CHAPTER-II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Review of the related studies implies locating, reporting and evaluating

reports of research as well as reports of the casual observation and opinions

that are related to the individual's planned research project. It gives the

scholar an understanding of the previous work that has already been done. It

enables him to know the means of getting closer to the field of a problem.

Until he has learnt what others have done and what still remains to be done in

one area, he cannot move forward. The review provides him an opportunity of

gaining insight into the methods, measures, subject approaches employed by

other research workers. Thus review of related studies in any field, lays the

foundation upon which all future work will be built.

Though the investigator has aimed at a comprehensive and thorough

survey of the related literature, yet it is quite possible that some studies might

have escaped his attention. The present review is based upon the available

literature in respect of the variables under investigation and is therefore,

confined to the studies which the investigator could reach out.

2.1 AGGRESSION:

Aggression is the violent behaviour with total disregard to reasoning.

Aggressive behaviour can be physical or mental or emotional and alt of them

together in a systematic manner. In general sense where aggression is

referred to in life situations or in connection with group dynamics; it has no

positive role. However, when it comes to sporting competitions, aggression

has always a positive role. This is especially true in dual games or

competitions. In a war situation, a soldier is to destroy his enemy before the

enemy kills him. Likewise, in a dual sporting competition, the competition is to

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resort to violent attack against his opponent and inflict upon him a moral

advantage which is likely to last throughout the remaining competition thus

leading to victory. In the process, the sportsperson shall not succumb to the

sentiments if he is process to win.

Deutch (1949) investigated co-operation and competition within the

context of group productivity and found that competitive groups generated

more hostility and verbal aggression than co-operative groups. Similarly,

Sherif and Sherif (1953) found that competitive activities between boys at a

summer camp resulted in physical aggression. Berkowitz (1969) explained

these results by assuming that competition fosters frustration in that the

subjects anticipate experience defeat, or actually experience defeat, and that

the resultant frustration or arousal is vented in aggression, the intensity of

which is the resultant of situational cues.

Innumerable studies in sports have been conducted to validate the

catharsis hypothesis, which is closely allied with the instinctual theory of

Aggression. Stone (1950), Johnson and Hutton (1953), and Hunsman (1954)

using projectile tests provided evidence which supported both the catharsis

and circular theories (instinctual theory) of Aggression frequently within each

study. These studies seemed to support an increase in aggression, which was

turned inward (i.e. toward self as a result of participation in an aggressive

sport). One of the early studies to support catharsis was a small pilot study

completed at the University of Marryland which studied the effect of viewing

boxing match. Johnson and Hutton (1953) administered a projective test,

Buck's House - Three-Person Test to six subjects pre-contest and post-

contest. The protocols of one subject, a young woman was extremely

interesting prior to the boxing match. She drew a Florida Cost scene with the

bright colours of a setting sun and a stately palm tree. Observation of the

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subject during the contest indicated that she was emotionally involved in each

fight, frequently leaving her seat, throwing punches, and shouting. It was

further reported that she personally knew each member of the college boxing

team. Immediately after the match, the subjects draw a weeping willow tree

using dark, dull colours.

Hunsman (1954) also administered a projective test to boxers (The

Thematic Appreciation Test), and found that aggression increased during a

season. Innumerable studies of aggression in children have illustrated that

attempts to reduce aggression through the use of aggressive and vigorous

play therapy have the positive effect. Aggression is often heightened under

these circumstances. In most cases, however, the children in the studies had

been previously angered or frustrated which is often the case in athletics.

Only a few studies have produced data that support the catharsis

hypothesis with regard to participation in viewing of supporting competition.

Johnson and Hutton (1955), for example found that measures of aggressive

feelings obtained from a projective test (tree-house-person) in eight wrestlers,

taking 4 to 5 hours before the first inter college matches of the season were

greater than apparent feelings projected by them in the morning after

competition. The heightened aggression before the match, the writers

suggestions was connected with possible feelings of guilt, paralleling the

anticipated aggressive sport. The aggression was thus hypothesized as

intropunitive in nature or aggression directed toward themselves rather than

their opponents.

Hicks (1965) studied the relative effects of both peer and adult models

of each sex on aggression in children. Both short and long term influences

were increased. It was found that male peers had the most immediate

influence in shaping children's aggressive behaviours, while adult males had

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the most lasting effect. Both an actual model and films have been used in

such studies and the effects contrasted. In general, the findings have

suggested that viewing aggression particularly if the aggressor is identified

with the subject will cause immediate aggressive responses to be elicited in

children, youth, and adults.

Kingmore (1968), Tunner (1968), Roberts (1972) and Goldstein and

Arms (1971) studies show conflicting results. The research of Goldstein and

Arms (1971) showed an increase in aggression as a result of observing

violent sports, while Kingsmore and Roberts studies showed a decrease in

aggression. Kingsmore's subjects, who were professional wrestling

spectators, had less formed education than did his basketball subjects. His

results, therefore, lend support to the work of Bailya (1959) who found that

society and culturally deprived children experienced a catharsis as a result of

watching violent television programmes.

In contrast, non aggressive models, according to Baron (1971), have

the reverse effect subjects observing them tend to exhibit less aggression.

The latter findings has some relevance for the way a less than tranquil coach

may behave in front of a potentially aggressive athlete or group of fans during

critical competitions.

Wankel (1972) identified a situational frustration element of aggression.

The related score differential time of season, period of game and game

outcome to the occurrence of aggressive penalties for each team in the score

book. Similarly, the manifestations of aggressive behaviour as a reaction of

failure was reported by Widmeyer and Birch (1984) as statistically implied

but not significant.

Russell (1974) developed a measure which accounted for physical

aggression of challenge aggressive behaviour among ice hockey players.

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with this formula he attempted to account for overt aggressive reactions as

well as behaviour which constituted a challenge to the authority of the game

officials. Findings regarding aggression in ice hockey players reveal that the

behaviours seem to take different form and may be influenced by situation

and environment factors. The purpose of this study was to examine the

relationship of observed and perceived aggression of ice-hockey players.

Research findings vary as to the relationship between aggressive

behaviour committed during single game play and seasonal play as these

relate to success in ice-hockey. Widmeyer and Birch (1974), in a study of

professional ice hockey players found a positive correlation between

aggression committed in the first period of play and performance, whereas

seasonal relationship were insignificant.

A study by Ministry of Community and Social Services (1974) in

Canada, focusing on ice-hockey violence, reveals important group among the

potential instigators to violence in sport. This study pointed out that one of the

primary causes of excess violence (defined in this work as the unlawful

exercise of physical force) is professional players whose behaviours serve as

negative models for impressionable boys. The report states: "It is not

surprising that virtually every boy playing hockey is profoundly influenced by

violent examples portrayed in the National Hockey League." The report also

contains a statement reflecting the attitude of a Canadian Coach who is a

mentor of a youth team. He is quoted as saying, "All I have every told my

players at any level is stand your ground. If there is going to be a fight you get

the first shot". The writer of the report contrast this coach's statement with one

obtained from the "Great Russian Coach Tarasov".

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A study completed by Silva (1976) found that subjects exhibiting hostile

aggression in sports-setting, experienced significantly lower levels of guilt

than did subjects exhibiting similar behaviour in a non sports setting. Subjects

in the sports setting were also not able to discriminate between appropriate

and inappropriate behaviour whereas subjects in the non sport setting were

able to discriminate.

Silva (1976) examined how aggressive and assertive behaviour

affected subjects level of concentration and skill performance in basketball.

Subjects were playing a full court basketball game and exhibited either

proactive assertion or hostile aggression. Immediately following each

condition their level of concentration was measured. Additionally, field goal

shooting percentages of all subjects were carefully recorded during actual

game play. Subjects exhibiting proactive assertion had higher concentration

scores than did subjects exhibiting hostile aggression. Higher shooting

percentages were also found for the proactive sport subjects when compared

to the hostile aggressive sport subjects. Anger seemed to actually have a

negative effect upon both performances of skill and concentration scores.

Aggression–Aronson (1977) find aggression as behaviour intended to

cause harm or pain. The key to this definition is the word "Intended". If an

athlete fractures another athlete's nose the accident occurred is not the result

of aggression. But it is the athlete intended to fracture the nose he or she was

being aggressive in the negative sense of word.

MoCarthy and Kelley (1978) investigated the relationship between

aggression and athletic performance. Using an archival approach on the

records of a college hockey team over an eight year period, high aggressive

and low aggressive groups were defined. Aggression was defined on the

basis of certain types of norms violations which distinguished aggressive acts

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more clearly than former research studies, by separating instrumental

aggression from hostile aggression. The results showed a significant

relationship between aggression and successful performance, as measured

by goals and assists. It was further speculated that the study could become

the basis for systematic and programmatic research for aggression and other

variables.

In a study by Kauss (1978) players stated that they perform better

when they have a task orientation as compared to an energy orientation.

Additionally, inexperienced players were found to become angry at opponent

more often than experienced players. Experienced players seem to attempt to

control anger so their performance doesn't suffer through penalties or

mistakes.

The work of Kauss is consistent with the findings of a group of

psychologist doing work with Robert Baron (1978). Baron found that

distractive influences cause what is known as attention conflict. The person

experiencing intentional conflict keeps shifting their concentration from task

relevant to task irrelevant cues. Anger or heightened hostility directed toward

the self or another can often create an attention conflict for injuring an

opponent complete with and distract the player from fully focusing upon the

skills tasks. In most sports this situation tends to create a skill decrement.

Basu, (1991) in a study on the influence of gender stereo type on

projection of aggression in the Rozenzweig Picture Frustration study

examined the aggressive responses of 22 male and 22 female children (aged

11 to 14 years) to pictorially present frustrating situations in the Rozenzukig

Picture Frustration study to determine the effect of the sex of the Ss and the

sex of the depicted figures. There was no effect of sex of the child on

aggressive responses, however, the sex of the frustrated figure depicted in

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the pictures significantly influenced the type and direction of aggression in

both male and female. Ss Gender related stereo types concerning aggressive

reaction was similar in boys and girls.

Russell (1993) defined that outside of war time sports is perhaps the

only setting in which act of interpersonal Aggression are not only tolerated but

enthusiastically applauded by a large segment of society. In recent years

however, violence in sports both on and off the field has come too perceived

as a social problem. For instance, commissions have appointed in Canada,

England and Australia to investigate violence in the athletics setting (National

Committee on violence 1989 Pipe 1993).

Jefferson and Alvinette (1997) tried to assess the attitudes of the Texas

A&M University—tringsville football players (N-60) regarding their sense of

`Sports Culture', reinforces for aggressive behaviour and influences on social

behaviour. The purpose of the present study is to provide information about

whether the socialization of athletics aggression through sports transfers to

the athlete's attitude in social life. A descriptive analysis is used to examine

the athletes. Of those surveyed, 50.3% of them believe sports to be significant

to their sense of aggression and social reinforces of aggressive behaviour and

50.6% also believe that sports culture does have an influence on their social

behaviour.

Devires and Steven (1999) in their-study utilized moral and

motivational constructs to examine relationship between college wrestler's

approval of aggressive acts in wrestling and individual and contextual factors

of the competitive wrestling settings. Subjects were wrestlers of fourteen NCA

Division III team (N-221). The wrestling Aggression Questionnaire (WAQ) was

developed and used to assess approval of aggressive acts in sport,

perceptions of coach and team mate approval of aggressive and likelihood to

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commit aggressive acts in competitive situations. They observed that

wrestlers were found to be less approving of action depicted in a WAQ

scenario depicting controlling aggression than they were of two WAQ scenario

actions representing scoring aggression. Stepwise multiple regression

analysis revealed that wrestlers approval of controlling aggression was

predicted by perceptions of team mates and coaches approval of the

aggressive acts, likelihood to commit the act to win the match, and season

win percentage. Wrestler approval of scoring aggression was 'predicted by

perceptions of coach and team mate approval of the aggressive acts and

likelihood to commit aggressive acts to win far relation and if the coach and

team mate expected it. Discriminate function analysis identified coach and

team mate approval of the aggressive act and likelihood to commit the act to

win as factors distinguishing between subjects who represented high and low

levels of wrestler approval of controlling aggression. Teammate approval of

aggressive acts and likelihood to commit aggressive acts of team mates

expected it were significant in discriminating between wrestlers who were high

and low in approval of scoring aggression. Wrestlers reported that they were

mass likely to commit aggressive acts for pre-conventional motives, to win the

match and retaliation. Subjects indicated that they were less likely to commit

aggressive acts for conventional motives of coach and team mates

expectations. Results of this study suggest that wrestlers approval of

aggression is related to moral atmosphere factors including perceptions of

teammate and coach approval of aggressive acts and to moral motives for

aggression in the sports.

February 16, 2009, In an AHSAA high school basketball tournament

game between Carver-Montgomery and valley high school at the ASU,

Academic, a head fall with 6: 23 remaining in the game escalated into to wild

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bench-clearing. Fights broke out in the stands before spilling over onto the

court (WKRG Com). Eleven people were arrested, with the game being

declared null and void and both the teams were ejected from the playoffs.

Caver-Montgomery were fined $ 2600 and banned from tournaments for two

years, while Montgomery were fined $ 3900 and banned from tournaments for

two years. Talladega High School was given a bye in the tournament as a

result of the brawl (Dennis, Victory 2009) and (Associated Press, 2009).

March 21, 2009, During an Argentinean Primera (match between

Barracas Bolivar and General Lamadrid, a heated argument broke out

between three Lamadrid players, four Lamadrid team officials and Barracas

fans on the touchline in reaction to taunting and abuse by Barracas fans with

Barracas Leading 3-0 in the 60th minute. This escalated into a brawl and the

remaining Lamadrid players ran over to defend their colleagues, sparking

numerous brawls in and around the stands. After the riot police, officials,

ground staff and fans had restored order, all 11 Lamadrid players on the pitch

and all seven of Lamadrid’s substitutes were ejected, and the match was

abandoned, Lamadrid were forced to play with a team of reserve and youth

players for the next match.

April 25, 2009, In an NHL plays off game between the New York

Rangers and Washington capitals at Washington’s Verijon Centre. Rangers

head couch John Tortorella squirted a fan with a water bottle, threw another

water bottle over the glass which hit an unsuspecting fan in the face and

made threatening gesture to the fan with a stick. Tortorella was suspended for

one game (NHL Com 2009).

May 16, 2009, with 23 seconds remaining in an NRL Game between

the St. George Illawarra Dragons and the Canterbury Bulldogs. The Bulldogs

fans threw bottles on to the field and at the officials to protect a video referee’s

decision that overruled a try, causing a five minute delay.

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May 18, 2009, At the end of an NRL game between the West Tigers

and the Brisbane Broncos, which the Broncos won by 20-18. A drunken Tiger

fan ran into the pitch and tackled referee Jared Maxwell before being detained

by security. The fan was charged with trespassing and assault and was also

banned from NRL game for life.

July 19, 2009, During the first half of his first game back at the home.

Depot Centre following a loan to AC Milan, LA Galaxy Midfielder David

Beckham was subjected to absence chants by fans angered by his expressed

desire to remain with the Italian club. A half time, Beckham was restrained by

security from trying to climb over a barrier to confluent a drunken fan who had

to run on to the pitch. The impacted fan was arrested and banned from

attending LA Galaxy home game for life, while Beckham was fined $ 1,000 for

the incident (Christiansen, Marcus 2009) and (SI Com. 2009). The fan’s life

ban was later lifted on appeal.

August 12, 2009, Philadelphia Phillics Centre fielder Shane Vietorino

was hit by a beer cub while watching a pop-fly ball at Wrigley Field. Victorino

and the Phillics field a complaint with the Chieago Police Department. The fan

who threw the beer cup was charged with two counts of misdemeanor battery

(Associated Press via York Times, 2009).

August 25, 2009, A second round carling cup match at Boleyn Ground

between Millwall F.C and West Ham United was repeatedly interrupted by

multiple pitch invasions and debris throwing, and a wild brawl broke out

between rival fans outside the ground after the match (Brown, Oliver 2009).

The English FA fined West Ham, & 115,000 pounds and warned both teams

that they would be ejected from the FA cup for any futher incidents of crowd

violence.

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September 3, 2009, After a 19-8 loss at the Bronco Stadium in Boise,

Idaho, Oregon running back LeGarrette Blunt punched Boise State

Linebacker Bryon Hout in the Jew after Hout appeared to be taunting him. As

he was escotted from the field by officials. Blount had to be restrained from

running into the stands to take on BSU fans. Whom Blount claimed wielded a

chair and throw punches at him. Blount was suspended for ten games

(Maisel, Ivan, 2009).

October 16, 2009, During a Philippine Basketball Association game

between the Burger King Whoppers and smart Gilas at Araneta coliseum in

Quezon City, Philippines, Whoppers Captain Wynne Arboleda ran into the

stands and kicked and punched a fan. Alain Katigbak, who was shouting

profanities at him after Arboleda had been ejected for committing his second

foul. Arboleda was suspended for the rest of the 2009-10 season plus first

game of the 2010-11 season, fined Php 20,000 (US $ 428) and banned from

attending games during his suspension by the PBA (GM Anewsty, 2009)

Katigbak is considering laying civil and criminal charges against Arboleda.

January 31, 2010, Near the end of the fifth and final cricket one-day

international match between Australia and Pakistan at the WACA, a drunken

Australian fan, David James Fraser, run on to the field and tackled Pakistan’s

Khalid Latif before being detained by security. The Pakistan sports minister

has called for cricket Australian to set up barriers and ban allocated at

Australian Cricket grounds and the ICC are also investigating the matter.

Fraser pleaded guilty to trespass, assault and he was fined $ 9000 and

banned from the WACA for life. A second pitch invasion occurred earlier in the

game, and another 24 fans were ejected.

February 20, 2010, During the 2010 Kor Royal Cum match between

Muangthong United and Thar Port at Suphachalasai Stadium in Bangkok,

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Thailand. The port fans threw firecrackers and bottles onto the pitch with

Muangthong United leading 2-0 in the 81st minute, and pitch invasion occurred

in which Thai Port fans attacked fleeing Muangthong United fans,

Muangthong United team flag and a team shirt in the centre of the pitch. Jen

fans were injured.

March 15, 2010, During the first period of a KHL, playoff game between

Automobilist-Yekaterinburg and Salavat Yulaev Ufa at the Yekaterinburg

sports Palace. A drunken Automobilist fan climbed over the glass behind

Salavat’s bench and hit Salavat goaltender vitally kolesnik over the head with

a stick several times. Kolesnik was left-with a concussion and with blood

flowing down his face, and had to be escorted from the arena by medical

personnel. Automobilist was fined one million rubbles ($ 33,500) by the KHL

for having inadequate security. Later the fan was arrested.

October 12, 2010, In Geneva; the UFEA said on Wednesday that had

ordered a though disciplinary investigation into “Serious” around trouble that

forced the Euro 2010 qualifier between Italy and Serbia to be aborted. The

start of the match delayed by about 35 minutes due to rioting in the stands,

and it was abandoned on Thursday night after just seventh minutes due to

Serbian fans throwing flares on to the pitch and at rival Italy supporters.

Fourteen people were hospitalized on Wednesday after Serbian fans clashed

with Italian police. The match was played in Genoa. Italy was later awarded

the match by 3-0 (The Times of India, New Delhi, Chandigarh, 2010).

2.2 ANXIETY:

Anxiety defined as the tendency to perceive competitive situations with

feeling of negative self-appraisal, worry, self-doubt, apprehension or tension.

The past few years have seen a burgeoning interest in the relationship

between competitive anxiety and sports performance. The sports psychology

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is the key to sporting excellence and success. Excellence is considered to be

synonymous with performance enhancement, success and improvement.

Recording better performance is an important motive for participation in

competitive sports. The Competitive anxiety and sports performance have

very close relationship. Sports performance will be optimal under a moderate

level of anxiety, and anxiety level that are either very low or very high will

degrade the sports performance. Competitive trait anxiety is a concept which

denotes how anxious an individual typically becomes before and during

competitive situations. Anxiety can affect sports performance positively or

negatively.

Husman (1954) conducted an analysis of aggression in boxers,

wrestlers and cross-country runners. He examined that anxiety levels often

change when pre-competition and post-competition measures are

compared.A few research studies on this topic suggest that at least in

wrestlers, extremely stable measures are found prior to competition. He found

no significant differences in pre-match and post-match anxiety in a group of

college wrestlers.

Matarazzo and Matarazzo (1956) conducted a study on anxiety level

and pursuit motor performance. They found that the relationship of anxiety to

performance of both a simple and complex nature has been demonstrated in

studies of verbal and motor tests. The subjects falling in the middle portions of

an anxiety scale performed best on a small maze task, while those scoring at

both extremes evidenced inferior performance.

Nelson and Langer (1963) conducted a research on Getting to really

know your players. They assessed college basketball team on some of the

psychological parameters present among athletes in competitive situations.

They applied the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale to measure the anxiety levels

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of the team. The results revealed that the performance of athletes with

extremely high levels of anxiety was poor. They also found that athletes who

scored extremely low in anxiety did not perform well either, perhaps because

of lack of dedication. The results of Nelson and Langer's study support the

result of an earlier study on the effects of anxiety on learning. In an extensive

review of the literature on anxiety, Reed (1960) concluded that both high and

low levels of anxiety tended to disrupt the learning process, whereas

moderate levels of anxiety created an ideal atmosphere for learning.

Hollingsworth (1965) conducted a study on effects of performance

goals and anxiety on learning a gross motor task. She emphasized to

determine the effects of special performance and encouragement on the

acquisition of a gross motor skill. She also investigated the relationship

between levels of trait anxiety, state anxiety, and performance of the same

task. The sample consists of Ninety (N=90) male and female junior high

school students who had scored either "high anxious" or "low anxious" on

Spielberger's Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) were randomly divided into a

"performance goal group", a "verbal encouragement group", and a “control

group”. The subjects practiced a two-ball, one hand juggling task for five

minutes on twelve consecutive school days. They took the STAI just before

each practice session. The average number of catches per trial was recorded

for each subject and each session. All subjects in the "verbal encouragement

group were told to do their best. Subjects in a "performance goal group" were

given a goal based on their previous trial. Apart from the data on anxiety no

significant differences in performance levels occurred. A strong relationship

was existing between state and trait anxiety. It was also found that as the

performance level increased with practice, the anxiety level tended to

decrease.

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Missiuro (1965) studied emotions in pre-contest situations. He stressed

on "psychic warming up" in referring to these affective responses to the

anxiety provoking stimuli associated with achieving competitive goals. Anxiety

in athletes can, according to Missiuro, effectively activate physical resources.

For instance, the acceleration of the pituitary-adrenal and simpatico-adrenal

systems not only aids in coordinating auxiliary muscles necessary in task

completion, but also significantly increases the overall efficiency level of motor

acts. Anxiety, he also found, stimulates the adrenergic system resulting in

increasing of adrenaline flow creates a beneficial influence on the contraction

of fatigued muscles. Because fatigue leads to increments in the threshold for

muscle contraction, adrenaline facilitates muscle functioning by intensifying

both heart contraction and total blood flow to stimulated muscles.

Hutson (1966) studied the relationship between level of anxiety and the

learning of skill in beginning horse back riding. The Parallel Anxiety Battery

was used to assess levels of anxiety in six (N=6) women enrolled in beginning

riding class. The findings showed that as the students increased in skill, their

anxiety tended to decrease.

Selvin (1970) Applied Spielberger's test of state and trait anxiety (STAI)

to assess the effect of anxiety on the performance of an unfamiliar gross

motor skill. While being observe executed a modified fencing lunge and

recovery under experimental conditions of competitions. Results from the

study showed that individual with low level of trait anxiety performed better in

the novel skill than those who had been classified as having high level of trait-

anxiety.

Selvin (1970) studied the influence of trait and state anxiety upon the

performance of novel gross motor tasks under conditions of competition and

audience. The Spielberger's test of state and trait anxiety (STAI) was applied

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to assess the effect of anxiety on the performance of an unfamiliar gross

motor skill. Eighty (N=80) high school non-athletes executed a modified

fencing lunge and recovery under experimental conditions of competition.

Results from the study showed that individuals with low levels of trait anxiety

performed better in the novel skill than those who had been classified as

having high level of trait anxiety.

Griffen (1972) conducted an analysis of state and trait anxiety

experience in sports competition by women at different age levels. The state

anxiety levels of women engaged in competitive sports decrease with age.

State anxiety levels of women engaged in competitive sports differ among

sports. The effects of age upon state anxiety are not consistent in all sports or

the effects of sports upon state anxiety for varying age levels. Trait anxiety

levels of women engaged in competitive sports are significantly different at

three age levels. Trait anxiety levels of women engaged in competitive sports

differ among sports and the effects of age upon trait anxiety are not consistent

in all sports or the effects of sports upon trait anxiety consistent for varying

age levels.

Bahrke (1977) studied the influence of acute physical activity and "Non-

cultic" mediation versus a control treatment on state anxiety. The data

consists of seventy five (N=75) adult male volunteers. Further 25 subjects

randomly assigned to each group. Physical activity was performed at 70

percent of V02 Max for 20 minutes by subjects in the exercise group, subjects

assigned to mediation group practiced Benson's Relaxation Response for 20

minutes and the subjects in the control group simply rested quietly in a

reclining chair for 20 minutes. State anxiety was measured by means of the

Spielberger (STAI) and it was assessed — (1) prior to, (2) immediately

following, (3) ten minutes following each treatment. Oxygen consumption,

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heart rate, skin temperature and blood pressure were also measured as

confirmatory variables under selected conditions. The data was analyzed by

means of two-ways repeated measures (ANOVA) and analysis revealed a

significant reduction in anxiety occurred for each treatment. This held for both

those subjects falling within the normal range for state anxiety, as well as

those subjects regarded as high anxious. It was also noted that none of

psychological variables differed significantly following the central and

mediation treatment. The present evidence suggests that acute physical

activity, no cultic mediation, and a quite rest session are equally effective in

state anxiety.

Martens and Gill (1976), Scanlan (1977), Scanlan and Passer (1979)

found a significant negative relationship between both A-state and A-trait

anxiety and the level of skill attached in riflery. However these variables did

not have a reliable relationship to bowling skill attained.

Martens (1977) construction of sports competitive anxiety test (SCAT)

has represented a notable standard of this principle by its measurement of

competitive trait anxiety (CTA). This construct assess individual differences

perceiving and leads to corresponding differences in A-State responses. The

SCAT Manual (Martens 1977) presents compressive data information,

documenting theory, development reliability validity of this inventory essential

validity was best demonstrated in that SCAT. Predicated program A-state

score (r = .64) as compared to the STAI-Trait (r = .30) and Coaches' ratings (r

= .12) (Mortems and Simon, 1976).

Novaczyk's (1977) conducted a survey while comparing trait and state

anxiety levels between three divisions of youth ice hockey participants and

trait anxiety levels between athletes and non-athletes. The sample consisted

of one hundred three (N=103) 8th and 9th grade athletes. The Sports

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Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT) and the State Anxiety Inventory (SAl) were

administered to all subjects. Subjects were given tests before and after

practice sessions. There were significant differences among competitive

situation and between pre-test and post-test situations.

Gerson and Deshaies (1978) studied a competitive trait anxiety and

performance as predictors of pre-competitive state anxiety. In their study, they

examined batting averages of female varsity softball players participating in a

national tournament and found that, indeed, higher pre-competitive state

anxiety was associated with a lower batting average. Perhaps the expectancy

of performing poorly does in fact lead to poor performance.

Scanlan (1978) studied that both high and low A-trait subjects

manifested grater A-state level while performance performing in competition

on a peg tossing as compared to non-competitive situation. He also found that

high A-trait subjects exhibited a greater A-state than low A-trait subjects

similar pattern has been found in field studies which have shown that high A-

trait players experience greater A-state than low A-trait players during practice

session and play of game.

Weinbreg and Genuchi (1980) studied the relation between competitive

trait anxiety, state anxiety, and golf performance. They investigated the

performance of golfers, as golf is a game that requires precision, coordination,

and the integration of fine muscle movement. It is an especially appropriate

venue for study the effects of anxiety level on the athletics performance.

Excessive levels of anxiety may interfere with the execution of golfing

responses that must occur within a relatively narrow range of expertise. They

found that golfers with high anxiety trait levels were more likely than golfers

low in trait to experience elevated state anxiety on days 1 and 2 of a collegiate

tournament. Further, it was shown that high levels of state anxiety and strong

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expectations of poor performance were related to how well golfers did in the

tournament. Better performance was associated with low anxiety, and poorer

performance was associated with high anxiety.

Owen and Lanning (1982) conducted a study on the effects of three

treatment methods upon anxiety and inappropriate attentional style among

high school athletes. They examined the effects of relaxation training plus

attentional training on anxiety and additional style measures, on fifty eight

(N=58) high school athletes. Out of fifty eight athletes, thirty (N=30) were from

a private high school and twenty eight (N=28) from a public high school. The

average age was 15.8 years. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI)

developed by Spielberger, Gorsuch and Lushene (1970), and Test of

Attentional and Interpersonal Style (TAIS) by Nideffer (1976) were

administered to collect the required data. One way analysis of variance

(ANOVA) was computed. Duncan's New Multiple Range Test was used as a

post-hoc analysis. Results revealed that when compared with a control group

all three treatment methods were effective in reducing reported state anxiety.

No significant differences were observed among the three treatment methods

nor did any of them result in significant differences in attentional style. All the

three treatment groups scored significantly better than the control group on

the Maze Test Performance Measure.

Power (1982) conducted an analysis of anxiety levels in track and field

athletes of varying ages and abilities. He applied Martens' Sport Competition

Anxiety Test on sixty five (N=65) adult male track and field athletes. They

were further divided into sub-groups representing all ages, events, experience

and abilities. There was a significant relationship between age and anxiety

(p<.01). No logical pattern regarding competition anxiety emerged from any of

the sub-group.

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Wandzilak et al. (1982) conducted a study on factors related to

predictability of pre-game state anxiety. The sample consisted of Ninety three

(N=93) female high school volleyball players. They were administered the

adult versions of the Sports Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT) and the

competitive short form of Spielberger's State Anxiety Inventory (CSAI) to

determine their trait, pre-competitive and pre-game state anxiety levels. The

primary purpose of their field investigation was to assess the effectiveness of

competitive trait anxiety (CTS,), two different pre-competitive anxiety

measures, and two parameters of success / failure to predict pre-game state

anxiety. The subjects were divided into two groups with SCAT and the CSAI

being administered to Group 1 (N=48) 24 hours prior to the competition and

Group 2 (N=45) three hours before the first match. All subjects repeated the

CSAI 20 minutes before playing. Replication of previous laboratory findings

concerning the relationship between CTA and pre-game state anxiety was

confirmed. Then, through a multiple regression technique, it was found that of

the independent variables tested, SCAT (20%) and won / loss percentage

(8%) resulted in a total of approximately 28% of the variance in predicting pre-

game state anxiety for Group 1. For Group 2, the three hour pre-competitive

score (36%) and SCAT (13%) were responsible for almost 50% of the

variance. It was also noted that there is need for standardization of testing

procedures, including times and settings, when basal measures are involved.

Gould et al. (1983) conducted a study on Competitive anxiety in junior

elite wrestlers. The sample consisted of four hundred sixty (N=460) junior elite

wrestlers participating in a national tournament. In the degree of competitive

stress reported by the wrestlers in comparison to the high-trait anxious

wrestlers the low trait anxious wrestlers experienced less stress, 24 hours

prior to competition, 1 hour prior to competition, 2 minutes prior to competition

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and in the actual competition against the individual perceives to be their

toughest opponent. The low trait anxious wrestler were also superior in terms

of their perception of personal ability, their pre-tournament confidence, the

percentage of all matches in which they did not worry and the trouble (or

rather, lack of difficulty) they had in sleeping.

Dowthwaite et al. (1984) conducted an investigation into anxiety levels

of soccer players. They tried to analyze the effect of a competitive game on

the anxiety levels of individual players. The subjects were eleven (N=1 1)

members of Worecester college of higher education soccer team during the

1982-83 competitive seasons. The players' age group was 18 to 29 years.

The adult version of the sports competition anxiety inventory (SCAI) was

administered to determine their trait anxiety, 10 minutes before the first and

immediately after the last match. The competitive short form of Spielberger's

State Anxiety Inventory (CSAI) was administered to determine state anxiety

levels; 10 minutes before the first and immediately after the last match. The

CSAI was applied to three matches, two judged to be easy and third match

being classified as crucial. The instrument should detect changes in anxiety

state due to importance of the game. The findings indicated that the group

which won all the three games was indicative of changes in anxiety states

before and after competition. The players were significantly more anxious

before the crucial game when compared to the easy games.

Rainey et al. (1987) investigated the competitive trait anxiety among

male and female junior high school athletes. The sample consisted of one

hundred twenty (N=120) subjects which included 60 male and 60 female

junior high school athletes. The Sports Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT) was

used to identify athletes with high and low (upper and lower 25 percent)

competitive trait anxiety (CTA). High-CTA athletes reported more frequent

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evaluation and performance worries and more anticipated negative feelings

when playing poorly than low-CTA. These groups did not differ on perceived

importance of success in sports, in satisfaction with sports experiences, or

perceptions of their success/failure in sports. Males and females differed

significantly in only team performance expectancies. Results provided support

for the hypothesized relationship of fear of failure and fear of evaluation to

CTA.

Singh (1988) assessed the level of sports competition anxiety between

male and female players attending national camps. The sports competition

anxiety level of one hundred eighteen (N=118) top level Indian track and field

athletes (76 male and 42 female) and seventy one (N=71) hockey players (45

male and 26 female) in the age group of 18-36 years (males) and 16-26 years

(females) attending national camps were assessed by administering the

Sports Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT) developed by Martens (1977). It

revealed from the results that the male athletes and male hockey players had

less competitive anxiety as compared to their counterpart female athletes and

female hockey players. It was further observed that the male and female

athletes differed significantly on competition anxiety from male and female

hockey players.

Bird and Horn (1990) investigated the Cognitive Anxiety and Mental

Errors in sports. They tried to assess the relationship between level of

cognitive anxiety and degree of mental errors in a sport setting. The sample

consisted of two hundred two (N=202) female softball players whose age

ranged from 14 to 17 years. The dimensions of cognitive anxiety, somatic

anxiety, and self confidence were assessed by administering Competitive

States Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) developed by (Martens et al. 1978).

Analysis of variance yielded a single significant main effect which indicated

that the two mental-error groups differed in cognitive anxiety.

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Edmund et al. (1992) conducted the study on Cognitive orientations of

Ultra marathoners. They examined the sports specific cognitions of one

hundred twelve (N=112) ultra marathoners competing in a 100 mile trail run.

The responses of ultra marathoners to constructs of confidence, competitive

orientation, and commitment to running were recorded. The researchers had

used sport orientation questionnaire. They found no significant differences in

cognitive orientations between finishers and non-finishers or between males

or females. Responses to open-ended questionnaire revealed that most of the

ultra marathoners reported predominantly external thoughts during races.

They had feelings of psychological well-being and strength as a result of ultra

marathon. These results show the unique sports specific cognitive

orientations of ultra marathoners.

Ping (1993) conducted a study on competitive motives as predictors of

cognitive trait anxiety in university athletes. The sample consisted of four

hundred six (N=406) subjects involved in 30 events. The purpose of the study

was to examine motivational predictors of cognitive competitive trait anxiety

(CCTA). Factor analysis of CCTAI items revealed six factors; game

preparation, failure, opponent's ability, social evaluation, injury and external

condition. Factor analysis of the items of competitive motives (CM) revealed

five factors; desire for victory, high ability demonstration, social approval,

enjoyment, and self-challenge. Stepwise multiple regression analysis

demonstrated that all the CCTAI factors were significantly predicted by

common and unique predictors of the five CM factors. Positive and negative

relationships between CCTAI and CM factors did not clarify conclusiveness of

whether intrinsic or extrinsic motivation differently mediated cognitive

competitive trait anxiety (CCTA). The findings indicate that the motive is a

predictor of cognitive competitive trait anxiety (CCTA).

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Krane and Williams (1994) conducted the study on cognitive anxiety,

somatic anxiety, and self- confidence in male and female high school and

college track and field athletes. The sample consisted of two hundred sixteen

'(N=216) athletes. They used the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2

(CSAI-2) to collect the data. The athletes have completed the Competitive

State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) within 20 minutes' of each event in which

they competed at a prestigious invitational track and field relay meet.

Consistent with expectations, a 2x2x2 (gender by competitive level by place)

MANOVA revealed male athletes reported lower somatic anxiety and higher

self-confidence than female athletes and college athletes displayed lower

cognitive and somatic anxiety than high school athletes. Contrary to

hypothesis, the place main effect was not significant. A significant three-way

interaction was found on the cognitive anxiety subscale. College male non-

placers displayed the lowest levels of cognitive anxiety while high school male

non-placers displayed the highest levels. When examining the hypothesis that

athletes in sports of differing complexity and duration would have different

anxiety and confidence levels only cognitive anxiety was found to differ in

athletes in events of differing complexity with the high complexity athletes

displaying greater cognitive anxiety than the low complexity athletes. No

significant anxiety or confidence difference was found among athletes in

events of differing duration

Davids and Gill (1995) conducted a study on multidimensional state

anxiety prior to different levels of sport competition. The sample consisted of

one hundred twenty (N=120) 60 male and 60 female junior high school

athletes in the age group of 12 to 15 years. Seventy (70%) percent of the

subjects (N=84) attended a public school at New York, while thirty (30%)

percent of the subjects (N=36) attended parochial school in Tale do, Ohio.

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They used the Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT) to identify athletes with

high and low (upper and lower 25%) competitive trait anxiety (CTA). The

purpose of the study was to replicate the fear of failure and fear of evaluation

portions of Passer's (1983) study, but with more heterogeneous samples.

Subjects were treated in accordance with the ethical standard of American

Psychological Association (APA, 1981). High-CTA athletes reported more

frequent evaluation and performance worries and anticipated more negative

feelings when playing poorly than low CTA. These groups did not differ on

perceived importance of success in sports, satisfaction with sport de-

experiences, or perceptions of their success/ failure in sport. Males and

females differed significantly only in team performance experiences.

Williams et al. (2000) conducted a study on predicting anxiety in

competitive sports. The relationship between attitudes towards winning and

competitive anxiety was explored in fifty nine (N=59) undergraduate students

competing on four different New Jersey based, NCAA Division three sports

teams. In a backward multiple regression analysis, cognitive anxiety was

predicted significantly only by self-confidence, while somatic anxiety was

predicted significantly by self-confidence and the rated importance of the

competition.

Bhushan (2002) carried out an investigation on Anxiety, Aggression

and team cohesion as related to performance in selected team sports. The

sample consisted of two hundred forty (N=240) male and female athletes of

college and university level, who participated in different team games with the

purpose to examine the variables i.e. anxiety, aggression and team cohesion.

The subjects were in the age group of 18 to 25 years. He applied Spielberger,

Gorsuch, and Lushene's (1970) State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) to

measure the state and trait anxiety and Marten's (1977) sports competition

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anxiety inventory to measure sports competition anxiety. The hockey group

did not demonstrate any significant differences among the college and the

university athletes on the variable state, trait and sports competitive anxiety.

However, college and university athletes of volleyball group demonstrated

significant results (p<0.05) on the variable state anxiety whereas the same

sports group did not indicate any significant differences on trait and sports

competitive anxiety. As like the Hockey group, the group of basketball and

handball sports group on the variable state, trait and sport competitive anxiety

with regard to college and university athletes also did not demonstrate any

significant difference.

Singh (2002) conducted a Comparative study of Psychological

variables of athletes of Individual and team sports. He carried out an

investigation on athletes from selected disciplines of sports on the dependent

variable Motivation, Anxiety, Aggression and Cohesion in relation to the

independent variable of individual and team sports. Subjects were drawn from

the affiliated colleges of Panjab University, Chandigarh and P.U. Campus by

using systematic cluster sampling technique. The sample consisted of one

hundred sixty five (N=165) subjects (45 were from individual sports and 120

from team sports). No significant differences were found between the athletes

of individual and team sports in either 'State' or 'Trait Anxiety'.

Kaur (2004) conducted a study on psycho-physical status of kabaddi

players of Panjab university to carried out an investigation on variable sports

competitive anxiety. A sample consisted of forty (N=40) kabaddi female

players which included 20 inter-college and 20 inter-university players. To

collect the data on variable sports competitive anxiety, Martens (1977) Sports

competitive Anxiety Test was used. In her investigation she found that

university female players had optimal anxiety level as compared to the college

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female players, as university female players were significantly better as

compared to the college female players on the variable sports competitive

anxiety.

Singh (2005) conducted a study on Psychological variables among

athletes. The sample consisted of two hundred eighty six (N=286) which

included 144 successful and 142 unsuccessful, 150 male and 136 female,

122 from North region and 164 from South region respectively. He used the

sports competitive anxiety inventory developed by Marten (1977). The results

revealed that female athletes were found to have significantly higher level of

sports competitive anxiety as compared to their male counterparts. He also

found significant differences between successful and unsuccessful athletes on

the variable of sports competitive anxiety. The unsuccessful athletes had

higher level of sports competitive anxiety.

Cottyn et al. (2006) studied the measurement of competitive anxiety

during balance beam performance in gymnasts. The purpose of the present

study was to investigate competitive anxiety during balance beam

performance of gymnasts. Competitive anxieties was assessed continuously

by heart rate monitoring and by retrospective self-report of nervousness in

eight (N=8) female national level gymnasts during their balance beam routine

during one competition and two training sessions. A significant negative

correlation was found between the score of the retrospective self-report of

nervousness and performance during the routine. There were no significant

differences in performance score by the judges between the three test

sessions. There were also no differences in the retrospective self-report of

nervousness. However, heart rate was significantly higher during the

competition session than during the training sessions. The potential value of

the retrospective report of nervousness for the study of critical events during

gymnastic performance is illustrated.

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Mellalieu et al. (2006) studied the self-confidence as a mediator of the

relationship between competitive anxiety intensity and interpretation. The aim

of the study was to examine whether self-confidence mediated the

relationship between competitive anxiety intensity and direction. The sample

consisted of two hundred forty six (N=246) which included elite (N=102) and

non-elite (N=144) participants completed the self-confidence subscales of the

Competitive Trait Anxiety Inventory and the worry and somatic subscales from

the sports anxiety scale. Consistent with procedures recommended by Baron

and Kenny (1986) linear regression analyses were used. The findings for elite

athletes revealed worry intensity to significantly predict self-confidence and

worry direction. However, when self-confidence was controlled, worry intensity

did not predict worry direction over that which was significantly predicted by

self-confidence. Within the analysis for somatic symptoms, only self-

confidence was found to predict somatic symptom direction. For the non-elite

athletes, worry and somatic symptom intensity predicted both self-confidence

and direction when self-confidence was controlled. The findings for the elite

athletes suggest that self-confidence mediates the relationship between

performers' worry symptoms and subsequent directional interpretations.

However, the findings suggest that high levels of self-confidence and low

symptom intensity are needed for non-elite athletes to demonstrate a less

debilitative interpretation.

Nicholls et al. (2010) studied the coping self-efficacy pre-competitive

anxiety, and subjective performance among athletes. The aim of the study

was to explore the relationships between (a) coping self-efficacy and

subjective performance, (b) coping self-efficacy and pre-competitive anxiety,

and (c) pre-competitive anxiety and subjective performance. The sample

consisted of three hundred seven (N=307) athletes which included 252 males

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and 55 females aged 16-34 years, who competed at national/international (n

= 18), county (n = 54), club/university (n = 139), and beginner (n = 96) level.

All participants completed a measure of coping self-efficacy and anxiety

before a competitive event and a subjective performance measure after

competing. The findings revealed that there was a significant and positive

relationship between coping self-efficacy and subjective performance.

Negative relationships between coping self-efficacy and both somatic and

cognitive anxiety were also observed. However, somatic and cognitive anxiety

did not predict subjective performance. The present findings support previous

results regarding the influence of self-efficacy and provide applied

practitioners with recommendations that may enhance athletics performance.

Dureha D.K.S Yaduvanshi and P. Mishra (2011) the purpose of the

study is to compare the, status of national and. international hockey players

on the selected psychological variables. Sixty male hockey players of India

divided into two groups national (n= 30) and international (n =30). The age

range of the subject was 17 to 25 years. The collection of data was based four

test batteries that is, Alberta Incentive motivation inventory the sports

achievements and motivation test, state and trait anxiety inventory and sports

completion anxiety test. As shown by the results of the study there were

insignificants difference was found in incentive motivation, achievement

motivation, state anxiety and trait anxiety between national and international

hockey players and significant difference was found in sports completions

anxiety. In order to test t test was used and 0.05 level of significant was used.

The hypothesis that international and national players would not differ

accepted in achievement motivation, state, trait and sports completion

anxiety.

Sisodiya A.S. and P. Purashwani (2011) the purpose of the study was

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to investigate the relationship between achievements motivation and anxiety

of inter-University level male and female shutters i.e. badminton players. For

this purpose, 30 (15 male and 15 female) shuttlers were randomly selected as

subjects, who participated in zone inter university Badminton tournament.

Sports achievement motivation test by M.L. Kamlesh and sports competition

anxiety test constructed by rainier marten were administrated to collect the

data. Pearson's product moment correlation was employed to find out the

relationship between the achievement motivation and anxiety. Finding showed

no significant relationship between achievement motivation and anxiety of

male and female badminton players of inter-University level.

2.3 SELF-CONCEPT:

There are several terms that are synonymous with self-concept.

Among them are "Self-image"; "The ego"; "Self-understanding"; "Self

perception"; "Self esteem" and "Phenomenal self". The term self-concept is a

person's image about his own self, his beliefs, feelings, attitudes, fears, hopes

etc. James (1902) put it in a nutshell when he called it the "Sum-total of all

that he can call his own". It is mainly a function of the interaction of an

individual with the outer world. Phenomenists explain that perceptual field

determines all behaviour and an individual's private world or life space

becomes the determinant.

This review of related literature is broader in the sense that apart from

Self-concept studies, the studies with synonymous terms as "Self-image",

"Self-esteem", etc have also been focused upon by the investigator and have

been incorporated in this chapter.

Bookover and Thomas (1964) conducted a study of self-concept of

ability and school achievement of seventh grade students in an urban school

system found that there is a significant and positive correlation between self-

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concept and performance in the academic role. This means that the self-

concept of the individual is very important factor in his achievement in the

subject. This substantial relationship was found even when measured I, Q,

was controlled.

Floyd (1972) designed a study to determine the relationship between

self-concept and physical performance among selected college female

students. In this study self-concept was defined as self-regarding attitudes

consisting of four primary factors: self-description; self-acceptance; ideal-self

and self-discrepancy i.e. ideal discrepancy. These factors were measured by

the index of adjustment and values. The physical performance was measured

by the Scot motor ability test, which consists of a four-second dash, a

standing broad jump, the basketball throw for distance, the wall pass and the

obstacle race. The total number of subjects was 323. Four class hours were

utilized to obtain the data for each of 14 body mechanic classes.

Correlations/Co-efficient were computed from the scores derived from Scot

motor ability test. The results showed that there was not a significant (.05

level) linear relationship between physical performance and self-concept

among the groups tested. The result also indicated that there was not a

significant (.05 level) relationship between physical performance and self-

description, physical performance and self-acceptance, physical performance

and ideal-concept and physical performance and discrepancy score.

Ibrahim and Morrison (1975) conducted a study on 100 athletes

representing high schools and colleges and 100 non-athletes. They found that

athletes were average in their self-actualizing traits and less than average in

self-concept. Male high school athletes differed from non-athletes in both self-

concept and actualization while female athletes differ in self-actualization only.

Mohan (1975) investigated the development of self-concept and its

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correlation with some intellectual characteristics of students. He studied that

there is a definite and positive relationship between the development of self-

concept and the intellectual characteristics of students.

Guyot, Fairchild , (1981) in their study entitled "Physical Fitness, Sports

Participation, Body Build, and Self Concept of Elementary School children".

They assessed the relationships of sports participation, body build and self-

concept in the children of grades 4-6. Whereas 50 boys and 68 girls scored

below the 50th percentile and 87 boys and 88 girls scored above the 70th

percentile on a physical fitness-motor ability test. The boys and girls in the

high physical fitness group scored significantly higher on self-concept than

boys and girls in the low physical fitness group. Sport participation correlated

higher with the self-concept of the boys than the self-concept of the girls and

significantly correlated with the fitness of the girls. It was found that a

significantly smaller proportion of girls, who scored- high in physical fitness,

were participants in youth sports than boys who scored high in physical

fitness. Finally body build correlated with the self-concept of the boys.

Longford (1981) compared self-perceived physical abilities, attitudes

towards activities selected measures of physical fitness and self-concept of

the following:

(1) Female physical education majors and female non-majors;

(2) Male education majors and non-majors;

(3) All physical education majors and non-majors.

19 female and 22 male physical education majors along with 15 female

and 15 male non-majors served as subjects for the study. All the subjects

were enrolled to the University of Alakama as undergraduates during the

spring semester of (1981).

Self perceived physical activity and attitude towards physical activity

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was measured by physical estimation and attraction scales. Physical fitness

was measured by the use of a 1.5-mile run, hydrostatic weighing test, sit and

reach test, grip strength test, knee extension strength test, and knee flexion

strength test. The measurement of self-concept was obtained by using the

Tennessee self-concept scale.

Based on the analysis of two ways ANOVA, the following inferences

were drawn:

(1) Female and male physical education majors were more attracted to

physical activity as compared to female and male non majors;

(2) Female and male physical education majors benefited more as

compared to non majors;

(3) Male and female physical education majors have a higher affirmation of

possessing physical endowments as compared to female non majors;

(4) Male and female majors had a higher confidence with performing

physical skills as compared to female non majors;

(5) Female physical education majors were more attracted to robust

activities as compared to female non majors;

(6) Female and male majors were more attracted towards speed

endurance running as compared to female non majors;

(7) Female and male majors and male non majors were not different in the

variable attraction to physical activities, affirmation assessing physical

endowments; confidence at the performing physical skills; attraction to

robust activities; activities requiring an ability in running;

(8) Both groups were not different on estimation of one's physical ability

and attraction to tennis;

(9) Female majors possessed higher values of self-concept compared to

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female non majors and

(10) Female and male majors and male non majors were not different on

the subscales of self-concept.

Olszewska's (1982) study was to examine the relation of self-image,

self-estimation and a tendency to dominate or submit to the effectiveness of

the performance of the team players. 260 volleyball, handball and soccer

players were investigated in order to determine a possible interdependence

between their self-image, self-estimation and the tendency to dominate or

submit and to determine their performance effectiveness. The procedures

employed were: the Giessen test; the assessment of the level of aspirations;

the A.S. reactions study Test and the practical assessment of performance

effectiveness. Research result showed that players who achieved a high level

of performance effectiveness had a high self-image, were either sensible or

reckless and reveal a tendency to submit.

Richman & Heather (1986) conducted a study to investigate the

development of self-esteem through martial arts for levels of self-artists prior

to their competition at a Karate tournament. Self-esteem was found to be

significantly lower for beginning belt level student, self-perceptions regarding

their abilities revealed fighting ability and physical conditioning. Further more,

prior to the tournament, self-esteem was found to be significantly higher for

those competitions that would not earn a trophy.

Cutolo (1987) studied the inter-relationship of female competitive

athletics participation, sex role, self-concept and self-esteem. In order to

explore this relationship 200 high school girls in the Leansan City Missouri

Public School system were administered the sex role self-concept inventory,

the Coopersmith self-esteem inventory, and a questionnaire. 100 of these

girls were members of their high school inter scholastic Athletics teams, and

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were placed in 4 categories based on length of participation: up to 1 year, 1 to

2 years, 2 to 3 years and 3 to 4 years of inter scholastic athletic competition.

Also 100 subjects did not have any competitive experience who were chosen

from high school gymnastic classes. Mean and S.D of the Bern scores and

Coopersmith self-esteem scores were calculated for each level of competitive

athletics participation and sex role. Where as self-concept was found to co-

relate to a positive direction with athletics participation, the scores on the sub-

scales were found to be co-related in a positive direction with level of athletics

participation and self-esteem.

Denning (1989) measured the effectiveness of two programs designed

to increase self-concept of 9th grade students in terms of Self-Concept gains

and changes in academic achievement. Two different programs, unlocking the

potentials of subjects were taught to 9th grade students in four north- eastern

Washington schools. Students from two comparable schools composed the

experimental and control groups. The effectiveness of the program in

improving self-concept of learners was assessed by the Honda Key (1973)

inventory. Students professed and teachers inferred self-concept as learner

scores were gained from the key. Academic achievements were measured by

gains in eight and nine overall grade point average immediately before and

after the treatment to measure sustained gain in self-concept of learners and

its effect upon academic achievements. The results showed:

(1) global self-concept program can change student professed self-

concept of a learner as measured before, and immediately after

implementation of the program, but not on a long term basis;

(2) global self-concept programs can change teacher inferred self-concept

of a learner as measured before, and immediately after implementation

of the program as well as four months after instructions;

(3) global self- concept programs can effect yearly grade point average

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gains significantly, but not quarterly gains;

(4) there were only three very low significant correlations between

changes in self-concept as learner scores and changes in yearly and

quarterly grade point averages and,

(5) all of the experimental teachers positively perceived the self-concept

program they implemented.

Raath (1988) investigated that the possible implications would be of a

negative self-concept on the intellectual, social and personality development

of senior primary school children. The empirical investigation consisted of a

homothetic investigation for which 80 boys and 87 girls from standard 4 and 5

were chosen at random from primary schools. The following testing media

were applied: the new south African group test of the human sciences

research council; self-concept inventory; questionnaire on the family peer

group nomination inventory, draw-a-person, family drawing and a card

projection test. Two groups were selected as subjects: those with a negative,

and those with a positive self-concept. These were then compared. The

analyzed results thus were concluded. A negative self-concept has

detrimental implications for the intellectual, social and personality

development of the senior primary school children. An idiographic study of

four of the pupils with a negative self-concept also confirmed these results.

Doganis, Theodorakis & Bagiatis (1991) investigated Self-esteem and

locus of control in adult female fitness program participants. The aim of this

investigation was to test the factor and psychometric properties of the

Exercise Objectives Locus of Control (EOLOC) scale in order to adopt it for

use with Greek populations, and to examine its relationship with self-esteem.

A total of 96 women, 18-40 years of age, participating in physical fitness

programs, took part in this study. The factor analysis of the EOLOC scale

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explained 58.5% of the variance considered satisfactory, and high reliability

scores were revealed in the final form of the scale. The results also showed a

positive relationship between self-esteem and EOLOC Internal subscale and

negative relationships between self-esteem and EOLOC external and chance

subscales. These findings suggest that persons with positive attitudes

towards the self are those who believe they are able to control the exercise

outcomes. The results are discussed in relation to the usefulness of the

exercise objectives locus of control scale as a specific locus of control

measure in physical activity.

Lynn (1991) investigated the self-concept and perceived importance of

athletic competition of winners and losers in special Olympics. The purpose of

the study was to investigate the self-concept of winner, non-winners and

losers after participation in a special Olympic competitive meet. The study

also examined the attitude of mentally retarded participants towards

competition and the perceived importance of competing in the event. The

subjects for this investigation were participants from the Texas Special

Olympic states swimming meet. The study included 95 males and 56 females

as subjects. Comparisons were made among athletes placed first, second

and last in races at the swim meet. Following the competition, subjects were

administered subscale of the Piers-Harris self-concept (PHSCS) and asked

questions relative to attitudes towards competition. A follow up interview was

conducted after 8 to 12 weeks following the swimming meet to determine the

importance of having competed in special Olympic. The results showed that

no significant differences in self-concept levels existed among winners, non-

winners and losers immediately following the competition. While all three

groups expressed positive feelings towards participation in Special Olympics.

The last placed finishers were slightly more negative about swimming when

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interviewed immediately following the participation. Also, immediately

following the event, second placed finisher preferred more to swim when

racing against other people than did winners and last placed finishers. In

addition, the follow-up interview, after 8 to 12 weeks after participation,

demonstrated no significant differences among groups regarding their attitude

towards competing in the special Olympic swim meet. Also the perceived

importance of the Texas special Olympic swim meet was not significant for

winners, non-winners and losers as measured by responses to the follow-up

interview.

Sharma, (1993) investigated relationship of self-concept adjustment to

performance of team players. The sample consisted of 240 male players

selected randomly from the institutions of Chandigarh. He used the Sarswat

1984 self-concept scale. He found that high performance of football players

found negative relationship with physical temperamental self-concept physical

and moral self-concept, significant difference was observed among four

groups on moral, intellectual and total self-concept.

Dekel, Tenenbaum & Kudar, (1996) conducted an exploratory study on

the relationship between postural deformities, body-image, self-esteem in

adolescents and the mediating role of physical activity. This study was

designed to examine the association between the intensity with which

adolescents engaged in physical activity (PA) and their body- image and

general self-esteem. Furthermore, it was aimed at examining the hypothesis

that adolescents with postural deformities, who engage in PA, will perceive

their body (in particular) and the self similarly to their healthy counterparts and

more positively than adolescents with postural deformities, who do not

engage in any PA. 286 male and female adolescents (12-18 years) of whom

146 were healthy and 140 were diagnosed as suffering from structural and

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non-structural adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) were administered a body

image (Secored and Jourard, 1953) and the Tennessee self-concept (Fitts,

1965). Questionnaire subjects were also classified with concept to their level

of engagement in PA extensive, moderate and low. A 2 (postural status), X2

(gender), X3 (PA level). ANOVA indicated a significant 3-way interaction on

body image, but not on self-esteem. Adolescents with AIS, not• engaged in

PA had lower body image than their peers, particularly males. However, both

males and females with AIS perceived their bodies positively when engaged

in moderate or extensive PA. Being an exploratory prospective research, the

results do not permit assigning any casual effect to PA on perception of the

body and the self. The results support the specificity hypothesis of self-

esteem and encourage investigation as to the particular physical activities,

which are most beneficial for adolescents, who suffer from postural

deformities.

Gill (1998) conducted a study on self-concept of female athletes with

relation to their performance and age. The purpose of the study was to

investigate "self-concept" in relation to performance and age of female

athletes. The sample consisted of 200 subjects (female) performing at inter-

college and inter-varsity levels in cricket, athletics, softball and kho-kho. The

self-concept questionnaire (Raj Kumar Saraswat 1984) was used to collect

the data. Analysis of variance 2x2 way ANOVA was applied to analyse the

data. The results indicates that university female athletes were found

significantly better on physical, social, temperamental, educational, intellectual

and total self-concept as compared to college level female athletes. No

significant difference was found on moral self-concept. Female athletes of

second age group (19-21 years) were found significantly better on physical

and intellectual aspects of self-concept as compared to first age group (16 to

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18 years). No significant difference was found between these groups on other

variables of self-concept.

Alfermann & Stoll (2000) conducted a study on the effects of physical

exercise on self-concept and well being, in which 2 field experiments on

middle aged adults, the effects of exercise on self-concept and well being,

were investigated. In both the experiment participants were randomly

assigned to either experimental or control groups.

In experiment 1, a total of 24 female and male participants took part in

an exercise program for six months. Physical self-concept, self-esteem and

subjective well- being were assessed before and after the six month program.

Compared with a wait-list control group (13 participants) exercises improved

significantly in physical self-concept and decreased in psychosomatic

complaints.

In experiments 2,57 female and male adults participated in exercise

programs for six months. Placebo attention groups were the control groups.

The Placebo attention group members (36) took part either in relaxation or

back training. Self-concept and well-being measures were assessed three

times, before and after the 6-month program's completion. The exercise and

self-esteem model (EXSEM) of Sonstroem, Harlow and Josephs (1994) could

be partially replicated. In addition, the main effects of time showed that not

only exercise but also other kinds of intervention were able to influence the

dependent variables. Motor performance tests likewise indicated improvement

in participants of all groups over time. The results point to the fact that

exercise is one, but its the only strategy which improves mental health.

Asci. (2002) conducted an experimental study to examine the effects of

step dance on physical self-perception of both the female and male university

students to determine gender differences in the effects of step dance on

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physical self-perception. 73 female and 65 male university students aged

between 18-27 years, who took elective courses at the Physical Education

and Sports Department voluntarily, enrolled in this study. Participants were

randomly assigned to experimental and control groups by maintaining balance

for gender in each group. "Fox's physical self-perception profile (PSPP)" was

administered to male and females in the experimental and control groups,

before and after 10-week step dance program. Participants in the

experimental group attended step dance sessions of 50 minutes per day, 3

days a week with 60-80% of their heart rate reserves, while subjects in the

control group did not participate in any regular physical activity. The results of

2x2x2 (Experimental/control x female/male x pre/post test) MANOVA with

repeated measures on physical self-perception revealed that physical self-

perception scores improved from pre-to-post test measurements. These

improvements in the sub scales of the physical self-perception profile took

place depending on the types of treatment that the participants received.

There was a marked improvement in the participants in the experimental

group than participants in the no-exercise control group. But the male and

female participants did not develop differently on the physical self-perception

throughout 10-week step dance program.

It can be safely summarised that step dance was found to have a

positive effect on physical self-perception of university students, but does not

change across the gender.

Parminder Sandha (2003) A study of Anxiety and self-concept with

special reference to socio-economic status and performance of female

athletes, self-concept is an individual perception of herself.

Dalwinder (2006) concluded that there would be significant difference

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on different parameter of self-concept between inter college and inter

University athletes at that high performance athletes would be as better as

compared to low performance athletes. The result have also shown that the

University level athletes were found significantly better in physical, social,

temperamental and total self-concept as compared to college level athletes.

Babbio (2009) conducted study in relation of physical activity and self-

esteem. The aim of this study was to examine the relation between esteem

appraisal and physical activity N-211 subjects. They were grouped by sports

habits into three different groups named athletes, non-athletes and sedentary

people and then were examined for significant difference in self esteem.

2.4 ADJUSTMENT:

Adjustment has a clear-cut relation to intelligence, achievement, age,

sex, socio-economic, status, needs and insecurity. The game like kabaddi is a

body contact game so it is very important for every players to adjust himself

with team players in the ground and outside the ground during the

competition. So the positive results will come out if the adjustment and

combination of each players will be there. There are also major adjustment

techniques in game kabaddi which are falls efforts to reduce conflict. During

the game some key ideas in understanding adjustment are motive, frustration,

conflict, anxiety and learning etc. During game these major adjustment

techniques are moving toward players, moving against players and moving

away from players.

Kuhlen (1952) emphasized the role of intelligence on adolescents

place of adjustment and holds that there is tendency for those who have

higher intelligence test scores to achieve higher level and to make a better

total life adjustment.

Cowell and Ismail (1960) have observed that the boys who do well in

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physical ability test are likely to have leadership potentialities and are well

adjusted socially.

Rao (1964) points out that a low achiever of higher ability may be

expected to report significantly large number of adjustment problem than an

over achiever of about the same ability.

A Arkoef (1968) An adjustment can be defined as a person's inter

action with environment. Each person constantly strives to meet his need and

reach his goals. At the same time he is under pressure from the environment

to behave in certain ways. Adjustment involves the interaction demands.

Bucks (1971) studies have been reported as to the relationships and

differences between physical fitness one of the most important element

underplaying sports performance and adjustment. In one such study, Buck

selected Pollock Health Behaviour (Health Knowledge, Attitudes and

Practices) and the California test of personality to measure personal social

and total adjustment of selected school senior the study revealed:

i) Other things being equal person who is well adjusted tends to have

good health behaviour

ii) Other things being equal a person with good health behaviour tends to

be well adjusted.

iii) The relatively high relationship between low health behaviour and low

total adjustment and relatively high correlation between personal and

social adjustment suggested that the two types of adjustment could be

measured by a single test female students scored higher than male

students on every test-on health behaviour and adjustment.

Anton Elli and Massesllani (1973) carried out a study on 351 top Italian

athletes using the Bell's adjustment inventory adult form they found that the

male athletes had better adjustment than female ones. The sports in which

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the participants were found to have good adjustment were athletes, football,

sailing and fencing. Inferior adjustment found in cycling, swimming roaring

and gymnastics.

H.H. Edwards (1973) concluded that core value of the sports is that

individual achievements and satisfaction through competition in sports

activities help the individual to be adjusted in fields of life.

Bhullar (1974), studied the difference in personality adjustment

sportsmen (N=25) non-sportsmen (N=25) and sportswomen (N=25) as

measured by Bell's adjustment inventory, and ’t’ test was employed to

examine differences with regard to adjustment. He found that:

i) Non-sportsmen had better home adjustment than sportswomen and

sportsmen.

ii) Sportsmen and sportswomen had much better health adjustment than

non-sportsmen and non-sportswomen.

iii) In the area of social adjustment sports women were aggressive and

non-sports women adjustment was average, sports men were also

more aggressive as compared to non-sportsmen.

iv) Non-sportswomen and Non-sportsmen were emotionally unstable.

Rani Usha (1974) studied the personality adjustment differences of

(N=170) athletes and non-athletes by administering the Bell's Adjustment

Inventory (1973) mean, standard deviation and 't' ratio statistical techniques

were used to assess the data. She found that there were differences to

personality adjustment between athletes who participated in group and non-

athletes. In the individual events groups, badminton players had better home

adjustment than track and field athletes, wrestlers and tennis players. As far

as team games group were concerned hockey players were better adjusted in

health than football, basketball and volleyball players. Non-athletes had better

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home adjustment and had poor health adjustment as compared to athletes.

Slepika, (1975), found the successful players were more co-operative

emotionally stable, adjustable and aggressive than unsuccessful players.

Rana Rajinder Singh, (1981), administered 16 P.F. questionnaires to

sportsmen and non-sportsmen of Jiwaji University Gwalior and concluded the

sportsmen differed from non-sportsmen in personality characteristics of

emotional stability and realism about life, cheerfulness and frankness, tender

mindedness and had greater control over emotions and greater regards for

self respect and social reputation than the others.

Surender (1981) used Bell's adjustment inventory to measure

adjustment of teacher trainees and physical education students. The finding of

the study reveals that:

i) Home adjustment of teacher trainees was higher than physical

education students

ii) Teacher trainees socially well adjusted than physical education

students.

Bosco (1982) administered cattell's sixteen personality (16 PF) factor

questionnaire to 8 champion gymnasts and 9 college students of comparable

age.

Maxeiner (1983) reported that successful volleyball players were more

emotionally stable (factor c+) than the lower level players.

Jones (1986) concluded that significant relationship existed between

the adjustment level and selected variables such as physical fitness,mental

ability and socio-economic status whereas wells (1987) reported contrary

findings in this regard.

Bhatti (1987), found that home adjustment of non-athletes was

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significantly better than athletes. No differences in their health, social and

emotional adjustment were found Basketball group was found to be

emotionally better adjusted than non-athletes; football group was superior in

health adjustment but inferior in social adjustment than non-athletes. There

was no difference found in home and emotional adjustment.

Fortgallant (1988) conducted a study on health condition and

temperament before and after physical conditioning programme. The purpose

of the study was to assess the strength endurance training on health condition

and temperament of athletes specializing in different sports discipline. The

subjects were the students of professional course in coaching at NIS. South

Center Bangalore. They were form track and field 27, volley ball-16, Hockey

18, Handball-16,Lawn Tennis-5,Kho-Kho and Kabaddi-28, cricket-11. The test

used was sever point bipolar profile constructed by Mathesius (1972). The

result indicated that after the strength endurance training, track and field

athletes, kho-kho and kabaddi players had shown the negative change in

health conditions to a significant level. In other discipline they had shown

positive change but not significant.

Gautam (1988) revealed that athletes were better adjusted and had

lesser number of problems in social, emotional and total adjustment and less

adjusted in educational area as compared to their non-athlete counterparts.

He concluded that participation in sports affects the adjustment of the

participants.

Kumari (1988) conducted a study on 300 sports girls and 300 non-

sports girls in the groups of 14-16 years. It was conducted that sports girls

belonging to rural and urban area were better in all variables of adjustment i.e.

emotional, social and educational that non-spots girls.

Singh, (1988), studied athletes of colleges to find out their home health,

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social and emotional adjustment. It found than the home adjustment of men

athletes was better than other adjustments.

Nangia and Sengar, (1989), studied team game players of Basketball,

Volleyball, Hockey and individual event players from Badminton, Table-Tennis

and Track and field are compared with non-sports person. The significant

differences were found between sports persons and non-sportspersons. The

differences between individual and team games were also reported.

Alegaonkar (1990) also explored the relationship between social and

educational adjustment and physical achievement comparing adjustment of

successful and unsuccessful athletes.

Kumari (1990) found that in case of urban and rural delinquents and

adults rural and urban offenders, total adjustment was significantly correlated

with social and emotional adjustment. In case of juvenile and adult female

students no significant difference were observed in case of adjustment except

in case of socio-economic status and health adjustment.

Mann and Sandhu (1991) found significant differences in the level of

various areas of adjustment between successful and unsuccessful athletes.

Successful athletes were better adjusted in comparison to the unsuccessful

athletes.

Samraj (1991) found motor fitness to be positively related with the

overall adjustment of children.

Kaur (1992) studied the adjustment of 320 female team game players

representing college and University level games in Basketball, Volleyball,

Hockey and Handball. The significant differences were found between the

male and female athletes on all the variables of adjustment except home

adjustment. The male athletes were significantly better than the female

athletes health, social, emotional, educational and over all adjustment.

Nirmaljit (1992) conducted a study with regards to the adjustment as

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related to performance and gender in team sports. The sample consisted 320

athletes (160 male and 160 female) selected randomly from college and

University of Haryana and Union Territory of Chandigarh. She used Sinha and

Singh's inventory (1980) to measure all the area of adjustment the finding of

the study was, the university athletes were found significantly different from

the college athletes on social emotional and total adjustment. The male

athletes from the studied team sports were found better adjusted than the

female athletes from the same sports groups on all the adjustment variables

except home adjustment in which the difference between the male and female

athletes were not significant.

Jackson and Krane (1993) studied the adjustment to college life by

freshman basketball players and found the athletes experience to be helpful in

their adjustment in academic environment.

Mohini (1993) conducted a study on 400 high school male and female

subjects (200 hundred) players and 200 hundred non-players) to find out the

effect of sports and games programme on the development of psycho-social

characteristics. The result revealed that the players were emotionally, socially

and globally better adjusted whereas non-players were adjusted better in the

educational sphere of their adjustment.

The literature reviewed in the area of adjustment with reference to

sports highlighted various important findings which are obtained by Foreign,

Indian authors. One major observation of all the studies has been the

adjustment superiority of athletes over the non-athletic sample. The inter

game differences are also evident in which team game players came out to be

better in the social dimension of adjustment.

Another significant feature has been the level of performance wherein

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high achievers were found better adjusted than the low achievers. The

differences were also reported between male and female athletes and urban

and rural sports participants. In nutshell, it can be said that the adjustment

having direct link with sports performance. Sports performance is definitely a

potential area of research with regard to the psycho-social dynamics of sports.

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