CHAPTER I

KAZAKHSTAN-INDIA RELATIONS IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

INTRODUCTION

The Republic of Kazakhstan is a country that stretches over a vast

expanse of northern and central Eurasia. A small portion of its territory west of

the Ural River is located in eastern-most Europe. It has borders with Russia, the

People's Republic of China, and the Central Asian countries - Kyrgyzstan,

Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, and has a coastline on the Caspian'Sea:

Kazakhstan was a republic of the former Soviet Union and is now a member of

the Commonwealth of Independent States.

It is the ninth-"largest country in the world by area, but it is only 62nd

country in terms of population, with approximately 6 persons per sq. km.

Population in 2006 was estimated at 15,301,4000, down from 16,846,800 in

1989 (Zakonodatel'stvo Kazakhstana 1989:1) mainly due to the emigration of

ethnic Russians and Volga Germans. Much of the country's land consists of

semi-desert (steppe) terrain~

Kazakhstan is a constitutional republic with a strong presidency. The

president is the head of state. The president also is the commander in chief of

the armed forces and may veto legislation that has been passed by the

Parliament. President Nursultan Nazatbayev has been in office since

Kazakhstan became independent. The prime minister chairs the Cabinet of

Ministers and serves as Kazakhstan's head of government. There are three

deputy prime ministers and 16 ministers in the Cabinet. Daniyal K. Akhmetov

became the Prime Minister in June 2003.

Kazakhstan has a bicameral Parliament, made up of the lower house

(the Majilis) and upper house (the Senate). Single mandate districts popularly

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elect 67 seats in the Majilis; there also are ten members elected by party-list

vote rather than by single mandate districts. The Senate has 39 members. Two

senators are selected by each of the elected assemblies (Maslikhats) of

Kazakhstan's 16 principal administrative divisions (14 regions, or oblasts, plus

the cities of Astana and Almaty). The President appoints the remaining seven

senators. Majilis deputies and the government both have the right of legislative

initiative, though the government proposes most legislation considered by the

Parliament. There are 11 political parties in Kazakhstan (Constitution of the

Republic of Kazakhstan 1996: 2-7).

When in 1991 former Soviet republics unexpectedly found themselves

independent Kazakhstan looked as an obvious outsider among others. Being

land-locked, Kazakhstan has been cut off from leading trading routes and is

clutched between Russia, on the one hand, and unstable Muslim republics of

Central Asia, on the other. Ethnic diversing and the contradiction between

various religious groups gave rise for pessimistic forecasts about inevitable

conflicts and even possible disintegration of the country. ("Kazakhstan: The

Heart of Eurasia" 2006:5). Mass emigration of the Russian-speaking population

holding leading positions in national economy to Russia, Germany and Israel

reduced the already low chances of social and economic development.

Following these forecasts Kazakhstan should have turned at best into a

commodity appendage of Russia, or at worst - a long stripe of instability and its

transformation into a source of ethnic and religious· conflicts were expected.

(Patnaik, Ajay 2003:57) Yet within only 15 years of independence Kazakhstan

emerged as one of the most stable and fast developing countries of the CIS.

The Kazakh phenomenon has several reasons. First, the organizing

abilities of the leaders of the Republic, who managed to find solution to

objective problems. Being cut off from the sea, Kazakhstan has emphasized its

focus on the development of a communication network, on the one hand and on

an establishment of good-neighbourhood with the states having access to the

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sea on the other. It has allowed the country not only to achieve economic

independence, but also to build a well-balanced foreign policy. Of a giant

enclave caught between far more powerf~Il states such as Russia and China,

Kazakhstan became some kind of binding unit of Eurasia, a crossroad of

trading routes between the West and the East with all the advantages following

from it (Nursultan Nazarbaev 1997: II) .

Second, Astana has not been involved in political and military .. ambitions, having preferred a role of stabilizing force in the region. On the one

hand, Kazakhstan immediately renounced possession of nuclear weapons·

which was on its territory after disintegration of the Soviet Union; on the other

hand, it has undertaken the role of a generator of the processes to effect

regional cooperation and understanding. The leadership initiated a meeting of

the Conference on Interaction and Confidence-Building Measures in Asia

(CICA). It has supported an idea of the Kremlin on the Eurasian Economic

Community (EurAsEC) and the Collective Security Treaty Organization

(CSTO). Astana became one of the organizers of the Shanghai Cooperation

Organization (SCO). And [mally, Kazakhstan consistently acts asa facilitator

of the inter-religious reconciliation and now has been chosen for the position

of the OSCE Chairmanship from 2010.

The third factor is the balanced national policy. Unlike most other CIS

states, authorities of the Republic did not intensify national ambitions of the

majorities. They have preferred a policy of active involvement of ethnic and

religious communities in political, economic and cultural life of the country. It

has not only prevented the seemingly inevitable internal conflicts, but has also

suspended "brain drain". Russian language has been declared the official

language of Kazakhstan. Conditions have been created for cultural autonomy

of communities living in the country, and simultaneously strict measures were

taken against the various extremist organizations. This policy has strengthened

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supporters of dialogue in different groups of the population and has at the same

time weakened radicals (Maistrovoy 2006).

The fourth factor is a long-term economic policy. Astana from the

very beginning made every effort to prevent the transformation of the Republic

from a raw material source to a strong manufacturing power. It has attempted

to create maximum favorable investment climate which ultimately was a

success. Since the independence more than 27 billion dollars of investments

(l3 billion dollars - only between 2003-2006) flowed into the economy of

Kazakhstan. The government of the country has tried to avoid preferences and

has involved the largest companies of the West, Russia and China for

cooperation in sphere of oil extracting and processing. This way, economic

interests of many states became focused on Kazakhstan while none now

possesses dominating influence. By the way, in th~ beginning of 1990s

according to the data of the review done by a World Economic Forum,

Kazakhstan ranked only 109th in the rating list of competitive countries.

However in the index of competitiveness in 2006 - 2007 Kazakhstan had

moved to 56th place. In comparison, Kazakhstan's nearest neighboring CIS.

countries - Russia and Ukraine - occupied 75th and 84th positions respectively.

These facts show that the strategy proclaimed by the President Nazarbayev in

his Annual Message to the People of Kazakhstan in 1997 "Kazakhstan's

Strategy of Joining the World's 50 Most Competitive Countries" is being

successfully realized. The republic stands on the threshold ofa new stage of

development. The toughest transition period has approached its·logical end and

now in the long term one can speak about an absolutely new country which

became the important segment of global geopolitics (Dzhandosov, Oraz

2006:46).

Substantially, this economic policy has defmed also multidimensional

foreign policy. Here again one more achievement of Astana can be pointed out

which is in the diplomatic field. The authorities of the Republic have managed

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to avoid one-sided foreign policy and to succeeded create a balanced system of

relations with global powers like Washington, Beijing and Moscow. In

Kazakhstan, on the one hand, initiatives which could have led to foreign

domination of the Republic and its use for doubtful political actions, have been

blocked. On the other hand, joint projects which could promote development of

Kazakhstan were not declined. It is obviously shown in relations with Russia.

Astana and the Kremlin are united with large power projects; however,

Kazakhstan has not made itself dependent on the stronger northern neighbour,

and has joined the project on transporting oil by Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline

which is actively supported by the USA. Other example is space projects which

Russia carries out in Kazakhstan. Astana has insisted that Kazakhstan became

not the contractor but a full participant as the host territory for realization of

space projects and by that received real economic and scientific dividends. On

June 18, 2006, Kazakhstan joined the club of the world's space powers in its

own right when it launched its fIrst commercial satellite 'KazSat l' from the

Baikonur Cosmodrome on a Russian built booster rocket ("Kazakhstan: The

Heart of Eurasia" 2006:7).

Similar policy is conducted by Kazakhstan in its relations with the

USA. The Republic with readiness has supported Washington in its struggle

against the international terror, but however, has refused to give its territory for

the American bases as Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan had done.·Kazakhstan has

improved relations with the USA without having caused discontent in Moscow

and having avoided conflicts with a significant part of the Islamic world.

Not siding with any 'Of the powers struggling for spheres of influence

in the CIS has allowed Kazakhstan to avoid "color revolutIon" and the turmoil

which has swept many post-Soviet states in the last few years. As a result,

Kazakhstan is one of the most stable and fast-growing countries both in

economic and political development among the CIS Republics.

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China

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Kazakhstan has stable relationships with all of its neighbors and the

international community; it has established diplomatic relations with more than

120 countries. It is a member of 67 international organizations which include

the United Nations, Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe

(OSCE), Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council and Organization of the Islamic

Conference (OIC). It is an active participant in the North Atlantic Treaty

Organization's (NATO) Partnership for Peace (PiP) program. Kazakhstan is

also a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States, the Economic

Cooperation Organization (ECO) and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization.

Along with Russia, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan and Belarus it

established the Eurasian Economic Community in 2000 to re-energize earlier

efforts at harmonizing trade tariffs and the creation of a free trade zone under a

customs union (Nazarbayev 2001 :56-58).

The Republic of India is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh

largest country by geographical area, the second most populous country

(population - 1,133,079,000), and the most populous democracy in the world.

Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and

the Bay of Bengal on the east, India has a coastline of 7,517 kilometers

(4,671 mi). It borders Pakistan to the west; China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the

north-east; and Bangladesh and Burma to the east.

India is a dynamic, developing country. Alongside China, India is

positioning itself as a future superpower and its foreign policy addresses a

range of important global economic and political issues. At the same time,

being one of the leading regional powers, India is conducting a policy of "Look

East" and Central Asia (CA) is considered to be one of its priority directions.

Attention towards the region is conditional on its aspirations of looking

out for its national interests and desire to raise its international status and not

lag behind its main rival in Asia - China. Currently India is not a leading

11

foreign player in the Central Asian region. In the second half of the 1990s,

India's relationships with the Central Asian states were, of its own volition,

frosty; India sees the Islamic factor as a special threat to its safety and security.

At the beginning of anti-terrorist operations, the awareness of the political elite

of Central Asian states of the threat to their security posed by religious

extremism nudged Delhi into reviewing its relationships in the region and this

was shown by the State Visits to Central Asia of Prime Minister Atal Bihari

Vajpayee in 2002 and 2003 (Vajpayee 2003) .

.. ··Theinterestsof and threats to India and the Central Asian republics are

the same - the fight against Islamic extremism, terrorism, drug trafficking, the

chaotic situation in Afghanistan and most important, ensuring regional security.

By increasing its cooperation with Central Asian countries in this sphere, India

is aspiring to lessen the influence of Pakistan that India views as the main

stronghold of international terrorism and Islamic extremism in the region. India

has taken several steps to set up conditions allowing it to play a more

significant role in the region:

- The rapprochement of India with Central Asian states began with

helping the republics move towards joining the Non-aligned Movement, in

which India plays a leading role. Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan are already

members of this organization and Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan have observer

status;

India has shown an interest in the activities of the Shanghai

Cooperation Organization (SCO), one of whose main activities is the war on

terrorism and ensuring regional security. At the summit in Astana in 2005,

India and Pakistan were granted observer status of this organization;

- From 2003 to 2005 bilateral anti-terrorism agreements were signed

with Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, which proposed

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Map 2 lVlap of India

China

India State or Union Terr itory

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• Stat. 0< Union Territory C.~I

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Myanmar

setting up joint mechanisms to fight terrorism, exchange experience,

joint studies and training military personnel from CA states in India. Definite

steps have already been taken in this direction. Especially close military­

political cooperation-has developed between India and Tajikistan. In November

2003 during his visit to Dushanbe, Prime Minister Vajpayee announced that

India was funding the reconstruction of Ainiy Airport in Dushanbe, which

India was using to deliver humanitarian aid to Afghanistan. This was seen in

the Pakistani mass media as a move towards the strengthening Indian military

presence in Tajikistan and even setting up a future military base. However,

there was no officialconfmnationofthis from India or Tajikistan.

Indian interests in energy resources, side by side with ensuring political

stability, very likely nudged India into strengthening its influence in the region.

India is the sixth largest importer of energy resources in the world and its needs

are growing. Its stable economic growth and consequently its national security

dep~nd on its hydrocarbon supplies. Currently, India imports 70% of its crude

oil and gas from Persian Gulf states. The conflict in Iraq leading to the

increased price of crude oil pushed the Indian government to search for

alternative sustainable sources of raw materials and CA is seen as a likely

. place.

At present, India is yet to make its presence felt to the CA states in the

energy field. India is ready to invest in oil and gas industry in Uzbekistan. In

April 2005 whilst Islam Karimov, the President of Uzbekistan, was in India,

cooperation in the energy field was discussed. However, even if India gains

access to the oil and gas fields in the region, serious problems remain about

how it would be able to benefit without any pipeline system between the two

countries.

It is possible that the question of ensuring oil and gas supplies to India

could involve the Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan pipeline project. To

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make the project profitable, it would be necessary to sign up India, whose

market for gas would justify such a massive project. For a long time India

delayed confirming its participation in the project citing the difficult internal

political situation in the region, but in 2005 it joined talks between the member­

countries of the project. An alternative is a gas pipeline from Iran to India via

Pakistan. India is in discussions about both projects, which are currently the

subject of technical-economic feasibility studies. India's energy policy is long­

term. Currently it has to ensure its own supplies of oil and gas from the Persian

Gulf countries. The significance of CA as a source of energy resources will

grow as supplies from more accessible geographical regions become exhausted

and there will be difficulties in supplying oil and gas from these regions.

The CA countries are of interest for India in developing trade

cooperation. The region is seen as a market for Indian goods and a potential

source of natural resources (gold, uranium and fuel-energy resources) and also

as a transit corridor for Indian goods to CIS and European countries. At the

same time, India aspires to expand economic links with states in the region in

order to achieve its political ends. The stimulus for this comes from the Indian

side through arranging trade fairs and meetings between Chambers of

. COmmerce. The Government of India wants to attract private businesses to

invest in the countries of the region. For example with the help of the Indian

Embassy in Kyrgyzstan, Jagson Oil Ltd has invested more than a million

dollars into the Kyrgyz economy by opening 6 filling stations in Osh oblast.

India is trying to expand cooperation in areas where it has traditionally

been strong - IT, pharmaceuticals and medical equipment, textiles and tea. Its

main economic partner in the area is Uzbekistan where about thirty joint

ventures in pharmaceuticals, agricultural processing and textile production are

Indian (Nadkarni 2007: 12).

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However, experts think that in recent years trade and economic relations

have only marginally improved. In 2004, the share of Indian goods in

Uzbekistan's foreign trade turnover accounted for 2.9% only and in other

republics even less (Bochkareva 2006:3). The main reason for the weak

presence of Indian companies in the CA market are certainly transport and

communications difficulties, caused by the borders of the CA republics in

general, which in their tum have no sea access and the lack of development of

the infrastructure. Steps are being taken to alleviate these difficulties. Under an

agreement with Iran, India constructed the Zaranz-Deloram-Chahbahar

highway, which would shorten Toad links from CentralAsia to India by 1,500

km. India's entry into the CA market is bound to promote the development of

the North-South transport corridor whose mission is to link the countries of

Southern and South-East Asia to Europe via Iran, the Caspian Sea and Russia

that will comprise rail, sea and road links.

Broadly speaking, India is not yet ready to become a leading player in

the Central Asian market but is laying the groundwork to allow it to occupy a

higher profile. The political interests of India and Central Asian states coincide

on threats to security in the shape of religious extremism and terrorism. India's '. j

policy in the CA energy sector is strategic and, as far as one can see, mid- and

long-term. The problem lies in the lack of access to pursue its energy and trade

interests in the region, namely the difficult road and communication system.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

In 2006 both countries celebrated the 15th anniversary of diplomatic

relations between the two countries. However, links between the two nations

have been there for thousands years. During the period between 12th and 3rd

century B.C . ., nomadic and semi-nomadic Saka tribes reached India from

Southern Kazakhstan.

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The history and culture of Kazakhstan evolved over thousands of years,

including the origin of native population - Kazakhs, formation and sources of

their statehood, development of culture and cultural traditions, interrelation

with other civilizations. According to historian Auezkhan Kodar, it is known

that during all its history the formation of Kazakh people occurred in one

territory, in the space known as "Higan-Carpatbian quadrangle of steppes"

which caused a series of ethnogenesies as a result of which by XV century

there was a Kazakh nation (Moldabekov 2005).

Kazakhs as nation developed as a result of three global ethnogenies:

Iranian, Turkic and Mongolian. There is a Kazakh proverb saying that every

man resides in three degrees of relationship: with a native tribe (ata zhurt), with

a tribe of mother (naghashy zhurt) and with a tribe of his wife (kayin zhurt).

This saying underlines Kazakh ethnogenesis - a native tribe for Kazakhs are

Turks, maternal - Iranian and conjugal- Mongols.

It reflects also dynamics of ethnogeny in the Central Asia as Turkic

people from Altai, who came under Iranians of Maverannahr and subsequently

. were conquered by Mongols, and then had to espouse with the last of the

dynastic marriages, ·ofRussian princesses with kipchak khans.

Thus, Kazakh ethnogenesis consists of several cultural civilizational

turns: I) when Turks remained keepers and continuers of Aryan primordial

traditions that underwent reforms in Iran of Zarathustra; 2) Turk-Muslim, when

steppe governors who quickly reoriented in a conjuncture and have

successfully tabled an Islamic card and 3) Mongol-Kipchak, resulted in a

conquest of Russia and intrusion into Europe. It was the first case after Atilla's

campaign in V century when nomads were tom so far from boundaries of the

habitual area and were real catalysts of assimilation which once had happened

with their Hun ancestors. Anyway, Khan Batyi (1208-55, Juchi Khan's son and

. Chinghiz Khan's grandson, founder and flrst khan of the Golden Horde) came

17

back and created Golden Horde on whose ruins arose subsequently Kazakh

khanate.

According to written sources the statehood of Kazakhs was achieved by

1470 when in the territory of Kazakhstan, in its southeast areas - Semirechye

and in valleys of the river Chu - Kazakh sultans Janybek and Girey could head

the numerous tribes united in a tribe "Kazakh", "Kazakhs" (Velyaminov­

Zemov 1863: 35).

Mohammed Haidar Dughlati wrote about "appellation by a part of

Uzbeks, who moved with Kerei and Zhanybek from Dasht-i-Kipchak in

Semirechye and assumed the sobriquet "Kazakh" which became later· their

national name" (Velyaminov-Zemov 1863: 37). Here it is necessary to specify

that nomads - dwellers of Kypchak steppes - were named Uzbeks by the

Golden Horde khan. With the entry into the political arena of nomad tribes

under a name "the Kazakhs" headed by Kerey and Zhanibek and their children,

the name "Uzbek" was applied to the tribes which had been pushed aside to the

south and occupied the cities ofMaverannahr.

At the beginning of XVI century, under Kasymkhan, Kazakh khanate's

extended borders became stronger. The structure of khanate included the Syr­

Darya cities of Turkestan, Otrar, Sayram, Sauran, Sygnak, Suzak, Chimkent.

KazakhStan became widely known in Asia and Europe.

Outstanding orientalist V.V.Bartold wrote: "In a modem history of

Moslem, as contrasted to very fast change of dynasties and to political

instability of authority in general, the states small in size and consequently with

lack of any patriotism, we now meet the states which are fonned. We see

Muslim power of Great Mongols in India, then Turkey, Persia ... " (Bartold

1925:78). Approximately during the same time had arisen, the Kazakh khanate,

Yarkend khanate in Central Asia. On historical arena, Turk speaking Kazakhs,

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Uzbeks, Kirghiz, Karakalpaks have loudly made themselves known. Kazakh

khanate existed down to 1716 when the last khan of all Kazakhs, Taukekhan, '

died, and the authority passed to numerous steppe khans, each of which headed

only separate groups of Kazakhs and territories. The process of decomposition

and the decline began and came to the end with affiliation of the country into

the structure of Russian empire. Word "Kazakh" that gave the name to the state

is a Turkic word. In opinion of the majority of researchers, it means "the free

person").

Kazakhs were freedom-loving nomads and farmers; they possessed the

huge herds of animals, rich fertile grounds and pastures in foothills and valleys

of the rivers. However speaking about Kazakhs and the first state of Kazakhs -" .

Kazakh khanate, it is necessary to know that an origin of this people as well as

background of its statehood and culture go back to centuries. In the territory of

Kazakhstan tribes of so-called Andron and Beghazy-Dandybay cultures already

lived during the bronze age, four millenia ago. They were engaged in farming

and cattle breeding and were the fine soldiers who had mastered the art of

fighting. There was stratification in their society into simple people and

soldiers - chariot riders whose patron, on their view, was the Sun God in whose

honour they sung religious hymns. The images of chariots remain on rocks

where ancient people placed the tribal sanctuaries.,temples with wide blue sky

vaulted over it. Petroglyphs on black rocks burnt by the sun show scenes of

ritual dances, images of sun headed deities, mighty camels and the bulls

embodying images of ancient gods (Tashutov 2003:34).

) On April, 15, 1925 Ahmet Bajtursynov suggested in 5th Kirghiz ASSR Party Congress in Kyzylorda to return the historical self-name of Kazakhs and his proposal was accepted. As it is known from history, Russian imperial government had nickname Kazakh ancestors "the Kirghiz-kaisaks" and the autonomous republic was named "Kirghiz ASSR". It is unlikely that Russian officials did not discern self-names of peoples affiliated in Russian empire. But the treatment of colonizers to indigenes was everywhere the same whether it be an Englishman in India or a Frenchman in Africa. Most likely the reason was. that it is difficult for Russian person to pronounce guttural 'kb' and also for to not confuse nomads with Russian Cossacks so they thought up such "original" name for them. And the authentic Kirghizs began to be named "Karakirghiz" - "wildstoned". (Ana Til-1992. - January, 30.)

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Archeological excavations in the north-western regions of India, in the

centers of the Harappa civilization display an existence of intertribal exchange

of goods already in ancient time. From Central Asia towns of the Harappa

civilization acquired gems. In its tum there were discovered Harappa

handicrafts in Central Asia. These facts display that there were processes of

different goods exchange in Central Asian and Indian regions, before the

appearance of the Aryans in India. The recent researches of archeological relics

display that there existed contacts between towns of Sindh river valley and

Central Asian and Kazakhstan settlements. These discoveries belong to the

period of golden age of the Harappan culture. Some items are similar with

those of the Harappan culture (metal goods, beads made of faience, pottery,

ivory). Handicrafts from India as well as the local items that had obvious signs

of Indian influence were discovered in Central Asia (Abuseitova 2004:1).

The barrows of notable soldiers scattered on the Kazakhstan steppes

excel in the grandiose sizes of an embankment and the tomb. Necropolises

Beghazy and Dandybay in steppes of the Sary-Arka and Tegysken in Aral

oblast are most known. Together with a deceased person in a tomb his weapons

were put: an axe, a bronze dagger and spears, sometimes - horses, harnessed in

fighting chariots. People of this epoch werenotonIy fine soldiers, shepherds

and farmers but also magnificent metallurgists. They made axes, knifes,

daggers of bronze, ornaments. They started to develop deposits of copper

which are used till now - Zhezkazghan and Sayak copper careers. People lived

in the big settlements: in dugouts and earthen houses; but there- were also the

ancient cities surrounded with walls and ditches, built up by the strictly planed

dwellings. In these cities lived soldiers and handicraftsmen, priests and

farmers. These tribes lived in the territory of Kazakhstan about thousand years

- from XVII AD up to IX-VIII AD. Later they were superseded by Sakas.

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Sakas

It was from the time of the Sakas, who were of ancient Persian origin,

known to Greeks as Scythians, and to the Chinese as "Se", that the dispersal

became more prominent. It was around 1000 BC that the Sakas moved

southward up to Northern India. Kazakh historians also talk about the Yueche

tribes, who were proto-Turks migrating southwards to the Indian peninsula. It

appears that Kazakhstan was the real home of the Sakas, who established a

dominant state in the Semirech'e (seven rivers) around ih_6lh Centuries?? .

The Sakas were known by different names in Kazakhstan - such as Messa.getes,

the Daces, the Issedons and the Tigrahauda (Abdyzhapar Abdykarimov

1994:17).

Strabo defined all the Central Asian clans inhabiting the area east of the

Caspian Sea as Scythian in culture (Strabo XI:254). Among others, modem

Kazakhs (especially the branch known as "Saks") claim descent from the

Sakas. Sakas were nomads, semi nomads and farmers. But first of all they were

fine equestrians. First-ever Sakas learned to shoot from a bow while galloping

at full speed. The Scythian or Saka horseman served as the prototype of an

image of the fearless centaur. In VII A.D. fast groups of steppe knights from

mountain and steppe areas of Eurasia and, first of all, from Kazakhstan, haVIng

passed the Caucasian ridge, intruded Western Asia, ruined cities, plundered

palaces and temples. Assyrian Tsar, Assargadon (680-669 A.D.), concerned

with their successes, sought for the union with them and was compelled to give·

his daughter as a wife to the Scythian leader Partatua. Sakas' cavalry appeared

at walls of Urartus, in Palestine, then moved to Egypt. Sakas destroyed Urartu

fortress Teishebaini. Only at the end of VI A.D. Sakas returned to the steppes,

carrying away not only the stolen loots but also knowledge of culture of Media,

Urartu, Assyria. Later Sakas conducted bloody wars with Akhmenids. Tsar

Cyrus of Akhmenids fell in 530 in fight with Sakas. His head was thrown in a

Tf-I-16782

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waterskin filled with human blood under the order of Saka Tsarina, Tomiris

(Triada Pride 2000).

Accumulation of Saka burial grounds are found in valleys of the rivers

Syrdariya, IIi, Talas, Chu, Lepsy, Issyk, Chilik, Charyn, Kegen and Narynkol.

For example, Zhuantobe burial grounds are composed of 300 barrows,

Berkarrin burial grounds on Talas river - of 500 barrows, Bestashyr's - of 31

(Kan 2002:28). The magnificent sites of the Sakas abundantly exist in the

foothills of th.e Tian Shan mountains. For example, the Kurgan complex near ..

Issyk town, not so far away from Almaty, provides the complete history of the

Sakas. This early "Aryan" tribe had a well-developed "animal art" with

descriptions of the struggle among steppe animals. The Sakas had their own

language and mythology.

The Kurgan complex gives an exhilarative account of Central Asia's

pagan past. The locals called the complex Kurgan, which sounds more like

Spurgan (Tibetan) or Sapurgan (Mongolian) for burial mounds. The complex is

on· a flat ground housing over 40 burial mounds - each 60 meters in diameter

and 6 meters in height. The mounds are multi-layered with two burial rooms

and chambers. It was here that archaeologists found a few years ago, from one

of these mounds a body clad in a gold-embroidered dress, known to the locals

as "Golden Man" or "Altyn Adam". The mounds dating back to IV~III ? .? .

revealed an unknown treasure of human history. Though it is not easy to see

the original piece of the Golden Man, the replicas kept in several local

museums provide fascinating details of the Sakas, whose influence spread in

those times up to Central India.

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Photo l' A parade armour of a Saka royal from the Issyk kurgan,

Kazakhstan

Source: http://vvww.kazakhstan.orexca.comlkazakhstan_history.shtml

The burial mounds are still kept intact and are guarded well by local villagers.

Archaeologists describe the man found in the mound as being 17-18 years old.

He is dressed in a golden uniform with headgear heavily decorated with gold

plates of various forms. The jacket is covered with three thousand gold articles.

The red colour leather trouser ends with leather boots with tops decorated again

with gold pendants. The images on these include snow leopards, horses and

birds. The frontal side of the headgear has figures of two winged horses with

goat horns. He is wearing a spiral-shaped neck decoration,

with images of tiger heads. He has a long iron sword and an iron dagger

fastened to the belt. The sword and dagger scabbards are again decorated with

golden images of animal figures.

The burial mounds of the Sakas and the Golden Man vividly recall the

life and activities of the Aryan people, references to whom are found in the

Vedas, the Puranas and the Mahabharata. The Kurgan complex of the Sakas if

researched may provide more accurate historical correlations between the

ancient Kazakh and the Indian tribes. Some historical records suggest that the

Sakas first embraced Buddhism during the period of Saka King Maues, who

conquered Taxila ·by the end of 1st century ?? Today independent

Kazakhstan's national emblem reflects the "imperial sign" of the Sakas

represented by the great Kushan Empire.

The Saka/Scythians are considered by mainstream historians and

linguists as being Indo-Europeans who spoke a language of the Iranian branch

of the Indo-Iranian family of the Indo-European languages. The two surviving

modem languages closest to Scythian are Ossetian in the Caucasus Mountains

and Pashto in Afghanistan and Pakistan.

The Northern Iranian Aryan speakers including the Saka/Scythians

were slowly overwhelmed by the Mongol-Turkic expansion in Central Asia

beginning in the 4th century AD. Despite significant deaths in the invasions

and further loss of population as survivors moved to other areas,

Saka/Scythians and other ethnic groups formerly speaking the Northern

Iranian language today form an ethnic substratum of contemporary Central

Asian Turkic peoples, including the Kazakhs.

Archeological evidence and histographies shows a worldview of Sakas,

similar to that of ancient German and Scandinavian traditions and closely

24

l

related to that of present-day Kazakhs and Mongols. It is theorized that they

believed Man was a part of the Universe, Cosmos, Heaven, Sun, mountains,

rivers, in total nature, and shows close affinities with Shamanism and

Tengriism which are still practiced today, from Kazakhstan to Siberia which

conceive of God as related to Cosmic laws and forces. Modem Kazakhs are

Muslim, most modem Mongols are Buddhists, and Siberian shamanism is not

known to be directly connected to Indo-European religion. However, many

cultures have changed religious practices over the period of millennia.

The Sakas were also one of several tribes that conquered India from the

northwest, where they established the rule of the Indo-Scythians. The Saka Era

is used by the Indian national calendar, a few other Hindu calendars, and the

Cambodian Buddhist calendar-its year zero begins near the vernal equinox of

78.

The Indo-Scythians were named "Shaka" in India, an extension on the

name Saca used by the Persians to designate Scythians. Shakas receive

numerous mentions in texts like the Puranas, the Manusmriti, the Ramayana,

the Mahabharata, the Mahabhasiya of Patanjali, the Brhat Samhita of Varaha

Mihira, the Kavyamimamsa, the Brihat-Katha-Manjari, the Katha-Saritsagara

and several other old texts. The Shakas are described as part of an amalgam of

other war-like tribes from the northwest (Purl 1994:191-207).

Disk-shaped ,bronze mrrrors with a relief roller on the edge, cone­

shaped salience in the center and a small flank ledge that is a pin for handle of

the type, which is known also on the territory of Central Asia were discovered

in Takshila (the second layer of Sirpak).

Discovery of proto-Indian seal with two pictograms in Altyn-dep

allowed to make an assumption that some of the inhabitants of Altyn-dep were

able to read this "text". There is an assumption that one part of the ancient

25

population of Central Asia, probably, spoke Dravid language. Comelian beads

with white ornament were found in Central Asia and South Kazakhstan in

tombs near Varuh valley (Isfarin area), Tura-Tash, Shaushukum, Ungur-Kura,

Taigak and others, and also in Horezm and Farhadstroy. In Central Kazakhstan

such beads were found in Saka complexes of the same period. There were no

large deposits of good comelian in Kazakhstan and Central Asia. Jewelers got

it from Arabia, Iran and India. Professor G.G.Lemmlein thinks that the beads

are Indian-made (Kambei, Gudzharat). Linguistic data of H. Beily, who

analyzed the origins of Avesta terms 'instrument', 'weapon' and adjective

'armed' in his work "Ariana", is very important. Later they entered Sogd

language and Sanskrit. In Sanskrit and Prakrit this word forms complicated

epithets and is met in the meaning of 'horse armor'. Sanskrit started to use

Iranian terms with the meaning 'horseman' and 'saddle'. We might assume

that corresponded words could penetrate to the Indian languages not earlier

than VII-IV BC as a result of contacts with nomadic tribes of Central Asia, and

namely with the Saka tribes. Contacts between India and Central Asia in the

sphere of weaponry are witnessed by the fact that term for 'chest armor' came

to Sanskrit from Iranian. Ethnic-cultural contacts between Central Asia,

Kazakhstan and India became more intensified and regular in the period of

emergence of the first large state formations on the territory of India (the

Mauryas and Kushan empires), Buddhism and the campaign of Alexander the

Great (Abuseitova 2004:2).

Historians suggest that the second phase of contact between India and

Central Asia took place during the period of ancient Turks dating to the middle

of the first millennium AD. The Turks (Kimako and Kipchak), whose original

home was Altai and the steppes of present day Mongolia, slowly diffused

southward into China, Iran and northwest India. It is believed that the

Tibetans, Tanguts, Uighurs, Mongols and Karakitai expanded around this

period. Buddhism had already arrived in the region of Hindukush and South

Tarim by 100 ?? . Many of these Turks, who worshipped Tengri (sky) also

26

tried to introduce Buddhism among the nomadic people. However~ it was later

in 200-400 AD, that the Kushans, whose empire included present-day south

Kazakhstan, began to patronise Buddhism, gradually spreading it to Bactria,

Tarim and to northern China. The introduction of Buddhism in Semirech'e and

South Kazakhstan territory forms an important an~ interesting subject of India­

Kazakhstan relations (Stobdan 2003:5).

Interaction on the Silk Route

India-Kazakhstan contacts expanded in the days of the Great Silk

Route which passed from China to the Western world through the Central

Asian region (then known by different names such as Turkestan, Turan etc.)

touching Southern Kazakhstan especially Shymkent and Zambul regions.

Cooperation between the peoples resulted in deep rooted linkages, which even

today are evident in similarities in food, language, dress and culture. The Silk

Route played a seminal role in this cooperation, transporting not only

commodities for trade, but more importantly knowledge and ideas. The flow of

Buddhism from India through Central Asia to China and the flow of the ideas

of Sufism from Central Asia to India are but two major examples of this

phenomenon. The benefits of such mutually beneficial cooperation were

evident in the richness of not only trade, but, more importantly, of societal

exchanges. The best discoveries and inventions in the areas of astronomy,

mathematics, medicine, surgery and philosophy were exchanged along the Silk

Road (Haidar 2004:42).

The Silk Road was a system of ancient caravan routes leading from

China to the countries of the Near East and Europe. It was one of the most

important achievements in the history of world civilization. The Silk Road was

a historical route without a juridical status, transcending many national borders.

27

Silk Road map (Kazakhstan part)

ALTAY rj

Hundreds of big and small towns that have fa llen into oblivion or are still in existence were witness to grandeur of the Silk

Road.

Source: http ://www.natcom.unesco. kzJturkestanie05_silk_road.htm

The Great Silk Road as a trade route was not an unchangeable and

static route. As time went on, some parts gained primary importance, others on

the contrary, died away and formelyprosperous market towns lost their fame

giving ways to new ones. The choice of routes largely depended on political

and economic circumstances in the Eurasian continent.

What was South Kazakhstan like when it joined the system of the Silk

Road? An original culture had developed there, formed by both nomadic and

settled tribes which were rather similar in ethnic respects or were united in

similar ethnopolitical formations. The interrelations and the mutual cultural

enrichment were the main elements of human progress. This synthesis has

resulted in a number of achievements created by the people of Kazakhstan and

Central Asia. Thus, in the 2th to the 3rd century B.C. there were nomadic and

semi-nomadic tribes of the Sakas living on the territory of Kazakhstan whose

high culture has become known thanks to numerous excavated burial grounds

among which figure Besshatyr, Issyk, Tegisken, Uygarack. By that time there

were contacts with China, India, The Near and the Middle East. This is

evidenced by objects found in the burial mounds of the Saka nobility, such as

China looking-glasses and beautiful articles of art-dried bricks, which suggest

that the artisans must have been recruited from foreign countries. At the time of

the state of the Usunys and the Kayus in the 2nd century B.C., when the Silk

Road started operating, Roman glass and coins, Chinese silk, looking glasses

and lacquered dishes, European fibulas, clasps, different gems and sidnets from

Sasanid Iran were brought into the country.

This was the time when small towns and settlements were founded in

the Chu, the Talas and the Syr Daria valleys. Many centers like that were

located in the Tien Shan zone, in the Arys river valley and in the middle and

the lower stretches of the Syr Daria. The towns in the dry desert zone of the

29

Aral area and the Dzhetysar gorge are well preserved. One can still see their

sun-dried yellow walls and necropolises.

In the second half of me 11 th century AD, Semirechie and South

Kazakhstan became members of the Tiurk Kaganat, a large nomadic empire

embracing an area from Korea to the Black Sea. At the end of the 11th century,

Kaganat- the East Tiurk Kaganat and the West Tiurk Kaganat - were divided.

Semirechie became a central part of the latter with Suyab as its capital. It was

at that time that there was a busy life on the Silk Road in Semirchie and South

Kazakhstan, which played an importnt role in the development of town culture.

New town centers were founded in Semirechie and the South Kazakhstan

began to develop quickly.

If in the first half of the second miIIenium there were records only of

Chigu and Semey - the residence of the Usun rulers and Bityan ( in South

Kazakhstan)- the capital of Kanguis, then at begining of the XII century

records exist of several dozen of towns. The largest of them were Cuyab, Taraz

and 'the town on the White river", later called Ispidzhab. In Chinese road guide

books of the XII-XIII centuries and in the Arab route guide books one can find

numerouse names of towns that were built along the Silk Road. The Silk Road

passing through Central Asia, South Kazakhstan and Semirechie was used until

the XIV century.

In South Kazakhstan, Taraz was connected westward with Ispidjab also

known as Sairam. Located close to Shimkent, Sairam in ancient times was an

important trade centre on the Silk Route, where traders from every direction

met and exchanged goods. The town was well connected with Shash

(Tashkent), Bukhara, Samarkand and Khorezm. In fact, the oldest Buddhist

sites in Kazakhstan, perhaps of the Bamiyan period are found in Sairam.

Ispidjab is further connected through Arsubaniket, Otrar (Farab}, Shavgar,

Yangikent to Syr-Darya. Further west, the caravan route went to Kyzl-Kum

30

desert, Khorezm and through lower Volga to the Caucasus. The same route

also turned eastward leading across Central and Northern Kazakhstan to the

Irtish, the Altai and Mongolian steppes (Litvinsky 1999:69).

The southern complex of the Silk Route is the most fascinating one.

Each city had its own legacy and historical heritage. Otrar, for example was

one of the most ancient cities, founded in the 2 century AD by the Kangyus -

descendants of the Sakas. Later in the 8 century AD the city fell to the Arabs.

Otrar is the place where the medieval philosopher and scientist, Abu Nasra ibn

Mohammed, popularly known as AI-Farabi, was born (Baipakov 1998:44).

Among the beautiful and old structures that still exist in Taraz include

the 12 century Aisha-Bibi mausoleum built on the caravan path. The

monument, not very big in size was built with carved terracotta in the memory

of the legendary Aisha-Bibi and her beloved. The legend goes that Aisha Bibi,

the daughter of poet Zangi-Ata, impatient to receive her beloved from the

battle, died of heart failure in his arms. Another legend says that she died of

snakebite on the way to receive her fiance. The mausoleum is covered with a

ceramic-tiled walled structure and terracotta carvings.

According to local guides the structure was renovated during the Soviet

period on the suggestion of Indira Gandhi, who visited the mausoleum during

1970s. The Indian connection with this town 'goes as far back as IV century

BC, when traders brought Chinese silk to India. The use of Chinese silk was

mentioned in Chanakya's text Arthshastra, though references were found that

even the Sakas or Scythians promoted the use of Chinese silk. The city of

Taraz appeared to have been once dominated by the Sogdians, who were

trading with East Turkistan and India. The Sogdians were particularly attracted

to Buddhism and introduced ideas, philosophies and arts of India to Central

Asian societies. One of the most prominent pieces of art from India that was

31

found in Taraz, presently kept in the archaeological museum, is a dancing

woman clad in a sari.

Taraz city is now striving to identify itself with Mirza Muhammed

Haidar Dughlati who became the Governor of Kashmir during the 16th century.

Recently a large monument of Haidar Dughlati has been built in front of the

University building, symbolising that the region is the home of Daughlat tribe,

to which the great medieval Kazakh hero belonged. Greater interaction has

started between the Taraz administration and the Indian Embassy in the recent

times (Stobdan 2003 :6-1 0).

Another prominent site on the Silk Route in Kazakhstan is the city of

Turkistan. In earlier times, it was called Shavgar, but later in X-XII centuries,

it became Yessy. The word Yessy sounds like Mongolian Jassa for state law.

The Kazakhs later changed it to a shorter version-Yasa. The city has a long

history going back to the V-VI centuries, when early Turkic-speaking people

made the place a centre of their political unification. During the VII century, it

was a flourishing town on the Silk Route with a crowded bazaar and endless

caravans passing by from Europe to China. Turkistan was later associated with

the XII century great Sufi poet and philosopher, Khodja Ahmed Yassawi, who

founded one of the great schools of Sufi order here. Ahmed at a young age

studied in Bukhara under a well-known teacher, Sheikh Khodja Yusuf

Hamadani. After gaining complete knowledge about Sufi theory, Ahmed

visited Mecca and then returned to Yasa and founded his philosophical school,

which later came to be known as Yassawi School and became the main

spiritual order among the Turkic-speaking people of Central Asia. Khodja

Ahmed Yassawi rejuvenated the Turkistan city, where thousands of pilgrims

thronged to the Sufi town from all over Central Asia. His main verses Diwan-i-

Hilanet became very popular in Central Asia and the world outside. Yassawi

had a large following even in the Kashmir Valley. The Turkic rulers later

32

immortalized Yassawi and Turkistan became a major political and spiritual

centre of Central Asia.

There are other important cities with rich historical heritage like Kulan,

Mirki and Aspara, which contributed towards the enrichment of Central Asian

culture. The traces of cross-cultural confluence are still visible in the present­

day cultural scene of the region more so in South Kazakhstan around the cities

of Taraz and Shimkent. The impact of Indian, Persian, Turkic and Chinese

cultures continues to manifest itself in the contemporary life and beliefs of the

people of Central Asia. When it comes to Indian culture, the· impact is far

deeper.

The people of the regIOn today practice Islamic culture, yet their

philosophical outlook and approach to the world is still dominated by Buddhist

thoughts and ideas. A famous Sufi poet, lalalludin Rumi (1207-1273) once

wrote about the tolerant culture of Central Asia - "It happens very often that a

Turk and an Indian understand each other at once. It is often that two Turks

can't find a common language. So, language of concord is quite another thing:

mutual understanding is dearer than mere language". The positive influence of

Indian thoughts on the evolution of the Central Asian Silk Route culture is yet

to be explored and understood thoroughly.

Medieval Contacts

Ancient manuscripts, stored in Indian libraries and archives are

depositories of information about relations of Kazakh khans with Indian rulers,

about the steppe trade with Indian merchants. In the area of commerce also

interactions between India and Central Asia increased both ways during the

Moghul period. Indian merchants during this period began to expand their

trade with Afghanistan, Iran and Central Asia including Kazakhstan. Historians

33

are now of the view that many aspects of Kazakhstan-Indian relations during

XVI-XVIII centuries are yet to be researched carefully.

Meruert Abuseitova in her paper "Kazakhstan and India: Problems of

Cooperation and Prospects" (Abuseitova 2002:2), says that the trade between

Kazakhstan and India was mainly conducted through Afghan intermediaries.

Exports from Kazakhstan to India, which included horses, was transacted

through the Silk Route especially through Bukhara. It is believed that Indian

merchants valued Central Asian horses of Kazakh breed. Abuseitova cites

some documents proving that Kazakh merchants transferred to India upto 40

thousand horses. Contemporary Kazakh historians note that relations

particularly of trade, commerce and culture between Kazakhstan and India got

interrupted many times due to prolonged military conflicts and political

disorder in surrounding regions.

Many Tukic feudal families established and assimilated themselves in

India. It was these interactions, which gave birth to Indo-Turkic vocabulary, a

mixed language that was used in the court of the Delhi Sultanate, This is

reflected in Farhanghi ZaJanghuya va Jahanpuya (Vocabulary Speaking and

World Studying), written by medieval scholar Badr ud-din Ibrahim.

The use of literary Chaghatai language in India during the 16th and 18'"

centuries resulted in the entry ofa wide stratum of Turk-Mongolian vocabulary

into Indian languages. Both Hindi and Urdu received specific Turkic words,

which are still being used in India. In turn, a large number of Indian lexical

elements entered the Central Asian vocabulary mainly through mutual

contacts. Chokan Valikhanov and other Kazakh literary figures have done

considerable research on the subject. Contemporary historians show keenness

for further research in this field with the help of Indian writings.

34

A Kazakh scholar, ? .? Beisembiev, has done a detailed study in this

field during the Soviet period. Beisembiev is a great historian and

archaeologist. He has done extensive research on Indo-Kazakh relations

covering the medieval period. His famous research papers include The Cultural

Relations of Central Asia and Kazakhstan with India: From the 16th to the l!l Centuries, published by the Institute of History, Archaeology and Ethnography

in Alma-Ata during the Soviet times (Beisembiev, 1976). The paper gives

some of the details of literary, artistic, linguistic and historical ties between

India and Central Asia. It is believed that Babur wrote his memoirs in Chagatai

language in early 16th century. Beisembiev writes that Babur's son Humayun,

Mirza Kamran, Mirza Askari and Mirza Hindal also wrote verses in Turki

languages. It is well known that writing of the famous text Babur Nama started

in Central Asia and was completed in India. The text mostly devoted to history

and geography of India is believed to have had Kazakh roots according to

literary experts. It was Turkmen poet and Bairam Khan's son Abdul-Rahim

with his knowledge of Turki and Persian who was assigned the task of

translating Babur Nama into Persian.

Manuscripts of the historian, poet, gifted chieftain and Kashmir ruler of

medieval epoch Mirza Muhammed Haidar Dughlati (1499-1551) - descendant

of Kazakh clan Dughlat - are vivid proof of these interrelations. Mirza Haidar

Dughlati later sustained the tradition of relations in historiography. His master

book Tarikh-e-Rashidi became a symbol of historical and literary contact

between India and Kazakhstan. Out of 30 copies, 7 original masterpieces of

Tarikh-e-Rashidi are to be found in India. It is well known that mediaeval

Gujarat Governor Aliquei Khan in Baidar wrote in Turki under the pen name

of Sultan. His contribution to development of science, culture and literature of

Central Asian states is significant and in India they pay tribute to his heritage.

35

In the 19th century a completely new route via East Turkistan emerged as a

new bridge of linkages between India and the Semirech'e region while the

traditional route of contact from southern Kazakhstan via Hindu Kush to the

Punjab plains ceased. This new route mainly originated from Punjab and

Kashmir and passed through Ladakh moving north across Karakorum pass into

Kotan, Yarkand, Kashgar, Ser-ju, Tash-Kurgan and through Kyrgyz mountains

to the Semirech'e. In most of the reference books, the Issyk-kul and Almalyk

are frequently mentioned as important halting posts. This route later became an

important extension of the traditional Silk Route. The route was promoted as

strategically and economically important for British India. Hundreds of British

Political officers, explorers, surveyors and traders traversed this route to

Central Asia. Of course, the information and data they gathered about the

region up to the Semirech'e served only the purpose of British India's "Great

Game" postures in Central Asia. They are, nevertheless, the primary source of

information and point of contacts that enhanced India's understanding of the

Semirech'e region during 19th-20th centuries. Much of this data is still being

used by contemporary researchers for understanding the complexities of the

region, strategically very important for India.

It appeared that from 1840-18?O onwards, British explorers carried out

independent researches about Central Asia, Chinese Turkistan including the

Semirech'e region extending up to south Siberia. Benedict Goes and Lieutenant

Wood were the pioneers to work in the region. Other Western explorers of

Central Asia in early nineteenth century included Baillie Feaser, Arthur

Conolly, Alexander Burnes, Taylour Thomson and Shakespear. They wrote

extensively about the region, which remained terra incognito for the outside

world for a long time. There were scores of other travelers and explorers, who

gave detailed accounts of the land and people of Central Asia. The pioneers

among them include Burnabys, Grodekoffs, Marshes, Arminius Vambery and

also O'Donovan. The other famous Indian travelers to visit Central Asia in the

ninetieth century include Haji Mohammed Shah (1846), Mani Singh, Mahsood,

36

H arki shan, Mohammed Amir, A. Dolke, Delmer Morgan (1856-1858),

Mohammad Hamid (1863), Mirza (1868), Faiz Bakh (1870), and Ibrahim Khan

(1870) (Stobdan 2003 :26-27).

Soviet Era

During the days of the Soviet Union, direct ties between India and

Kazakhstan were as extensive as before. All-round relations, including political

and cultural between Kazakhstan and India were guided by the Indo-Soviet

relationship and through Moscow. However as early as in 1947, a delegation

from Kazakhstan participated at the First Asian Relations Conference in New

Delhi. The event is still being considered as significant for Kazakhstan. In

modem times, lawaharlal Nehru along with Indira Gandhi visited Almaty in

1955. 50th anniversary of this historical visit was celebrated in 2005. The visit

by Nehru and Indira Gandhi specially left a deep imprint about India among the

Kazakh officials, intelligentsia and the common people. Soon after her visit,

hundreds of girls who were born around that time were named after Indira. The

name Indira soon became Kazakhised and became a popular name in

Kazakhstan. In fact, the Indo-Kazakhstan Friendship Society sent a photo

album of Indiras in Kazakhstan to Indira Gandhi in 1980.

Dr. Radhakrishnan visited Kazakhstan in 1956 in his capacity as Vice

President. He met academician Satpaev, then the president of the National

Academy of Sciences of Kazakhstan. Interactions in the field of science,

technology, education and culture also remained active throughout the Soviet

period. Many Kazakh intellectuals including veteran writers like Mukhtar

Auezov and Anwar Alirnzhanov visited India and widened the scope of close

literary and cultural ties between India and Kazakhstan.

37

India was among the first country to recognize the independence of

Kazakhstan. President Nursultan Nazarbayev's first official visit after

Kazakhstan got independence was to India in 1992, which shows importance of

New Delhi to Astana. Diplomatic relations were established on 22 February

1992 during this visit, when an appropriate Protocol was signed by Tuleutay

Suleymenov, Foreign Minister of Kazakhstan, and Madhavsinh Solanki, then

Minister of External Affairs, Government of India. The implementation of the

Protocol started by opening of the Embassy of India in Almaty in May 1992,

and subsequent establishment of the Embassy of Kazakhstan in New Delhi in

1993.

Kazakhstan and India have a lot uniting them. First of all they are united

by history. The ties go back as far as the 2nd century B.C. and the Silk Road.

This research study is intended to trace and understand the developments and

various factors that are shaping Kazakhstan and India relations since 1991. It

explores the role of factors like resources, politics and strategy, defense,

Islamic resurgence, trade and investment, and inter-state cooperation between

India and Kazakhstan. Though there is obviously an element of continuity from

the past in the relations between Kazakhstan and India, focus in the present

study is mainly on the contemporary policies and issues after the disintegration

of the USSR.

It is obvious that the depth and the range of the India-Kazakhstan

cooperation still are not consistent with the potential and possibilities on both

sides. One of the reasons is the lack of effectively operated transport route,

mutual payment problems between partners on both sides, and also the narrow

commodity structure in the trade between two countries. But it is imperative for

both the countries to proceed on the path of reform and cooperation. The

present work tries to analyze the contemporary situation and outline measures

required to intensify the trade and economic cooperation because both

countries stand to gain enormously from a sustained partnership

38

Objectives of the study are:

1. To study the historical background of Kazakh-Indian ties and to study

the evolution of relations over a period of time.

2. To analyze and assess the commonality of interests and similarity of

world views which.brings Kazakhstan and India close to each other.

3. To examine the prospects of defence and scientific cooperation between

the two countries.

4. To identify the nature and prospect of cooperation in energy sector.

5. To study the impact of emerging regional security and cooperation

mechanism in Kazakhstan-India relations and vice-versa.

Though there is obviously an element of continuity from the past, focus

in the present study is mainly on the contemporary policy and issues after

Kazakhstan became independent. The study covers the relations in the areas of

politics, diplomacy, defence, strategy, economy and culture. The present work

tres to fill the gaps in the existing literature on the subject and deal with the

Kazakhstan-India relations in a holistic manner.

The study consists of. Introduction, three Chapters, Conclusion and

Bibliography.

"Introduction: Kazakhstan-India Relations in Historical

Perspective" covers the historical background of the relations between Central

Asia and India facilitated by Silk Road from ancient time. The Second Chapter,

"Political Relations and Regional Cooperation ", includes the political aspects

of Kazakhstan-India relations starting from 1991 and analyzes how mutually

politically important are India and Kazakhstan for each other especially in the

context of struggle against international terrorism and extremism. Regional

initiatives like CI CA and SCO and their role in improving Kazakhstan-India

relations are discussed. Third Chapter, "Economic Relations", tries to uncover

39

the cause of low level of contemporary economIC cooperation between

Kazakhstan and India and seeks to suggest measures to realize the potential of

economic and technological cooperation with a special focus on the energy

aspect of their relation. Fourth Chapter, "Social and Cultural Relations", deals

with the relationship in sphere of cultural, educational, scientific-technical, etc.

Conclusion summarizes all important implications of Kazakhstan-India

relations during the period since 1991 that are derived from this research.

Survey of Literature

The Acts and Agreements expressing the position of the states on key

questions of foreign policy concern to primary sources for research. In this

sense the Constitutions of Republic of Kazakhstan and India are one of the

most objective primary sources, allowing to analyze legal bases of their foreign

policy. It is also intended to include intergovernmental documents, and also the

documents of interdepartmental character made between Kazakhstan and India

as primary source materials. Though the basic primary sources are diplomatic

documents, agreements, contracts which allow to track the principles, the basic

forms, evolution and prospects of cooperation of the Republic of Kazakhstan

with the Republic of India, there exists some literature revealing the divergent

perspectives regarding Kazakhstan-India relations in Russian, Kazakh, English,

languages, which have not yet been properly utilized for research purposes.

However, some study of the subject has been made on the following themes

that are relevant to research.

Fifteen years have passed since Kazakhstan's entry into the world scene

as a new subject of international political and economic relations.

Independence of Kazakhstan created the need to understand various complex

processes happening outside the country. Thus the task of defining a place and

a role for Kazakhstan in the system of modem international relations was one

of the main priorities. Today, it is possible to state with confidence that

Kazakhstan occupies an important place in the modem world community as the

40

state consistently adhering to conventional norms of interstate relations and

constructive foreign policy. Kazakhstan in a short span of time has made strong

contribution to strengthening global and regional stability and security.

Independence occurred in difficult conditions and also during deep geopolitical

changes. So creation of favorable external conditions for the strategic purposes

of development of the country was more crucial.

Among seven long-term priorities till 2030, which President N.A.

Nazarbaev brought to focus in the message to people, the special place is

allocated to development of Kazakhstan as independent sovereign state and

maintenance of its full territorial integrity. In the maintenance of national safety

the unconditional priority belongs to diplomacy. President N.A. Nazarbaev in

the book "On a Threshold of XXI century" (Almaty, Oner, 1996) has precisely

characterized the problems of Kazakhstan at the time of independence. There

was a clear comprehension of priorities which reflected pressing needs and

strategic interests of Kazakhstan. In "The Message to the People of

Kazakhstan" (Strategy of Fonnation and Developing of Kazakhstan as

Sovereign State, www.president.kz/articles/Sover _ Kaz.asp?Ing=en&art= 1992)

Nazarbaev has determined reference points for the international role of

Kazakhstan and specified a priority of foreign policy activity in maintenance of

national security.

In the era of globalization no state can cope with the problems of

modem times by itse1f?4"be global problems connected to overpopulation,

exhaustion of resources, degra(Ja!.!pn of habitat, despite of efforts of the world

community, continue to become aggravated. These can be tackled only within

the framework of close international cooperation. A known politician and

diplomat Tokaev K.K. has devoted his monograph (Foreign Policy of

Kazakhstan in Conditions of Globalization, Almaty: "SAK", 2000) to actual

problems of foreign policy of Kazakhstan. Tokaev investigates problems of

globalization of economy and politics,. a geopolitical picture of the world, and

41

also economic factors of foreign policy of Kazakhstan. Problems of finding by

Kazakhstan its place in the dinamic world are viewed from new positions and

there are suggestions for foreign policy priorities of the country.

Acts of terrorism on September, 11, 2001 and the anti-terrorist military

operation of the USA in Afghanistan, accompanied with creation of military

bases of the NATO not only in Afghanistan, but also in Kyrgyzstanand

Uzbekistan, have cardinally changed the situation in Caspian-Central Asian

region and in the world as a whole. This is in the background of developing US

and Russia disagreements on a number of strategic and geopolitical questions,

on the one hand, and growing rivalry between the US and China, on the other.

Washington obviously wants long-term military presence in Central Asia. Thus

it will be possible to establish control, first, over the region located between

Russia and China, second, over oil and gas fields and routes of their

transportation. Actions the USA cause reciprocal actions on the part of Russia

and China, including in military area. Similar succession of events in Caspian­

Central Asian region will inevitably create a situation in this region that can

complicate the international relations as a whole.

Sultanov B.K. and Erekesheva L.G., authors of book "Politika I Interesy

Mirovyh Derzhav V Kazakhstane" (Policy and Interests of World Powers in

Kazakhstan, Almaty; Daik-Press, 2002) analyze strategic interests and the

policy of the leading world powers actively participating in the geopolitical and

economic life of Kazakhstan. The book evaluates the place of Kazakhstan in

the modem world and the strategic value of the Caspian region which has

increased recently. According to the authors, a strategic priority of Kazakhstan

in these conditions should be the fonnation and strengthening of regional and

subregional systems of security - Eurasian Economic Community (EEC),

Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO), Shanghai Cooperation

Organization (SCO). Another possible effective mechanism for dialogue and

42

cooperation of all interested parties IS Conference on Interaction and

Confidence Building Measures in Asia (CICA).

Tendencies of modem development testify to significant increase in the

role of the Asian continent, where a number of states more and more actively

influence events in the international political and economic life. In this

connection increasing interest is paid to India. Significant human (more than 1

billion people) and scientific resources - industrial reserves, internal political

and economic stability, the military potential supported by possession of

nuclear weapon, high international stature of the country - allow it to play more

and a more powerful role in political and economic affairs not only in the

region but also in the world. The Kazakhstan-India relations have deep roots

over centuries, from the time of Aryan tribes which lived in the second

millennium B.C. in a southwest part of modem Kazakhstan according to the

article by R.T.Ibraev "Foreign policy priorities of Kazakhstan in India and the

countries of Southern Asia", in the book: Tokaev K.K.(ed.) "Aktual'nyye

Problemy Vneshney Politiki Kazakhstana", (Actual-Problems of Foreign policy

of Kazakhstan), Collection of Articles, MFA RK, 1998) The huge layers of

mutual relations span Middle Ages during an epoch of Baburids following days

of "the Great Silk Road". And relations did not break off during later pe~ods.

India was one of the first states which recognized independence of Ka.zakhstan

after disintegration of Soviet Union. Diplomatic relations between the two

countries were established in February, 1992. Kazakhstan's policy concerning

India is based on past experience, long-term priorities and has a versatile

character. Kazakhstan thus proceeds from traditions of friendship and

cooperation. In the article "Problems of Activization of Trade and Economic

Cooperation of Kazakhstan and India" (in Idrisov E.A. (ed) "Prioritety

Kazakhstanskoi Diplomatii na Rubezhe Vekov", (Priorities of the Kazakhstan

Diplomacy on the Boundary of Centuries, Moscow, Russki Raritet, 2000)

A.O.Shakirov examines the questions of bilateral trade and economic

cooperation and factors constraining development of mutually advantageous

43

bilateral cooperation between Kazakhstan and India. Nevertheless, he marks,

despite of negative factors, business circles of India show genuine interest to

development of trade and economic cooperation. As a whole, the author

ascertains dynamism of development of mutual relations.

Papers of the first such conference on Indian Studies, "Kazakhstan and

India: Through Ancient, Medieval and Modem Times" (Papers of the First

Kazkh Conference on Indian Studies, Almaty, 28 March 2000. Almaty, "Olke",

2000), held in Kazakhstan, focus on the historical, cultural and civilizational

relations between India and Kazakhstan. The historical, political and economic

development in India is too important for the people of Kazakhstan to ignore.

Moreover, in the changed geopolitical environment, the developments taking

place in India could have direct implications for Kazakhstan. Kazbekov

(Kazakhstan and India: Problems and Prospects of Economical Relations)

underlines the point that Kazakhstan is yet to realize the importance of India

both politically and economically. It is pointed out that India remains a role

model for the economic development for many developing countries.

Abuseitova (Kazakhstan and India: problems of Cooperation and Prospects)

observes that economic relations between India and Kazakhstan are not

satisfactory and the wide potentials for economic expansion between the two ,

are yet to be explored. She identified "transportation problem, tariff policies and

frequent changes in law as some of the main obstacles for bilateral trade

relations. She however suggests new mechanism to promote private sector,

technical cooperation in banking and sectors like defence and industry and

cooperation in energy sector.

On issues of regional security, the paper presented by Kushkumbaev

(Problems of Security in the Central and Southern Asia: Regional and

International Aspects) cautions that the problems faced by India today could

become problems for Central Asia as well. It is underlined that Indo-Pakistan

tensions, India-China relations and the Afghan problem remain as India's main

44

security challenges. He links the Kashmir problem with problem in

Afghanistan and civil war in Tajikistan. Reference is made about understanding

among Iran, Russia, Kazakhstan and India on regional security issues like the

Afghan conflict.

A section of the Conference covered the multifaceted spiritual and

cultural interactions between the two countries. The themes of papers ranged

from the problems of translating the "Mahabharata" into Kazakh language to

"Kazakh Pages of Baburnama", presented by N. Sagandykova. Paper

(Kazakhstan and India: Dialogue of Cultures) was presented by E. Pankratova -

noted that "Culture" as a concept was interpreted differently in different places.

In Kazakhstan Culture understood from the Western point of view only

confines to material and economic processes in human life. Whereas, Indians,

she noted, adopted a cosmic "Karmic" concept taking culture to higher level of

consciousness. There were detailed research study by Jean-Marc Deom and

Renato Sala from European Union on "The Spread of Buddhism in Semirechie

and Kazakhstan".

Over the period of first fifteen years since Kazakhstan's independence,

the relations between the two countries have developed in a unique and specific

way. During this period the objective of India's policy has been to establish

dynamic and multifaceted bilateral relations with Kazakhstan. India is keen to

have both strong economic as well political ties with Kazakhstan. India's focus

recently is on getting more deeply involved in the energy sector in Kazakhstan.

Although there are problems in transporting these resources, both countries are

working together to establish some kind of bilateral or multilateral arrangement

to transport these resources. Despite India's low level of involvement in the

economic sector, possibilities of future cooperation in this strategic arena exist

which both the countries need to work on. Once the problem of connectivity

gets resolved, the linkages between India and Kazakhstan will take a new tum

for the benefit of both the countries. Meena Singh Roy in the article "India-

45

Kazakhstan: Emerging Ties" (Strategic Analysis: A Monthly Journal of the

IDSA. Jan-Mar 2002 (Vol. XXVI No.1» notes that Kazakhstan holds a special

place in the foreign policy priorities of India. India seeks no clash but a

compatibility of interests with Kazakhstan.

In this context the book by P. Stobdan, "India and Kazakhstan.

Civilizational Explorations ", New Delhi, Heritage Publishers, 2003, is an

attempt to study and analyze cultural relations between Kazakhstan and India

through ages beginning with earliest contacts, interaction on the Silk Route,

traces of Buddhism, medieval contacts to the renewal of relations in the post­

Soviet period.

One of the finest compilations and analytical works that covered every

aspect of linkages between India and Central Asia in Mediaeval times,

including medicine, technology, arts & crafts, architecture, music, astronomy,

mathematics and methodology was a joint study project by Indian National

Science Academy and USSR Academy of Sciences. The works were published

in two volumes in India in 1990 under the title Indo-Soviet Joint Monograph

Series: Interaction Between India and Central Asian Science and Technology

in Mediaeval Times.

Much of India's understanding of Central Asia and linkages it built with

the region during the twentieth century were being conducted within the Soviet

perspective. The studies carried out by Indian researchers on the region

included Soviet ethnic policies, socio-economic development and cultural

advancement of Central Asian people. Papers written by B. Prasad (1955),

Ravat Indra Singh (1977), Bagchi (1955), Rahul Sankrityaan'(1947), Ram

Rahul (1973), Devendra Kaushik (1970, 1975, 1976), Audrey J. Ahmad (1959)

and Ajay Patnaik (1992) and many others covered a wide range of issues

concerning Indo-Central Asian relations in contemporary times. Historians like

46

Manusra Haidar, Fida M. Hassnain, Nityananda Patnaik, R. C. Agarwal,

Devendra Kaushik~ Ajay Patnaik and others have researched on Indo-Central

Asian relations in the recent past based on new information.

The literature available shows various aspects of mutual relations of the

two countries. But there is no detailed analysis - separate articles covenng

different aspects of relations. The only book on this theme by P. Stobdan,

(India and Kazakhstan. Civilizational Explorations, New Delhi, Heritage

Publishers, 2003) in essence discusses historical and cultural roots of mutual

relations and traces of Buddhism in Kazakhstan. Proposed research

"Kazakhstan-India Relations, 1991-2006" could contribute to understand Indo­

Kazakh relationships and help its future development. It will be an attempt in a

complex study of the Kazakh-Indian Relations between 1991-2006. For the

first time, such problems as political and legal bases of attitudes of the two

countries and the understanding of Kazakhstan's foreign policy concerning

India will be considered, as also the influence on the Kazakh-Indian relations

of membership in the regional, sub regional and international organizations.

India's participation in the CICA process (Conference on Interaction and

Confidence Building Measures in Asia), which is a Kazakh foreign policy

initiative uniting 17 Asian countries designed to build security mechanisms in

the region, could contribute a lot to the stability in the continent. Along with

other countries, India was given an observer status at the sca (Shanghai

Cooperation Organization) at the Astana Summit in July 2005. This provides

an opportunity for regular discussions of global and regional issues within the

SCO framework, and interstate cooperation in the struggle against terrorism. In

the economic terms, the largest importers and the largest exporters will be

within the framework of one organization - the SCO. This study would help in

locating Kazakhstan-India relations not only in the bilateral, but also in the

multilateral regional context. Unfortunately there seems to be a lack of

information at a wider, popular level on current developments in both

47

countries. India and Kazakhstan are in urgent need of researches to discover

new opportunities of cooperation.

Kazakhstan and India are rapidly growing economies, which is opening

new vistas for the bilateral cooperation. The two countries are rediscovering

each other and people-to-people contacts have increased tremendously. As

globalization pace gets faster, peoples of the two countries become "immediate

neighbours" instead of "extended neighbours". It is expected in the near future

relations between Kazakhstan and India as well as Central Asia and South Asia

will gain more strength.

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