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CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter consists of the theoretical description and theoretical

framework of the study. The theoretical description includes the discussion on the

Theories of English for Specific Purposes, English for the Personnel of Small-

scale Craft Industries and Department of Industry, Trade, and Cooperatives of

Kebumen District, Communicative Language Teaching, the Theories of Teaching

Speaking, and the Process of Instructional Design. The theoretical framework

discusses the stages of developing the English speaking learning materials for the

personnel of small-scale craft industries and the Department of Industry, Trade,

and Cooperatives of Kebumen district.

A. Theoretical Description

1. English for Specific Purposes

The designed materials in this study are based mostly on the theory of

English for Specific Purposes (ESP) by Hutchinson and Waters. It is

because the materials are developed based on the needs of the learners, i.e.

the need to be able to communicate with overseas buyers in international

trade fairs where the learners act as an exhibitor. The theories of ESP

support the development of the materials.

a. The definition of ESP

Richards defines ESP as language courses that focus on the

purposes for which learners need the language. The ESP approach to

language teaching began as responses to a number of practical concerns

(Richards, 2001: 28):1) The need to prepare growing numbers of non-English

background students for study at American and BritishUniversities from the 1950s

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2) The need to prepare materials to teach students who hadalready mastered general English, but now needed English foruse in employment, such as non-English background doctors,nurses, engineers, and scientists

3) The need for materials for people needing English for businesspurposes.

4) The need to teach immigrants the language needed to deal withjob situations

On the other hand, Hutchinson and Waters prefer to show “what ESP is

not” (1987: 18 – 19):1) ESP is not a matter of teaching ‘specialized varieties’ of English.2) ESP is not just a matter of Science words and grammar for

Scientists, Hotel words and grammar for Hotel staff and so on.3) ESP is not different from any other form of language teaching, in

that it should be based in the first instance on principles of effectiveand efficient learning.

They state that ESP has to be seen as an “approach” to language

learning based on learners’ needs rather than as a “product.” It is “an

approach to language teaching in which all decisions, such as content

and method are based on the learners’ reason for learning” (Hutchinson

and Waters, 1987: 19).

Meanwhile, Martin (1992) says that the essence of ESP is that it

is a planned and ecological approach to language teaching / learning

which is sensitive to the learners’ occupational purposes. Teachers can

“build foundations” and teach “foundational” English by considering

the real-life purposes of their learners. Therefore, the grammar, the

pronunciation and the spelling will be the same as those taught in

General English classes; the difference will be on the content and the

vocabulary where it will be attuned to the interests and needs of the

learners.

b. The categorization of ESP

Hutchinson and Waters (1987) categorize ESP based on

learners’ need and on “learners’ specialism.”

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1) ESP Based on Learners’ Needs

There are two types of ESP; they are English for Academic

Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP). In

this study, the craftsmen and the officers of the department need

English to communicate with overseas buyers while doing their job

as traders in international craft exhibitions. Therefore, the English

needed is categorized into English for Occupational Purposes.

2) ESP Based on Learners’ Specialism

There are three categories of ESP that is based on learners’

specialism; they are English for Science and Technology (EST),

English for Business and Economics (EBE), and English for Social

and Science (ESS). In this study, the craftsmen and the officers of

the department use English to conduct trading activities. Therefore,

the English used by the craftsmen and the officers of the

department is categorized into English for Business and

Economics.

c. The characteristics of ESP program

The characteristic of ESP program is one of basic processes in

designing materials that is called as ‘needs analysis.’ Needs analysis has

to be established to find out learners’ purposes in learning the language.

It would be more useful to find out the ‘target needs’ (i.e. what the

learner needs to do in the target situation) which will be used to

determine the ‘learning needs’ (i.e. what the learner needs to do in order

to learn) (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 54). Hutchinson and Waters

(1987: 55–58) suggest conducting ‘needs analysis’ by considering

“necessities, lacks, and wants.”

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1) Necessities

It is what the learner has to know in order to function

effectively in the target situation. It is a matter of observing what

situations the learner will need to function in and then analysing the

constituent parts of them.

2) Lacks

It is what the learner knows already in the target situation. It

would be useful to decide which of the necessities that the learner

lacks.

3) Wants

It is what the learner wants to learn.

The table of “necessities, lacks and wants” below describes its relation.

Table 1: Necessities, Lacks and Wants (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 58)

OBJECTIVE (i.e. asperceived by coursedesigners)

SUBJECTIVE (i.e. asperceived by learners)

NECESSITIES The English neededfor success inAgricultural orVeterinary Studies

To reluctantly copewith a ‘second-best’situation

LACKS (Presumably) areas ofEnglish needed forAgricultural orVeterinary Studies

Means of doingMedical Studies

WANTS To succeed inAgricultural orVeterinary Studies

To undertake MedicalStudies

There are a several means that can be used to gather information about

needs. Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 58) suggest the use of:

1) Questionnaires

2) Interviews

3) Observation

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4) Data collection, e.g. gathering texts

5) Informal consultation with sponsors, learners and others.

Furthermore, Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 59-60) state that

the analysis of target situation needs can be conducted by asking

questions about the target situation and the attitudes of learners in the

learning process. The analysis framework to collect information about

target situation needs is:

1) Why is the language needed?

This question is used to know learners’ purposes in learning

the language. They may learn it for study, for work, for training, for

a combination of these, and for some other purposes, e.g. status,

examination, or promotion.

2) How will the language be used?

This question is used to know the medium, channel and

types of text or discourse in using the language. The medium

means that the language will be used for speaking, reading, writing,

etc. The channel means that the language will be used through

telephone, face to face or others. The types of text or discourse

mean that the language will be used in the form of academic texts,

lecture, informal conversations, technical manuals, or catalogues.

3) What will the content areas be?

This question is used to know the subjects where the

language will be used and the level of students. The subjects can be

medicine, biology, architecture, shipping, commerce, or

engineering. The level can be as technician, craftsmen,

postgraduate, or secondary school.

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4) Who will the learner use the language with?

This question is used to know whom the learners will

interact with by using the language. It can be native speakers or

non-native speakers. It also will give information of the level of

knowledge of the receivers; it can be experts, laymen, or students.

The relationship between the learners with the receiver will also be

found out whether they are business colleagues, teacher and

student, trader and buyer, or superior and subordinate.

5) Where will the language be used?

This question is used to know the specific place where the

language will be used. It consists of physical setting (e.g. office,

lecture theatre, hotel, workshop, or library), human context (e.g.

alone, meetings, demonstrations, or on telephone), and linguistic

context (e.g. in own country or abroad)

6) When will the language be used?

This question is used to know the information about the

time, for example concurrently with the ESP course or

subsequently and about the frequency of using the language.

The characteristics discussed above are in line with the reasons

of the personnel of small-scale craft industries and Department of

Industry, Trade, and Cooperatives of Kebumen district to learn English,

i.e. to be able to communicate with overseas buyers in English when

conducting craft exhibitions in international trade fairs. Further

information about their learning needs is attained through needs

analysis. Questions about the target situation and the attitudes of

learners in the learning process are asked to find out their necessities,

lacks, and wants.

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d. Designing ESP

Designing ESP can be seen as an activity of thinking about

designing course materials since it is one important part in ESP

program. It involves teaching learning activities. Before starting with

designing materials, here are some principles to be understood

presented by Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 107-208):

1) Good materials provide stimulus to learning and encouragestudents to learn. They should contain interesting texts,enjoyable activities, opportunities for learners to use theirexisting knowledge and skills, and content that is suitable forthe teacher and the learners.

2) Good materials should help the teaching-learning process.They should provide a clear and coherent unit structure whichwill guide teacher and learner through various activities in sucha way as to maximise the chances of learning. The materialsmust be clear and systematic, but flexible enough to allow forcreativity and variety.

3) Materials embody a view of the nature of language andlearning. They reflect the writer’s thinking and feeling aboutthe learning process.

4) Materials reflect the nature of the learning task. Languagelearning is a complex process involving different kinds andlevel of knowledge. The materials should create “a balancedoutlook” which reflects the complexity of the task and make itappear manageable.

5) Materials function to broaden the basis of teacher training byintroducing teachers to new techniques.

6) Materials provide correct models of appropriate language use.

Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 108-109) then present a model

for writing materials. The model provides “a coherent framework of

integration of various aspects of learning” and, at the same time, allows

“creativity and variety” to develop. The model consists of four

elements. They are:

1) Input

It can be in the form of text, dialogue, video-recording,

diagram or any piece of communication data. It depends on the

needs the writer has defined in the analysis. The input provides:

a) Stimulus materials for activities

b) New language items

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c) Correct models of language use

d) Topic for communication

e) Opportunities for learners to use their information processingskill

f) Opportunities for learners to use their existing knowledge ofthe language and the subject matter.

2) Content focus

The content focus means that language is a means of

conveying information and feelings about something. Therefore, it

generates meaningful communication in the classroom.

3) Language focus

It gives the learners the chance to take the language into

pieces, study how it works and practice putting it back together

again.

4) Task

Materials should be designed to lead towards a ‘communicative

task’ in which learners use the content and language knowledge

they have built up through the unit.

The figure A Material Design Model shows the relation between

input, content focus, language focus and task.

Figure 1: A Material Design Model (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 109)

CONTENT LANGUAGE

TASK

INPUT

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2. English for the Personnel of Small-scale Craft Industries and

Department of Industry, Trade, and Cooperatives of Kebumen

District.

The craftsmen of small-scale craft industries and the officers of

Department of Industry, Trade, and Cooperatives of Kebumen district

realize that English language has a significant role in their working field,

especially when they have to make trade transactions with foreign

customers in international trade fairs. According to Hutchinson and Waters

(1987: 16), the type of English needed by the craftsmen and the officers of

the department are English for Occupational Purposes and English for

Business and Economics.

Indeed, Business English is closely related to international trade.

Many non-native English speakers study English with a purpose of doing

business with partners from other countries. In fact, much of the English

communication that occurs in any business transactions around the world

exists between non-native English speakers; they use English as a lingua

franca. In cases like these, the objective of learning English is to be able to

perform effective and efficient communication.

The personnel of small-scale craft industries and Department of

Industry, Trade, and Cooperatives of Kebumen district attend international

trade fairs to establish craft product exhibitions and at the same time

conduct direct selling. As a result, they get a lot of chances to make trade

transactions with foreign customers. Joining trade fairs is actually a

strategy of marketing applied by Department of Industry, Trade, and

Cooperatives of Kebumen district to promote the leading products of crafts

from the district. Marketing is one of the major components in business

where it serves as the means to create customers.

Marketing is defined by the American Marketing Association

Board of Directors (2007) as “the activity, set of institutions, and processes

for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that

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have value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large.”

Furthermore, Berman and Evans (1990) mention the decisions involved in

marketing as choosing who the customers are, what goods and services to

offer, where to sell the goods and services, what features to emphasize in

advertising, and what prize to charge. Here, the craftsmen and the officers

of the department have craft products as the ‘exchanging offerings that

have value for customers’ and they decide international trade fairs as the

market place where its visitors are targeted as their customers.

Berman and Evans (1990: 449 – 457) identify types of promotion as:

a. Personal Selling and Sales Promotion

1) Personal selling is a type of promotion that involves oral

communication with one or more prospective buyers by

representatives for the purpose of making sales.

2) Sales promotion is a paid marketing communication activity that

stimulates consumer purchases and dealer effectiveness such as

trade show, giveaways, demonstrations and various other limited-

time selling efforts which are not in the ordinary promotion routine.

Mostly, sales promotion involves personal selling in its process.

b. Advertising

Advertising is paid, non personal communication regarding

goods, services, organizations, people, places and ideas that are

transmitted through various media by business firms, non-profit

organizations, and individuals who are, in some way, identified in the

advertising message as the sponsor.

c. Publicity

Publicity is non-personal communication regarding goods,

services, organizations, people, places and ideas that are transmitted

through various media but not paid for by an identified sponsor.

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The type of promotion implemented by the craftsmen and the

officers of the department by conducting craft exhibitions in trade fairs is

included in personal selling and sales promotion. Furthermore, Berman

and Evans (1990) suggest that personal selling provides individual

attention to each customer especially by passes along a lot of information

to them. There is a dynamic interaction between a buyer and a seller in

personal selling that consists of three stages:

a. Salesperson determines consumer needs

b. Salesperson presents information and answer consumer questions

c. Salesperson and consumer conclude transaction

While conducting personal selling, the tasks performed by

salesperson need to be outlined. Berman and Evans (1990: 526) say that

the selling process involves:

a. Prospecting for customer leads

It is a procedure of generating a list of potential customers or

customer leads. Salespeople have to be aware of who might be

potential of being their customers.

b. Approaching customers

Here, salesperson may begin a conversation with customers and

tries to obtain information about the customers’ characteristics.

c. Determining customer wants

Salesperson ascertains customer wants by asking them a variety

of questions regarding price, product features, intended use, and other

kinds of information needed.

d. Giving a sales presentation

This activity includes a verbal description of a product, its

benefits, available options and models, price, associated services such

as delivery and warranty, and a demonstration (if needed).

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e. Answering questions

In this phase, salesperson is usually answering further questions

from customers for information / objection that must be settled before

a sale is made

f. Closing the sale

Closing the sale is the major goal of personal selling where it gets

the customers to agree to make a purchase.

g. Following up

Finally, salespeople should make a follow up after the sale to

ensure that the customer is satisfied. Salesperson must ensure that the

customer gains short-run satisfaction, and in the long run, repurchases

are more likely.

The English speaking learning materials for the craftsmen and the

officers of the department are developed based on the situation and on

what they have to perform in the target place. The stages of selling process

mentioned above provides a mental picture of type of communication that

might occurred in the process of trade transactions in international trade

fairs. They are considered when developing the speaking learning

materials.

The ESP designed for the craftsmen and the officers of the

department is aimed at improving the learners’ communicative

competence since they need English to communicate with foreign

customers. The English speaking learning materials are also developed

based on the result of ‘need analysis.’ The learners are asked to practice

their speaking competency in tasks designed like a real-life situation.

Therefore, the exercises are focused on the communicative tasks, such as

role play, games, short dialogues, etc.

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3. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

a. The Definition of CLT

Nunan (1999) defines CLT from the point of view that language

can be analyzed, described and taught as a system for expressing

meanings, therefore the aim of language teaching is to help learners

develop skills for expressing different communicative meanings. In

line with Nunan, Richards (2001) states that CLT is a broad approach

to teaching that resulted from a focus on communication as the

organizing principle for teaching rather than a focus on mastery of the

grammatical system of the language. Meanwhile, Brown (2001)

presents six characteristics as a definition of CLT, they are:

1) Classroom goal are focused on all of the components (grammatical,discourse, functional, sociolinguistic, and strategic) of communicativecompetence.

2) Language techniques are designed to engage learners in the pragmatic,authentic, functional use of language for meaningful purposes.

3) Fluency and accuracy are seen as complementary principles underlyingcommunicative techniques.

4) Learners have to use the target language both productively andreceptively.

5) Learners are given opportunities to focus on their own learning processby understanding their own styles of learning and by developingappropriate strategies for autonomous learning.

6) Teacher roles as facilitator and guide, not an all-knowing bestower ofknowledge.

Related to the definition of CLT above, the goal of the course in

this study is to make learners to be able to speak English

communicatively with their foreign customers.

b. Communicative Competence

Based on the definitions of CLT above, it seems clearly that

communicative competence is the prior target in this language

teaching. Savignon (1970: 9) as quoted by Nunan (1999: 226) states

that communicative competence is “the ability to function in a truly

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communicative setting – i.e. in a dynamic exchange in which

linguistic competence must adjust itself to the total informational

input, both linguistic and paralinguistic, of one or more interlocutors.”

While Hymes (1972), in Brown (2000: 246), refers to communicative

competence as “that aspect of our competence that enables us to

convey and interpret messages and to negotiate meanings

interpersonally within specific contexts.”

Further, Savignon (1997: 14 - 15) presents five characteristics of

communicative competence:

a. Communicative competence is a ‘dynamic’ rather than a staticconcept. It means that communicative competence depends onthe understanding between people who are communicating,whether they can or cannot understand each other.

b. Communicative competence occurs in written and spokenlanguage.

c. Communicative competence is ‘context specific.’Communication takes place in different context and the successof it depends on the speaker’s understanding of the context.

d. Competence and performance are different. Competence is theknowledge of language, i.e. what one knows about thelanguage. Meanwhile, performance is the manifestation of theknowledge, i.e. what one does with the language.

e. Communicative competence is relative and depends on thecooperation of all the participants.

Savignon then elaborates some competencies, which were

introduced by Canale and Swain, interrelated in CLT.

a. Grammatical competence

It is the ability to use the correct and accurate speech,

including vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and spelling.

b. Sociolinguistic competence

It is the ability to use the target language in varied social

settings. The social settings include the role relationship, the

shared information of the participants, and the communicative

purposes.

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c. Discourse competence

It is the ability to combine and connect phrases and sentences

into a form of a meaningful whole out of a series of utterances.

d. Strategic competence

It is the ability to find way to convey meaning or send their

message, though they have imperfect knowledge of rules of the

language and face factors that give disadvantage in sending their

message, such as fatigue, distraction, or inattention.

In this study, in line with the principles of CLT, the learners are

hoped to be able to have communicative competencies. They are also

hoped to be able to use it in appropriate social context in appropriate

structural pattern.

c. The Communicative Task

CLT contains a set of communicative task. Nunan (2004)

defines communicative task as a piece of classroom work that

involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing, or

interacting in the target language while their attention is focused on

meaning rather than grammatical form. The task should also have a

sense of completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative

act in its own right. The grammatical knowledge is important in the

sense of that it exists to enable the learners to express different

communicative meanings.

First, learners need to understand the structural pattern of

English as the target language, then to be able to perform English in a

communicative way using the appropriate structural pattern. The

course objective is to make the learners to be able to use English

communicatively, not to comprehend the structural pattern of English.

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Nunan then defines the elements that make up a task; they are

task goals, input, and learner procedures which are supported by

teacher, learner roles and the setting in which tasks are undertaken.

They are set out in the figure below:

Goals Teacher role

Input TASK Learner role

Procedures Settings

Figure 2: A Model of Task Components (Nunan, 2004: 41)

Furthermore, Nunan (2004: 19 – 25) presents the framework for

a communicative task as follows. First, we need to transform real-

world / target tasks into pedagogical tasks to create learning

opportunities in the classroom. Real-world / target tasks refer to

things we do with language in our everyday life – Halliday in Nunan

(2004) divides the tasks into three macrofunctions of language, i.e. to

exchange goods and services, to socialize with others, and for

enjoyment. Meanwhile, pedagogical tasks refer to those that occur in

the classroom. The pedagogical tasks are then placed on a continuum

from rehearsal tasks to activation tasks.

Rehearsal tasks are designed to provide learners with an

opportunity to rehearse the uses of the language beyond the

classroom. Therefore, it has a clear relationship to the real world.

Activation tasks are designed to encouraged students to activate a

range of language functions and structures and the learners’ emerging

language skills. The fact that pedagogical tasks involve

communicative language use urges the need of knowledge of

grammatical rules because it enables the language user to express

communicative meanings. Thus, the pedagogical tasks must be

supported with form-focused work presented in the form of enabling

skills. They are designed to develop skills and knowledge that will

ultimately facilitate the process of authentic communication. There are

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two kinds of enabling skills: language exercises and communicative

activities.

Language exercises have many shapes and forms and can focus

on lexical, phonological or grammatical systems. While

communicative activities provide manipulative practice of a restricted

set of language items. How these elements can be combined to form

units of work is shown in the figure below.

Real-world / target tasks

Pedagogical tasks Enabling skills

Rehearsal Activation Language Communicative

tasks tasks exercises activities

Figure 3: A framework for Task Based Language Teaching(Nunan, 2004: 25)

In this study, the speaking learning materials for the personnel of

small-scale craft industries and Department of Industry, Trade, and

Cooperatives of Kebumen district contain communicative tasks and

they are taught in communicative ways. The communicative tasks

support the course objectives, i.e. to make learners communicatively

competent in using English with overseas customers. Hopefully, by

using this approach, the learners can enjoy to learn and practice their

speaking skill.

4. Theories of Teaching Speaking

a. The Definition of “Teaching Speaking”

Speaking is "the process of building and sharing meaning through

the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols, in a variety of contexts"

(Chaney: 1998 in Kayi, 2006: 1). The goal of teaching speaking is to

improve students' communicative skills, so that students can express

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themselves and learn how to follow the social and cultural rules

appropriately in every communicative circumstance. Nunan (2003), as

quoted by Kayi (2006), defines ‘teaching speaking’ as to make learners

to be able to:

1) produce the English sounds and sound patterns2) use words and sentence stress, intonation patterns and the

rhythm of the second language3) select appropriate words and sentences according to the proper

social setting, audience, situation and subject matter4) organize the learners’ thoughts in a meaningful and logical

sequence5) use language as a means of expressing values and judgements6) use the language quickly and confidently with few unnatural

pauses, which is called as fluency

b. Principles of Teaching Speaking

There are some principles that need to be understood before

teaching speaking. The National Capital Language Resource Centre

(2004) explains the principles as follows:

1) Provide appropriate input

Input is the language to which students are exposed: teacher

talk, listening activities, reading passages, and the language heard

and read outside of class. Input gives learners the material they need

to develop their ability to use the language on their own.

2) Use language in authentic ways

Learners need as much as possible to hear and read the language

as native speakers use it. Teacher can make this happen through

‘teacher talk’ and ‘materials.’ Provide teacher talk that uses the

language as naturally as possible and give the learners authentic

reading materials from newspapers, magazines and other print

sources.

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3) Provide context

Context includes knowledge of the topic or content, the

vocabulary and language structures in which the content is usually

presented, and the social and cultural expectations associated with

the content. To help students have an authentic experience of

understanding and using language, prepare them by raising their

awareness of the context in which it occurs.

4) Design activities with a purpose

Communication has a purpose, i.e. to convey information.

Activities in the language classroom simulate communication

outside the classroom when they are structured with such a purpose.

In the classroom activities, learners use the language to fill an

information gap by getting answers or expanding a partial

understanding.

5) Use task-based activities

The use of task-based activities in the classroom is an excellent

way to encourage students to use the language. Tasks may involve

solving problems, developing plans, and working together to

complete projects.

6) Encourage collaboration

Ask students to work in pairs or small groups. Give students

structure in the form of a defined task and outcome. This structure

will allow students to collaborate as they develop a work plan,

discuss the substance of the task, and report the outcome. They will

thus use language in a variety of ways and learn from each other.

7) Use an integrated approach

Integration has two forms. The first is ‘mode integration,’ it is

the combination of speaking, listening, reading, and writing in

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classroom activities. The second is ‘content integration’ where

learners are given chance to use their existing knowledge in

classroom activities.

8) Address grammar consciously

Learners usually need direct instruction in points of grammar

that are related to classroom activities. These students often have

knowledge of the rules associated with standard use of their native

language (metalinguistic knowledge) and can benefit from

development of similar knowledge in the target language and

discussion of similarities and differences.

9) Adjust feedback / error correction to the situation

In the parts of a lesson that focus on form, direct and immediate

feedback is needed and expected. Encourage students to self-correct

by waiting after they have spoken or by asking them to try again.

10) Include awareness of cultural aspects of language use

Languages are used to express ideas and transmit cultural

values. When discussing language use with learners, it is important

to include information on the social, cultural, and historical context

that certain language forms carry for native speakers.

In addition, Kayi (2006) provides some considerations below for

English language teacher while teaching oral language:

1) Provide opportunity for students to speak the target language by

giving tasks that contains collaborative work, authentic materials and

tasks, and shared knowledge.

2) Involve each student in every speaking activity by using different

ways of student participation.

3) Reduce teacher talk when student practicing their speaking and

observe their performance.

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4) Indicate positive signs when commenting on a student's performance

and provide written feedback.

5) Ask eliciting questions to prompt students to speak more.

6) Do not correct students' pronunciation mistakes very often while

they are speaking. Correction should not distract student from his or

her speech.

7) Circulate around classroom to ensure that students are on the right

track and see whether they need teacher’s help while they work in

groups or pairs.

8) Provide the vocabulary beforehand that students need in speaking

activities.

9) Diagnose problems faced by students who have difficulty in

expressing themselves in the target language and provide more

opportunities to practice the spoken language.

c. Classroom Techniques and Tasks

Kayi (2006) then presents some techniques and tasks that can be

used to teach speaking, they are:

1) Discussion

It is an activity where learners are aimed to arrive at a

conclusion, shared ideas about an event or find solutions in their

discussions groups. Learners then present their opinions to the class.

This activity fosters critical thinking and quick decision making, and

learners learn how to express and justify themselves in polite ways

while disagreeing with the others

2) Information gap

It is an activity where someone has information which the others

do not have. Then, he shares the information using the target

language.

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3) Jigsaw activity

It is bidirectional or multidirectional information gap where each

person in a pair or group has some information the other persons

need. Then, they share the information using the target language.

4) Role play

Learners are given certain roles in various social contexts and

practice to share information they have to each other. They have to

practice speaking using English.

5) Simulation

In a simulation, teacher provides props and documents to set

realistic environment for language practice, e.g. practicing doctor-

patient check up.

6) Interviews

It is an activity where learners should conduct interviews on a

selected topic. The interviews can be done in pairs or with people

outside the classroom. Teacher provides a rubric to students so that

they know what type of questions they can ask or what path to

follow, but students should prepare their own interview questions.

Later, learners present the result to the class.

The principles of teaching speaking above are considered while

developing the English speaking learning materials so they can be

applied in the classroom. The materials also use the classroom

techniques and tasks presented above to make the teaching learning

activity more effective and enjoyable.

5. The Process of Instructional Design

“Instructional process is a systematic process in which every

component (i.e. teacher, learners, materials, and learning environment) is

crucial to successful learning” (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2001: 2). This study

is to develop a set of teaching-learning materials; therefore it should be

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developed neatly and carefully by following systematic procedures in

order to make it successful; i.e. it reach its objectives. Below are models of

instructional design that provide stages in developing an instructional

program / material:

a. Hutchinson and Waters’ Design Model

According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 65), course design

is the process of interpreting data about learning need in order to

produce an integrated series of teaching-learning experiences. There

are three main approaches to course design according to Hutchinson

and Waters (1987), they are:

1) Language-centred approach

Language-centred course design process aims to draw direct

connection between the analysis of the target situation and the

content of the ESP course.

2) Skills-centred approach

Skills-centred course design process aims to help the learners

develop certain skills and strategies. Therefore, its learning

objectives are to develop learners’ competencies so that they are

able to perform in the target situation.

3) Learning-centred approach

Learning-centred course design process concerns with the

process of learning of the learners. It aims to help learners

understand how they can acquire their competencies.

In this study, the skills-centred course design is the most suitable

approach since the study aims to develop English speaking skill of the

personnel of small-scale craft industries and Department of Industry,

Trade, and Cooperatives of Kebumen district.

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Further, Hutchinson and Waters present the process of designing

learning materials as follows:

1) Conducting needs analysis

2) Writing syllabus

3) Developing the materials

4) Developing teaching methodology

5) Trying out the materials

6) Evaluating the materials

7) Revising the materials

b. Kemp’s Design Model

Kemp (1977) states that instructional design plan is meant to

answer three important questions. They are:

1) What must be learned? (objectives)

2) What procedures and resources will work best to reach the desired

learning levels? (activities and resources)

3) How will we know when the required learning has taken place?

(evaluation)

Then, Kemp adds that the process of designing instructional

program involves eight parts. Instructional design can attain its

learning objectives effectively and efficiently by considering those

parts. They are:

1) Consider goals, list topic, and state the general purposes for

teaching each topic.

2) Enumerate the important characteristics of the learners.

3) Specify the learning objectives.

4) List the subject content that support each objectives.

5) Develop pre-assessment to determine the learners’ background

and present level of knowledge about the topic.

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6) Select teaching/learning activities and instructional resources.

7) Coordinate support services to conduct the instructional plan. The

support services can be budget, personnel, facilities, equipment,

and schedules.

8) Evaluate learners’ learning based on their accomplishment of

objectives, revise and re-evaluate any phases of the plan that need

to be improved.

The relationship of the elements is interdependent, means that

the process between them is flexible and each part influences the

continuity of others. The diagram that follows illustrates the

relationship of each step in the plan to the other steps.

Figure 4: Kemp’s Instructional Design Plan (Kemp, 1977: 9)

LearningObjectives

LearnerCharacter-

istics

Goals,Topics, and

GeneralPurposes

SubjectContent

Pre-Assessment

Teaching/Learning

Activities,Resources

SupportServices

Evaluation

Revise

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The English speaking learning materials for the personnel of

small-scale craft industries and Department of Industry, Trade, and

Cooperatives of Kebumen district are developed by adapting and

modifying the process of instructional design presented above. The

three main questions suggested by Kemp in designing instructional

materials are considered in this study; the phases involved in

developing the learning materials are used as a means to answer those

questions.

B. Theoretical Framework

The development of English speaking learning materials in this study

consists of seven stages which are closely related to each other. The figure of

the theoretical framework below illustrates the process of developing the

English speaking learning materials for the personnel of small-scale craft

industries and Department of Industry, Trade, and Cooperatives of Kebumen

district.

Figure 5: The Framework of the Materials Design Process

Conducting needs assessment

Identifying instructional goals, topics, and general purposes

Writing the syllabus

Developing the materials

Evaluating the developed materials

Revising the developed materials

Trying out the materials