and pupil talk respectively. About a

fifth of the time was utilized in activities that promoted learning but required to

taking.

2.2.2. Studies Conducted in Abroad

The investigator identified 11 studies conducted abroad. Many studies

conducted abroad were located by the investigator on Stress, but the samples

selected in the study were neither heads of their institutions nor teachers. The

samples selected on the study were elate adolescent women, newly married

couples, on co logy in nurses, older good and poor sleepers, workers and so on.

Balfour et al (1993) conducted a study on dietary dis-inhibition, perceived

Stress, and glucose control in young type 1 diabetic women.

Examination the relationship of stress, dietary dis-inhibition and blood

glucose control in diabetic young women was the goal of this study. 654 diabetic

girls and women, ranging in age from 12 to 26 years, completed eating behaviors

and perceived stress scales during regular clinic visits. Blood glucose control was

assessed by concurrent glycosylated hemoglobin measurements. Multiple

regression analyses indicated that high levels of perceived stress predicted dietary

disinhibition and that within the age range studied, young women were more likely

than early adolescent girls to perceive their life as stressful. Contrary to previous

findings that failed to show that stress can indirectly affect glucose control by

interfering with compliance behaviours the present work indicted a stress. Dieter

disinhibition, Disinhibition interaction in predicting glucose control. Blood

glucose control was poorest in those diabetic women who both perceived their

lives as stressful and reported medium to high disinhibition. Blood glucose control

was unrelated to stress in young women who reported low levels of disinhibition.

These results have implications for the development of specific interventions for

young diabetic women who perceive their lives as stressful and who respond to

stress by eating.

Cohen et al (1993) made a study on Negative live events, perceived stress,

negative affect, and susceptibility to the common cold.

After completing questionnaires assessing stressful life events, perceived

stress, and negative affect, 394 healthy SS were intentiionally exposed to a

common cold virus, quarantined, and monitored for the development of

biologically verified clinical illness. Consistent with the hypothesis that

psychological stress increases susceptibility to infectious agents ; higher scores on

each of the 3 stress scales were associated with greater risk of developing a cold.

However, the relation between stressful life events and illness was mediated by a

different biologic process than were relations between perceived stress and illness

and negative affect and illness. That these scales have independent relations with

illness and that these relations are mediated by different processes challenges the

assumption that perceptions of stress and negative affect are necessary for stressful

life events to influence disease risk.

Daley et al (1997) made a study on Predictors of the generation of episodic

stress ; A longitudinal study of late adolescent women.

The effects of depression and Axis I co morbidity on subsequent self

generated life stress were examined in a longitudinal sample of 134 late adolescent

women. The results indicated that specific forms of psychopathology constitute a

risk factor for future self-generated episodic stress, even when controlling for prior

chronic stress. Co morbid depression had a particularly salient effect in the

prediction of stress related to interpersonal conflicts. The effects of family

psychopathology and sociotorpy were mediated through participant psychiatric

status, whereas autonomy made an independent contribution to the prediction of

episodic stress. These results support C.Hammen’s (1991) stress generation model

in a community sample, demonstrating how individuals with depression play a role

in the creation of stress, and also refine prior work by showing that only the

comorbid from depression is associated with subsequent conflict-related stress.

Daley et.al (1998) conducted a study an Axis II Symptomatology,

depression, and life stress during the transition from adolescence to adulthood.

This study examined 2 models of the relationship between personality

disorder symptomatology and depression, incorporating life stress as an

intervening variable. In a community sample of late adolescent women, symptoms

of Cluster B disorder predicted interpersonal chronic stress and self generated

episodic stress over 2 years, controlling for initial depression. Cluster A symptoms

also predicted subsequent chronic interpersonal stress, over initial depression.

Cluster C pathology did not predict subsequent stress. Personality disorder

symptomatology was also associated with mediation model whereby women with

higher levels of initial personality disturbance in Clusters A and B generated

excessive amounts of episodic tress and interpersonal chronic stress in the next 2

years, which, in turn, increased vulnerability for depressive symptoms. A

moderation model, whereby the presence of greater personality disorder symptoms

would increase the likelihood of depression in response to stress, was not

supported.

Davila et.al (1997) conducted a study on Material functioning and

depressive symptoms : Evidence for a stress generation model.

The present study applied C.L.Hammen’s (1991) stress generation model to

depressive symptoms in the context of marriage. The authors predicted that

depressive symptoms would lead to increased marital stress, which would in turn

lead to increased depressive symptoms. Social support processes were

hypothesized to function as a mechanism by which dysphonic spouses generate

stress. Hypotheses were tested in a sample of 154 newlywed couples. Depressive

symptoms, marital stress, support perceptions, and support behaviour (assessed

using observational procedures) were assessed initially and 1 year later. Results

provided evidence of marital stress generation among wives, and social support

processes functioned as a mechanism of stress generation for wives. Results

highlight the cyclical course of dyphoria and stress among wives.

Decker et. al (1993) made a study on Dimensions of work appraisal : Stress,

strain, coping, job satisfaction, and negative affectively.

Stress, strain and coping were measured by S.H Osipow and A.R.Spokane’s

(1987) Occupational stress Inventory with 249 adults in 75 occupations ; results

supported the validity of the inventory. Higher stress predicted higher strain and

lower job satisfaction ; the converse was true for coping, although the coping-

satisfaction link was weak. In hierarchical regression analysis, predictor variables

were gender, age, education, job tenure, negative affectivity, 6 stress measures, and

4 coping measures. Outcome variables were 4 measures of occupational strain

(vocational, psychological, interpersonal and physical) and 3 measures of job

satisfaction (intrinsic, extrinsic, and general). The 7 hierarchical regressions

revealed strong strain and stress-job satisfaction relationships ; negative affectively

had variable impacts on strain but little influence on job satisfaction.

Florio et. al (1998) made a study on the structure of work-related stress and

coping among oncology nurses in high-stress medical settings : A transactional

analysis.

A transactional approach was used to examine stress and coping among 59

oncology nurses. Nine work stress clusters were identified: Physician-Related

stress. Organizational factors, observing suffering, ethical concerns, death and

dying, carryover stress, Negative self-thoughts, inadequate resources, and

coworker stress, with the first 3 rated as most frequent and most intense. Ten

coping clusters were also identified : Coworker support, positive reappraisal,

developing a growth balancing work stress, negative coping, apathy, withdrawal,

and catharsis, with the first 3 rated as most frequently used and most effective.

The relationships among the clusters, as well as the theoretical and clinical

implications of these results, were discussed.

Friedman et.al (1995) made a study on Perceptions of life Stress and

chronic insomnia in older adults.

This study compared the level of self-reported Stress of 42 older good

sleepers (M age =68.2 years) and 42 poor sleepers 9M age = 68.7 years). The

relations among subjective ratings of sleep, level of perceived stress, and negative

mood were analyzed for each group. Good and poor sleepers reported similar

amounts of life stress, but the relations between life stress and sleep perceptions

different for the 2 groups. Specifically, within the group of poor sleepers, those

with higher life stress had greater difficulty falling asleep and less early morning

waking than did poor sleepers with lower life stress. There was no association

between life stress and any sleep measures for good sleepers. These results are

compatible with the any sleep that good and poor sleepers may have different

susceptibilities to poor sleep despite experiencing similar stressful life events.

Kiselica et.al (1994) made a study of Effects of stress inoculation training

on anxiety, stress, and academic performance among adolescents.

The effectiveness of a preventive stress inoculation program for adolescents

that consists of a blend of progressive muscle relaxation, cognitive restructuring,

and assertiveness training was examined. Trainees were compared with an

empirically derived control group on measures of anxiety, stress, and academic

performance. Compared with the bi-directional relation between life events and

self-reported depression was examined across a 1-year period. With time 1

depression controlled, Time 2 stress accounted for an additional 10% of time 2

depressive symptoms. Health related stress family violence, and financial stress at

time 2 predicted times 2 depressions after control for time 1 depression. With time

1 stress controlled, time 2 depression accounted for 8% of the variance in time 2

stress. Time 2 depression predicted time 2health related stress, financial stress,

household changes, spouse partner stress, family violence stress, and substance

abuse stress, controlling for each of these stressors at time 1. The results describe

a complex relation between stress and depression and suggest that the relation

between stress and depression is moderated by the type of stress.

Patterson et.al (1995) conduced a study on stress-induced

hemoconcentration of blood cells and lipids in healthy women during acture

psychological stress.

This study examined the effects of psychological stress on hemo

concentration in women. Hematological and homodynamic variables were

assessed in 17 women before and after a 3-min speech task. Significant changes in

hematocrit, hemoglobin levels, read and white blood cell (WBC) count, and

calculated plasma volume occurred during psychological stress (all ps<.05).

Significant increases ere also observed for total cholesterol, triglycerides, high

density lipoprotein cholesterol, low density lipoprotein cholesterol, and free fatty

acid (FFA : all ps<.05) during stress. After statistically correcting for the

homoconcentration effects of decreased plasma volume during stress, only WBC

count and FFA concentration remained significantly elevated during the stress task

(p<0.006) and p<.05, respectively). In sum, acute stress alters hemoconcentration

in women, which in turn can account for most stress induced changes in lipids.

Vagg et.al (1999) made a study on the job stress survey : assessing

perceived severity and frequency of occurrence of generic sources of stress in the

workplace.

The authors are pleased that (a) the need to assess the perceived severity

and frequency of occurrence of specific sources of occupational stress was

acknowledged and (b) job pressure and lack of organizational support were

recognized as key dimensions of stress in the workplace. In addressing concerns

about the independence of jSS severity and frequency ratings and the utility of the

JSS for assessing jobs with extensive person machine interactions, the authors

noted that correlations among JSS severity and frequency scores were relative low,

and that person-focused stressor items were relevant for employees with person-

machine jobs because must workers are required to deal with supervisors and

fellow employees. It was concluded that the JSS provides important information

about sources of occupational stress that can adversely effect the health and

productivity of men and women employed in a wide variety of work settings.

2.3. Analogy of the Study

Out of 24 studies identified by the investigator, 12 studies were conducted

in India and the remaining was conducted abroad. Among the 12 studies in India,

three studies were exactly on stress (Misra 1986 ; Mistry, 1985 and Prabakaran

2000) and the remaining studies were related to other psychological variables like

anxiety, personal characteristics, adjustment, self-concept, intelligence, aptitude,

leadership qualities, emotion etc. All the 12 studies were of the nature of this type.

The sample selected for the study ranges from 73 to 500. While 6 studies

were mdse among teachers of secondary schools, 3 studies were conducted among

the teacher educators of a T.T.I (Rai, 1983 : Raj 1984 and Srivastava 1986) and 2

studies were conducted among college as well as teacher educators of T.T.I.

(Mistry,1985 and Srivastava 1986). The few findings of the studies are, stress

reported by the teachers was significantly high and was positively related to

burnout with regard to emotional exhaustion and depersonalization. It was also

found that overall integers of role-stress had been found to be negatively

associated with all social relations and dimension of job satisfaction.

All the 11 studies conducted abroad, are related to stress. Out of the 11

studies, 6 studies were of survey research and the remaining 5 belonged to

experimental research (Balfour et.al 1993) Cohen et.al 1993 ; Daley et.al 1997 ;

Kiselica et.al 1994 and Patreson et.al 1985). The sample for the survey research

was from 17 to 394 but for the experimental research they were from 59 to 249.

The samples selected for the study were neither teachers nor headmasters but late

adolescent women, newly married couples, oncology in nurses, older good and

poor sleepers, workers etc.

The salient findings for the above studies were, blood glucose control was

unrelated to stress in young women, the relation between stressful life events, and

illness was mediated by different biological process, greater personality disorder

symptoms would increase the likelihood of depression in relation to stress was not

supported, the existence of cyclical course of dysphasia and stress among wives

and so on. Though the studies were not conducted among the headmasters / head

mistress of schools but all the above studies were conducted with relation to stress.

The forthcoming chapter deals with methodology of the study.

CHAPTER – III

METHODOLOGY

3.0. Introduction

3.1. Design of the Study

3.2. Objectives of the Study

3.3. Hypothesis of the Study

3.4. Statement of the Problem

3.4.1. Definitions for important terms

3.5. Methodology

3.5.1. Variables in the Study

3.5.2. Population and Sample of the Study

3.6. Collection of Data

3.7. Toll used in the Study

3.7.1. Scoring

3.7.2. Norms for Interpretation

3.8. Statistical Techniques used

3.9. Limitations of the study

CHAPTER – III

METHODOLOGY

3.0. Introduction

The present chapter deals with the methodology. It has ten major sections.

The first section deals with the introduction. The second section deals with the

design of the study. The third section gives an account of the objectives of the

study. The fourth section reveals the hypothesis of the study. The fifth section

states the statement of the problem and definitions for important terms. The sixth

section provides the methodology in which the type of study. Variables in the

study, population and sample of the study and selection of data in which tool used

for the collection of data is narrated. The eighth section explains the tool used of

the study. The ninth section provides the statistical techniques used for the study.

The tenth section covers the limitations of the study.

3.1. Design of the Study

A carefully drawn research design is like a well-laid path that makes the

reward at its destination. The research procedure has to be clearly spelt out in to

its minute details. Kerlinger (1973) has pointed out that research design is a plan,

structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain to control

variance. Research design is for facilitating the smooth sailing of the various

research operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding

maximum information with minimum expenditure of effort, time and money

researcher’s obligation to establish the trust worth ness of all data that he or she

draws from documentary sources. Document analysis should serve a useful

purpose in yielding information that is helpful in evaluating or explaining social or

educational practices. Since there are so many significant areas to be investigated,

setting up studies for the pure joy of counting and tabulating has little justification.

As shown in 3.1 the nature of the study was Normative Survey, the

variables taken up in the study were stress in general and Mild, Moderate and

Severe in particular. The tools used were three point scales. In the present study,

the investigator has taken a selected headmasters / headmistresses of the primary

schools at Theni District as the population for the study. By suing the systematic

random sampling technique, 310 Head Mistress / headmistress were selected as

sample for the study. Further classification made on the variables used among the

sample was Sex, Educational Qualification, Caste and years of Experience. The

tool used in the study was Stress measurement psychological testing standardized

by Dr.Latha Sathish in English and was translated in to Tamil by the investigator.

The statistical techniques used in the used were Mean, Standard Deviation and ‘t’

test.

3.2. Objectives of the Study

The general objectives of the study was to find out the stress levels of heads

of the institutions and the difference on the means cores of stress among the

different categories of the heads of the institutions.

The specific objectives were :

1. To find out the significant difference in stress level among male and female

heads of the institutions.

2. To find out the significant difference in stress level among male and female

heads of the institutions with qualifications such as +2, U.G. and P.G.

3. To find out the significant difference in stress level among male and female

heads of the institutions with respect to different community they belong

such as Sc, MBC and BC.

4. To find out the significant difference in stress level among male and

female heads of the institutions on the basis of different years of

teaching experience such as 1-10, 11-20 and more than 20 years.

5. To find out the significant difference in stress level among male and

female heads of the institutions with respect to Sex, Qualifications,

Community and different years of experience.

3.3. Hypothesis of the Study

1. There is no significant difference of the mean scores of stress among the

different categories of the heads of the institutions in total.

2. There is no significant difference among the male and female heads of the

institutions on the mean scores of different categories of stress such as mild,

moderate and severe.

3. There is no significant difference among the heads of the institutions that

are having different qualifications such as +2, U.G. and P.G on the mean

scores of different categories of stress.

4. There is no significant difference among the heads of the institutions with

respect to different community they belong such as SC, MBC and BC on

the mean scores of different categories of stress.

5. There is no significant difference among the heads of the institutions on the

basis of different years of teaching experience such as 1-10, 11-20 and

above on the mean cores of different categories of stress.

6. There is no significant difference on the mean scores of partial control over

different stress among the different categories of heads of the institutions

with respect to sex, qualifications, community and different years of

experience.

3.4. Statement of the Problem

The teachers in the teaching learning activities to participate, way of making

them to use A.V. Aids, Activity Based Teaching, Joyful Learning etc in the

classroom teaching, prevailing conducive organizational climate, making the

students to develop their personalities to the maximum extent, all depends on the

level of stress on has. The level of stress among the heads of the institutions

determines the efficacy of the output of the institutions. The investigator

conducted a study on “Stress Experienced by the Primary School Head Mistress

while Participating in Different Activities.

3.4.1. Definitions for Important Terms

The important terms in the problem are ‘Stress’, Primary School and

Headmaster. The operational definitions for the terms are given below.

a. The Penguin Medical Encyclopedia defines “Stress in any influence which

disturbs the natural equilibrium of the body, and includes within its

reference, physical injury, exposure, deprivation and all kinds of emotional

disturbances”

Generally the Stress refers to the imbalance between the perceived demand

and perceived capacity, which may come for variety of reason. In the present

study Stress refers to the pre occupation of the mental strain upon the head master /

headmistress of an institution. It means that if a heads of the institutions degree of

stress arise, efficiency in managing the school activities will be less and vice versa.

b. Primary School : The school, which has the standards from 1 to V. The

investigator selected the headmasters / headmistresses of those institutions

for collecting the date.

c. Head Mistresses : The female heads of the institutions which have the

standards from 1 to V is termed as head Mistresses / Head Mistress. In he

present study,178 headmasters and 132 headmistresses were selected.

3.5. Methodology

The investigator selected the Normative survey Research, as the investigator

felt of the type or research will be more suitable among all other types research.

The details of the nature of the study are given in the following headings.

3.5.1. Variables in the Study

The major variable in the study is Stress in general and Mild, Moderate

Severe Stress in particular among the headmistresses. The analysis on the sub

samples was made on the variables such as Sex, Educational Qualifications, Caste

and Years of Experience.

3.5.2. Population and Sample of the Study

The total number of Head Mistress / Head Mistress working in Theni

Educational District is the population in the study. The total number of population

is 1045 and out of them the required samples were selected.

3.5.3. Selection of Sample

Systematic Random Sampling Technique was used to select the sample of

the study. By the classification on Sex, Educational Qualifications, Caste and Year

of Experience, the Head Master / Head Mistress were selected systematically as a

sample. The total number of samples selected was 310. The sub sample is as

fellows.

Sex

Male - 178

Female - 132

Educational Qualifications

+2 - 157

U.G. - 069

P.G. - 084

Caste

SC - 054

MBC - 102

BC - 154

Experience

1-10 Years - 037

11-20 Years - 063

21 Years & above - 210

3.6. Collection of Data

The tool Stress Measurement – Psychological Test with three point scale

was administered to 310 samples of different categories. The collected data, was

discussed under the 3.5.4. the collected data were classified on the basis of Sex,

Educational Qualifications Caste and Year of Experience. While administering the

questionnaire the investigator requested the Head Masters / Head Mistresses to

read all the items carefully by taking their any time and put tick mark under the

appropriate place in the three point scale. The collected questionnaire were scored

systematically for data analysis in the study.

3.7. Toll used in the Study

The questionnaire of measuring Stress-psychological test was developed by

Latha (1988) in English. As the investigator wanted to administer it in mother

tongue it was translated in to Tamil. Then the material was given to the two

teacher educators to verify the accuracy of the translation by referring the English

version. After the translation was over the scale were tried out on a sample of two

teacher educators and 30 heads of the institutions. The item reliability value was

0.82.

The tool consisting of 52 items arranged from mild stress (last affecting the

every day affairs), moderate to severe stress (which affects the adjustment and

efficiency of an individual). The tool also has a control Index, where the subject

has to record whether he / she had complete, partial or no control over the

experienced stress situation.

The questionnaire studied the day to day problems encountered /

experienced by people and the way they react to it. If the subjects are experienced

with the list of events / situations / problems, they have to mark, ‘Yes’ and ‘No’ if

they have no experienced. If they find any situation, which is not applicable, they

may delete them. Moreover, they are expected to indicate the account of control

such as ‘Partial’, ‘Complete’ and ‘No control’ over the situation in which they

have given Yes response.

3.7.1. Scoring

The questionnaire with 52 items is divided into 3 categories of stressors

according to its severity in affecting an individual normal life.

The items from 1 to 17 are classified as Mild Stressors, items from 10 to 35

are classified as Moderate Stress and items from 36 to 52 represent Severe

stress. The score is obtained by adding the ‘Yes’ response.

The control Index was decided by giving a weight age of 1, 2 or 3 marks

against ‘yes’ items scored as Complete control, Partial control and No

control respectively. The index ranges from 0 to 156.

3.7.2. Norms for Interpretation

The fully filled questionnaires were taken for the scoring. Based on the

scoring procedures, the questionnaires were scored. Those who scored from 0.51,

52.105 and 106.156 will be termed as Complete control over stress, Partial control

over stress and No control over stress. Thus the tool was modified for the use in

the study by the investigator.

3.8. Statistical Techniques Used

The collected data in the study was analyzed by applying different statistical

measures ; mean and standard deviation were calculated for all the variables. ‘t’

test was used in the present study to find out the significant difference between the

two variables on the basis of sex, education qualifications, caste and years of

experience. The framed null hypothesis were accepted to rejected based on the ‘t’

values.

3.9. Limitations of the Study

The study has been conducted to the Head Mistress / Head Mistresses of

three blocks.

The investigator conducted the study with 310 samples due to lack of time

The investigator found very limited research studies conducted in India

regarding stress among the head Mistress / Headmistresses for primary

schools.

The ensuring chapter deals with the Data Analysis.

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