CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

34

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Time symbolizes perhaps the most important resource of life. Time

involves multiple disciplines and is the most precious resource of mankind

without which every existence is questionable. Time is one of the most

precious asset available to everybody in their life1. The increasing pace of life

occasioned by such factors as growing competition in all spheres is creating

increased time pressure on mankind2

. This is often expressed by doing thing

faster, contracting time expenditure and compressing action3. Muse

4 confirms

that the productive capacity of individuals and organizations and the

development processes of creativity depends largely on the ability to achieve

efficiency in the investment of time available for work. It increases the use of

other human and material potential with high efficiency as time is considered

as limited resource that must be invested efficiently. It has become an

important dimension to be invested using it effectively for the future.

Ramsey 5stated that “The ability to take control of time and to make the

most of every moment on and off the job is the key to being successful and

surviving in today’s world of work.” Thus, the time and timing issues has

become a critical factor for employees and professional and one of the best

ways to use limited and valuable time is conscious and permanent application

of time management.

Time management can be considered as taking into account every

minute, eliminating unnecessary tasks. The basis for time management rests on

35

effectiveness of time spending and dominance on time is the only secret of

human success. Time management is the process of planning every day

activities and knowing how to balance everything that is in life. Time

Management help to manage time with different type of tools and skills and to

accomplish a specific task that has a due date with maximum efficiency.

Time management involves investing time to determine what one wants

out of his day to day activities. Effective time management is the investment of

time in such a way that suitable results are achieved from activities within a

specific time range and it emphasizes an effectiveness rather than efficiency.

One’s ability to choose between the important and the unimportant and be

determined to follow the correctly chosen sequence, is the key determinant of

effectiveness in time management.

The key to successful time management is planning and then protecting

the planned time which often involves reconditioning the environment and

particularly reconditioning the expectation of others. Therefore, time

management can be defined as a period either short or long which involves

how people use their time judiciously to produce result.

Better time management can be achieved, if goals have been set and

then all future work is prioritized based on how it moves the individual towards

meeting the goals. The value of time management lies in the fact that people

have too many tasks they need to do but not enough time for the things that

they want to do. Time management helps to identify the needs and wants in

terms of their importance and matches them with time and other resources.

36

Thus, time management brings about orderliness and enables one to be more

productive and fulfilled.

2.2 EVOLUTION OF TIME MANAGEMENT

“Time management” refers to making the most productive use of a set

period of time in days, hours, weeks or months. In business, principle of time

management is to use the time available effectively , to complete a project, a

business deal or performed assignment wisely and to work “smarter, not

harder” in order to get more accomplished within the stipulated period.

For centuries, people used the general measurement of sunrise to sunset

to gauge time, but with the development of the clock, attention began to focus

on the hours within a day as well. By the 17th century, the clock had been

perfected and become so well-established in society that the French

mathematician and philosopher Rene Descartes (1596 1650) used the clock as a

model for humanity in his writings.

But it was during the Industrial Revolution that the clock really came of

age. Frederick W. Taylor6 an American engineer, undertook the pioneering

time and motion studies. He subjected each aspect of the work process to a

stopwatch measurement, then studied the results to look for ways to reduce the

number of steps needed to accomplish a particular task or job. This concept of

time management as something that managers did for line workers held sway

until the 1930s, when managers began to find their own tasks so overwhelming

that they too sought ways to manage time more efficiently.

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In the 1930s Ivy Lee7, a management consultant, initiated a simple “6-

Step” process that became the standard for measuring the productivity of

managers. Managers needed only to list the six most important things to be

done that day, in order of importance the most important being first. Then, the

manager was to work on those tasks in order, not proceeding from one task to

the next until the preceding task had been accomplished.

Time management was introduced in the 1950s as a means of dealing

with job-related time issues. From the 1950s to the early 1980s, time

management garnered widespread attention. In response, there were numerous

books and programs developed during the ‘60s, ‘70s, and ‘80s promoting

various time saving strategies. But these programs addressed time management

in general terms, without hard data to back up proposed solutions.

After World War II, studies of management began to broaden to look at

time management in all aspects of business and life. Use of time became a

focal area of management seminars in the 1960s and 1970s. In 1967 Peter

Drucker8 proposed a chronological record- keeping method for managers.

2.3 COVEY’S FOUR GENERATIONS OF TIME MANAGEMENT

Another way of perceiving preferences for managing time is to look at

Covey, Merrill, & Merrill’s (1994)9 ‘Four generations’ of managing time.

These authors believed that people approach managing time developmentally

and they did an intensive history of time management which takes the patterns

of the way people manage time through four generations with each generation

building on the next, moving toward greater efficiency and control.

38

Four generations range from the more traditional efficiency oriented

approach to the get ‘Organized Approach’, the ‘Warrior Approach’ or the

‘ABC or Prioritization Approach’ and to some of the newer approaches that

are pushing traditional paradigms. “These include the more Far Eastern ‘Go-

with-the-Flow’ approaches which encourages to get in touch with the natural

rhythms of life-- to connect with those timeless moments in time when the tick

of the clock simply fades away in the joy of the moment. 10

First Generation:

Employees in this generation “work on their own timetable and do

whatever they feel they need to do or seems pressing at the time”. The first

generation principal would forget appointments and commitments: But they

had a vision that, “Without an empowering sense of life-time goal setting,

meaningful accomplishment is less than it could be” 11

. Thus, managing the

time is based on reminders and is characterized by simple notes and checklists.

Second Generation:

In the second generation of time management, the emphasis is on

‘planning’ and ‘preparation’. It is characterized by calendars and appointment

books. Managers in this generation prefers to set goals, plan ahead, and

schedule future events. People are viewed as a means to accomplish goals. The

first things done are those related to what is on the schedule. The employees

that operate in this generation have more effective meetings and presentations

because they are usually thoroughly prepared.

Third Generation:

39

Third generation approach emphasizes planning, prioritizing and

controlling . Those in this generation spend some time, clarifying values and

setting priorities. Long-range and short-range goals are set to obtain these

values. This generation is characterized by planners and organizers aided by

electronic as well as paper based versions with detailed forms for daily

planning.

Fourth Generation :

In this generation emphasis is given for self management and not for managing

time only. Preplanned priorities are organized and schedule is not prioritized.

This generation recognized that employee relationship is more important than

things and works towards building more capability to produce for the future,

than just doing the job.

All that changed in the late 1980s. Researchers began questioning the

scientific legitimacy of popular time management advice. There was a desire to

more fully explore time management, specifically to identify the requisite

skills. This curiosity triggered a flurry of research that has taken on a life of its

own during the last twenty years. Continued research has led to a richer and

more nuanced understanding. Prior to the late 1980s, time management was

considered a unidimensional concept. Early researchers treated it as a skill

itself. The urge of empirical time management research in the late 1980s and

early 1990s provided information on how to short list the goals plan and

prioritize these goals on a daily basis and avoid work interruptions that inhibit

completion of these goals.

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As the interest in empirical research flourished, much of the research

focused on three groups: (1) employees of different organizations, (2)

psychology students, and (3) employees with double workloads, i.e. working

full-time while studying part-time or working full-time and running a

household of children etc.,.

Critical path accountability, a new time management technique for

managers emerged in the mid-to-late 1990s. Managers making use of critical

path accountability involve all members of a business transaction including

manufacturers, distributors, customers and their employees in the production

and delivery process. Keeping all parties to a transaction informed as to its

progress leads to mutual accountability and the establishment of a system of

checks and balances within the production process. The essentials of time

management involve recognition of goals and organization of one’s efforts, so

that all steps taken follow a path toward achieving that goal and are not wasted

or diverted from that purpose.

Many of the barriers to efficient time management are flaws of human

nature like desire to procrastinate, to pursue pleasure rather than purpose,

perfectionism that will not accept a job as complete and insecurity that does not

allow a person to delegate tasks to others etc., among other things.

In the last half of the 20th century ‘Time’ came to be described as a

“commodity, a resource to be used, hoarded, traded and exploited.” Despite

changes in the way that businesses view time, time management for managers

remains, in large measure, a matter of simplifying and compartmentalizing

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tasks to avoid diffuseness of effort. Making schedules and lists of the type

recommended by Lee12

is still the most common method employed by

managers wishing to improve their time management. Other simple and

commonsense techniques such as keeping meetings to a minimum and keeping

them as short as possible are all that is required in many cases to free a

manager’s time for more productive activities.

2.4 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF TIME MANAGEMENT

The four basic assumptions about time management are:

1. The first assumption: time can be managed

2. The second assumption: The work can be compacted to free the

unavailable time

3. The third assumption: Your effectiveness depends on whether you are

seen as effective, not if you are really effective.

4. The fourth assumption: The secret is in smarter, not harder work.

2.5 TIME MANAGEMENT IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE

WORLD:

A study of “a cross-cultural investigation of time management practices

and job outcomes”, explored the generalisability of prior findings of time

management and their influence on key job outcomes in different cultures.13

Time management is used as a competitive tool by both individuals and

organizations in Western cultures, where time is viewed as a commodity to be

controlled. In these cultures, it is commonly believed that time management

42

practices will positively influence key job outcomes such as job performance,

job satisfaction, job stress and health. 14

However, empirical evidences on the positive effects of time

management has been limited to Western cultural environment. There are

Asian, African, Middle Eastern and Latin American cultures where perception

of time is conservative in nature and therefore, the meaning of time is defined

as a temporal perception and may be quite different than in Western cultures

such as in the United States. 15

This raises the question of whether or not time

management practices positively impact job outcomes in cultures where time is

viewed differently. In this connection, the ability to generalize the claims of

time management to non-western is yet to be fully investigated.

Additionally, a widely discussed cultural dimension of temporal

perception that is theorized to lead directly to temporal behavior is whether

time is viewed as either “monochromic time” (M-time) or ‘polychronic time”

(P-time)16

.

M-time cultures view time as linear and separable capable of being

divided into units and therefore emphasize doing "one thing at a time." In

contrast, P –time cultures view time as naturally re-occurring, and therefore

emphasize doing "many things at one time."

M-time typifies most North Americans, Swiss, German and

Scandinavians as, individuals with an M-time orientation are task-oriented,

emphasize promptness and a concern for other's privacy, stick to their plans

and are accustomed to short term relationships with other people. P-time

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cultures include Japanese, Middle-Easterners, Latin Americans and people

from South Asia who view time as a system where the same events occur in

natural cycles.

Within the time management literature, time stressors can be highly

detrimental when experienced on a daily basis and they are experienced

differently in different national cultures 17

. Some cultures have an orientation

towards a short time horizon in which time stressors are more prevalent, for

example, in Philippines, the United States, Ireland, Brazil, India and Australia.

In long time horizon areas such as Czech Republic, Hong Kong, Sweden,

Portugal and Austria, the immediacy of time demands is less prevalent. Long

term planning and time extended horizons make time stressors very different.

Americans are more inclined to park a day full of short- term activities, each of

which has a completion point. On the other hand, Polynesian or Japanese

people may have a busy day, but their orientation is less towards immediate

task completion than long term wholeness.

From above, we understand that time management is a perpectual topic

among researchers and specialists. There is no general agreement about what

time mean as it is. Time is seen from psychological perspective as a mental

construct which compares the perception of time to “clock” time. Sociological

research views time as a social construct and a convenience that cultures agree

on. Behavioral research attempts to predict what individuals might do, their

motives for thinking about time in certain ways and their related behavior.

Generally, different countries and cultures have different perceptions and the

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experience and use of time is universal, but the way in which time is

experienced and used differs across individuals and social institutions.

This study attempts to add the existing literature towards expanding our

understanding of time management practices, particularly in India.

2.6 TIME MANAGEMENT PROCESS:

Time management is a process. It can be practiced in four steps. Each

step is a habit in itself and each succeeding step becomes more difficult. The

first step in this process is making a daily schedule. Practitioners of time

management need to chart out all activities that they need to perform each day.

By doing so, a person can allot time slots for each activity. Making a daily

routine or time-table is considered a very useful activity. It is like planning out

each task before actually executing it.

Once employees get accustomed to making and using of time schedules,

they can move on to the next step in the time management process, which is,

use of notes and circulars. Use of notes and circulars ensures that a particular

task is done in the right way and at the right time. Important points to be kept

in mind while undertaking a particular task can be noted down, so that each

task gets done in the best possible way and in the minimum possible time.

The next step in time management encompasses prioritizing the tasks.

Most professionals have a tendency to finish their urgent tasks first, without

realizing a task which appears urgent may be unnecessary. Time management

refers to those tasks that should be done immediately which are both necessary

and urgent. It means that one must prioritize the tasks to save a lot of time.

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The last step is, it is not time that one need to manage, but to manage

self, which calls for leading a disciplined life and following the right habits.

One needs to be aware of it and to follow in their daily lives especially at

work, personal and family atmosphere.

2.7 TIME MANAGEMENT THEORIES

The theories put forth by scholars and philosophers help us to know the

importance of time in every sphere of life. Understanding the importance of

time management is essential for everyone. A conscious control, when imposed

over the amount of time spent in doing day-to-day activities would enable one

to decide on priorities and set deadlines for them. Thus, one would be able to

accomplish them within the set time limit. Time management is possible by

understanding the theories, principles and techniques proposed by scholars and

philosophers who have understood its significance.

The most popular theories that help people to understand the importance

of time management in every sphere of life are:-

Pareto Principle: 80-20 Rule

Vilfredo Pareto18

was an Italian economist and philosopher who

formulated 80-20 rule. His research work became the thumb rule of many

business organizations where 80% of productivity came from 20% of working

employees.

This 20% comprised the most efficient people who conducted their work

within a specific span of time, thereby contributing to high rate of productivity.

Based on this theory, business and quality management pioneer, Dr. Joseph

46

Juran19

said that, ‘vital few, trivial many’ build organizations. The 80-20 rule

could be applied everywhere, where time plays a major role to uplift

productivity and success of organizations. The key element of this theory is the

20% that matters the most.

Pickle Jar Theory

The pickle jar theory is very simple to understand and execute. The

experiment is actually a time management model that will aid in prioritizing

work and in reaching the milestones of life. A pickle jar filled with rocks and

spaces in between the rock stones could be filled up with pebbles. The jar

becomes more compact after filling up with pebbles but still there are

inconspicuous spaces that can be compacted with sand and water over it. The

pickle jar is the replica of the life. The major responsibilities of the life or goals

are represented by the rocks that occupy most of the space. This infers that, one

should dedicate more time to such goals. The chipped stones or the pebbles

symbolize the hobbies that require comparatively lesser time than the important

goals. Lastly, the daily chores of your life are the sand particles that get placed

perfectly between the goals and hobbies. The distractive force in the life that

takes away the attention from the path of success is the water. Apart from

teaching us the right way to manage time, this theory also makes us aware of

the fact that distractions that lead to mismanagement should be avoided

completely in order to follow the right track.

Maslow’s Theory

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Also known as the theory of hierarchy of needs, Abraham Harold

Maslow20

, an American professor of psychology, effectively combined time

management with needs. He built a hypothetical pyramid where physiological

level needs (food, water, and shelter), etc., were put at the base of the pyramid

while self actualization was placed on the top of the pyramid. In between these

two extreme levels, safety, human bonding and self-esteem were positioned.

The five levels were examples of different strata of human life. The theory

doesn’t specify the time period required to attain them, but it actually helps to

understand the importance of these elements in life. Once the needs are

understood, it can be differentiated to set a time period during which one can

fulfill them. By referring to the theory of hierarchy of needs with incorporation

of effective time management strategy, one can plan the goals both in personal

and professional life.

2.8 TIME MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

Current models of time management focus on the achievement of a

balance in personal and professional commitments. Time management

techniques help to establish the priorities of both professional and personal

responsibilities, thereby, leading to a more productive and better balanced life

style.

The essence of time management revolves around two principles,

Pareto’s Principle and Parkinson’s Law. Principles in time management helps

one to achieve the major portion of the goals with a minor portion of the

energy. Parkinson’s Law states that there is a human tendency to spend effort

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and time on more insignificant tasks that are perceived as important rather than

those of true importance. Thus, by being able to identify what is truly

important, one can gain momentum toward achieving true desired goals.

The ABC technique :

The most often cited and fundamental approach to formulating a way of

managing one’s time is a “priority system” first described by Alan Lakein21

. In

the ABC technique, each individual consciously learns how to get control of

one’s time and life by focusing on what is considered truly important. By

focusing on one’s own priorities or making an educated guess, a person makes

a list of goals and writes down those that are deemed worthy of being

accomplished. In formulating a list of goals, or priorities, goals are grouped

together under an assigned letters (ie, category) such as A, B, or C. All “A”

grouped tasks or goals reflect activities of high importance (must be undertaken

and completed soon), “B” grouped tasks signify activities deemed less

important (but need to be accomplished at some point in the future), and “C”

grouped tasks are activities of low or no importance. In using this method, by

identifying and assigning value to one’s activities, each person actively plans

desirable short, intermediate and long-term goals.

Time management matrix technique:

The Time Management Matrix Technique (TMMT) was constructed by

Covey22

to focus on the control of personal actions rather than purely

scheduling time. The technique places all time-consuming actions into one of

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four theoretical quadrants of activity, which enable a person to characterize an

action as being important or urgent, relative to the desired goal. The four

quadrants are:

I - important and urgent

II - important and not urgent,

III - not important and urgent, and

IV - not important and not urgent.

Within quadrant I are activities of crisis, pressing problems, deadlines,

and emergencies. These activities create stress and consume a great deal of

energy, and thus are viewed as time wasters. While physicians are trained to

deal with these activities, their management method frequently spills over into

other areas of their life. Covey emphasizes that it is always better to try to

achieve activities in Quadrant II which focus on planning, prevention,

creativity, building relationships, and maintaining increased productivity to

give long term benefits. Quadrant III activities are characterized by interrupt

ions, involvement with popular interests, and mandatory meetings with

nonproductive results. Quadrant-IV entails activities that are considered

frivolous and non- helpful toward achieving goals.

The matrix of quadrants provides a means of identifying different types

of activities and how the effectiveness of these activities are toward achieving

one’s goals. This model seeks to minimize activity that continuously requires

maximal expenditure of effort and time on non goal-achieving tasks.

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The time matrix centers on achieving results with three basic skills. The

first skill, proactivity is a mind- set to gain control over ineffective lifestyle

situations. Once recognized, the ability to initiate desirable change is acquired.

The second skill is learning to have a clear vision of end results. By learning to

visualize, a person directs oneself in accomplishing the right goals and

momentum is gained in accomplishing important matters. The third skill is

classical prioritizing. The ability to prioritize important responsibilities,

challenges and the demands of life through foresight leads one toward gaining

more control over outcomes that are manageable. These three skills allow a

person to identify the theoretical quadrants by which he or she is operating in

life and adjust those activities that result in a productive lifestyle into activities

that help to achieve one’s goals.

The advantages of this technique revolve around its easy

conceptualization of the matrix flexibility in application and the focus on

actions in achieving goals. By clearly viewing all activities as existing in one of

four quadrants, one can assess intuitively how time is being expended relative

to its importance or urgency in accomplishing events of priority. Rather than

listing items to be achieved, as done in other models, this technique relies on

the ability of users to condition their actions toward accomplishing goals by

making a mental note as to which quadrant the activity belongs, with quadrant

II being the ideal. The major disadvantage of this model is the difficulty faced

by the beginners to use, as a model.

Natural laws technique:-

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This model of time management is based on Benjamin Franklin’s23

principles, which asserts that maximal productivity can be reached by using

time records to help evaluate and plan life. Once goals are identified, long-term

plans, intermediate plans and daily tasks are developed to help attain and

reassure desired future results. This planning system uses quiet time to plan and

develop tasks. Familiar external and internal factors that limit the supply of

time—time robbers—are acknowledged. This model encourages the use of a

daily planner system to record, reassess and reaffirm one’s goals.

The advantage to this popular system is that it has been shown to help

people achieve goals by using basic concepts of Time Management.

2.9 TECHNIQUES AND DIMENSIONS

Notwithstanding the sustained efforts on knowledge-base, much has

been written about techniques for time management. Many of the techniques

are associated with the planning dimension of time management, i.e. with

deliberately setting work goals and personal goals, identifying core tasks and

activities, scheduling and prioritizing these tasks and activities. Calendars and

planners are often used as tools to support all this. They differ in the time

segments they stipulate: some people plan in one-hour blocks per day, while

others divide the day into fifteen- minute blocks. Other tools are, to-do lists on

bits of paper, pocket diaries, e-mail and mobile phones. Some of these can also

be used to strengthen the monitoring dimension of time management. They are

supposed to support ‘prospective remembering of work appointments and to-do

lists24

.

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The other techniques addressed the executive dimension of time

management. They imply a range of behaviors that aim at avoiding work

interruptions, increasing effectiveness of meetings at work, overcoming delay

behavior (also known as procrastination), motivating and regulating oneself in

goal- directed behavior . The techniques addressing executive dimensions seem

to fall into two categories. The first category aims to avoid ‘time wasters’ such

as unexpected telephone calls, visitors, and meetings which interrupt the

execution of work as planned. They essentially consist of protective measures

that prevent these disturbances, bringing them under control by planning or

stopping them from causing interference by isolating the person from them.

The second category aims at the motivation to carry out the plan. People are

normally energized and motivated to execute their work, when they have set

goals for themselves and engaged in planning and prioritizing work tasks. Yet

they may lose the motivation to perform the goals once they are in the

maelstrom of everyday work-life.

From the review, it is noticed that scattered attention has been given to

assessing the dimensions of time management. One technique used to balance

work and private time demands is to make a list of all personal as well as work

commitments and then compare them with respect to their time duration,

importance, urgency or priority. It might also be useful to decide, whether

certain work commitments on one’s list could be performed by others as well.

More techniques might be developed to give people certain insights into their

actual use of time and the effects of newly presented time demands.

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The general idea behind the use of these techniques is that, it allows a

person to focus on a limited number of attainable tasks without losing sight of

the big picture. Instead of being overwhelmed by the complexity or large

number of goals or projects which may discourage one from even starting

work, one should be able to formulate many small tasks that one is able to

perform. In addition, this focus has the effect that energy is directed at the

completion of tasks and enables obstacles to be overcome as they occur.

Some techniques may help one to become more effective in using

private time and to attain a balance between private and work activities. The

technique of listing and comparing all private and work commitments may be

helpful in maintaining the balance between work and home. The list can make

it evident that there are often far too many work commitments compared to

personal ones, after which one may consider eliminating certain work

commitments in order to make more time for a personal life. In addition,

people may make a personal time management chart (time budget) showing

how they spend time on family, recreation, eating, sleeping and getting up. This

may help them to separate perception from reality and make room for actual

improvements in allocating time to these activities. Of course, finding an ideal

balance between personal and work time is different for each individual and

people will have to use these techniques to accommodate their own preferences

and opportunities.

Although these techniques have emerged from practice, it is not difficult

to see how they are rooted in a self-regulation view of time management. They

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aim at improving time assessment (e.g., listing demands and using this list as a

reference point), planning (e.g., clustering activities, using specified time

blocks), monitoring (e.g., creating feedback on task execution with respect to

time) and effectuating changes in activities and the environment in which these

are carried out (e.g., using a contingency plan, withdrawing to a quieter

working space). It would be worth investigating whether and how the current

techniques fulfill these functions and what can be done to optimize their

effects. Time-management theory might also inspire the development of

additional techniques.

2.10 APPLICABILITY OF TIME MANAGEMENT IN DIFFERENT

SETTINGS:

Time management was first introduced for professional managers25

before being made available to anyone in work situations26

. Most of the

examples are set in the workplace — even the charts, figures and worksheets

are applicable only to work or business situations. The traditional techniques

and tips are not always applicable for those working outside a traditional office

situation. Furthermore, to apply time-management techniques, a certain level of

job autonomy is required. One can imagine that in work situations, where there

is no room at all for personal planning and decision-making, time management

might not be implemented to the full extent. However, in these cases,

techniques such as motivating oneself to perform tasks might be helpful.

Generally, managers, directors or job professionals have higher job autonomy

than those working in administrative or staff jobs and as a consequence the low

55

autonomy group can only engage in restricted time-management behaviors.

Also, other job characteristics, such as perceived workload, goal clarity or task

complexity play a big role.

A review of past empirical studies find some support for a dispositional

foundation of time-management behavior, suggesting that there are consistent

individual differences in time-management behavior which make some people

more and others less effective. These differences may originate from

personality, motivational or cognitive factors. Personal preferences, such as

working on several tasks simultaneously are also involved. Kaufman27

showed

a relation between monochronic individuals and time management. They

indicated that individuals with monochronic preferences were more likely to do

detailed planning than those with polychronic preferences, yet they experienced

difficulties in sticking to their plan, possibly because they preferred to

concentrate on one thing at a time. Polychronic individuals indicated that they

more often achieved their planned goals than monochronic individuals and

were also better able to cope with interruptions.

2.11 QUALITATIVE TIME MANAGEMENT STUDIES

In reviewing the literature on time management skills and behaviors,

five studies were identified which examined the time management behaviors of

specific populations using qualitative methodologies. Two studies examined

time management techniques in relation to home-based work28

. Of these two

studies, one study exclusively examined women29

. Two studies examined

university populations including the time management strategies of medical

56

residents30

and the time management of undergraduate english project

students31

. The fourth study examined the work habits of successful general

managers32

. There were several common time management techniques

identified by these populations including time manipulation, planning ahead,

task delegations prioritization, synchronization and routinization of activities,

reallocation of personal time, goal setting, agenda making and the utilization of

a time diary. Many of the time management strategies were identified in studies

related to samples of dual career women, medical residents, home based

workers in parallel employment and university student samples.

2.12 QUANTITATIVE TIME MANAGEMENT STUDIES

The literature search identified 27 studies that examined the relationship

between time management behaviors and other variables such as academic

achievement, stress and creativity. Most studies were conducted with university

or college student populations and utilized some form of questionnaire or self-

report measure to assess time management. Alternatives to self-report measures

included self-reported time usage questions (e.g., how many hours during a

typical weekday, do you) and observational checklists33

. Results from these

studies showed that self-reports of time management behaviors or skills were

often related to academic achievement, effective time management, lower

stress and strain. Good time managers preferred planning and organising, older

subjects and women are engaged more frequently in planning and time

management behaviors. Individuals who indicated that they set goals and

priorities tended toward the Type A behavior pattern, where as, individuals

57

who had previous time management training engaged more frequently in time

management behaviors. In addition, inefficient time use, lack of control over

time demands and inadequate amounts of time appeared to have a negative

impact on individuals’ psychological resources.

The recent literature review34

gives an overview of time- management

research since its inceptions and summarizes what is currently known about it.

In general, a positive relationship was found between people’s self-report of

time management behaviors with perceived control of time, academic

performance 35

and well-being (operationalized as low strain or health) 36

. It

demonstrated that one dimension of time management, i.e. planning behavior,

is related to higher job performance. However, use of personal time

management techniques actually contributing to a higher job performance has

not been established yet. Future research could focus on quantifying the effects

of time management.

Some studies have focused on the effectiveness of time management

training. They have shown mixed results, although in most of studies a positive

outcome was found. Green & Skinner 37

for instance, found that participants in

a time management training program increased their knowledge of time

management and on an individual level showed ‘significant observable

improvement in key areas as planning, prioritizing assertiveness, consequent

reductions in their stress levels and median improvements in personal

effectiveness of some 20 percent’.

58

The largest part of the research conducted mainly focused on the

effectiveness of behaviors and the use of particular techniques either in do-it-

yourself settings or in training situations. Many studies have focused on time

management behaviors in relation to perceived control of time 38

, academic

performance 39

, work—family interference 40

, estimation of time duration 41

,

job satisfaction 42

or variables related to well-being 43

. Very little attention has

been given to factors that might influence the actual use of particular behaviors

and techniques or those moderate their relationship between their use and

measures of effectiveness.

A noticeable exception is the study of personality as a factor in effective

time management. In China, a number of studies have recently been devoted to

‘time management disposition’ 44

, a concept referring to a set of traits

associated with the effectiveness of time-management behavior. This ‘multi-

dimensional personality trait’ is captured by the Time Management Disposition

Inventory for Chinese adolescents45

. Research has addressed the presence of

such a trait, its influence on self-confidence, satisfaction with regard to

learning and coping style and the influence of ‘hereditary vs work experience’

factors. Up to now these Chinese studies have not provided any conclusive

answers. There are some evidences of a hereditary influence, but also on the

effects of learning and exposure to other external factors.

Many research efforts on personality traits has focused more particularly

on the conscientiousness trait, which comprises qualities such as being results

oriented, organized, careful in one’s work, ambitious, trustworthy and having a

59

conscience. Several studies have shown that such qualities can have a positive

influence on work, academic schedules and training achievements 46

. Pulford

and Sohal47

demonstrated that students with a certain personality profile like

high scores on conscientiousness performed better on a time-management

scale. They also found that the overall Grade Point Average score of these

students at the end of the first year was predicted by the prevalence of time-

management behavior operationalized as planning and the ability to deal with

deadlines.

There are evidences from other studies showing that personality may

play a role in displaying time-management behavior. Shahani, Weiner and

Streit48

found that the incidence of time-management behavior was quite stable

under varying levels of reported stress. Frese, Stewart and Hannover 49

pointed

to large differences between individuals in goal orientation and planning

behavior.

Further, it was found that time management behaviors are related to

effectiveness in performing tasks in accordance with temporal demands. But,

present knowledge about the mechanisms involved in bringing about these

effects is still very limited. However, there is some scientific support for the

influence of personality on the display of time-management behavior, a so-

called dispositional component.

2.13 POSTULATES OF TIME MANAGEMENT

When time is viewed as a non-renewable resource, it often becomes

easier to understand the importance of managing it wisely. When working

60

under a deadline, then every minute is considered as a non-renewable resource

which, one could feasibly use to the full extent to meet a specific goal.

Mackenzie50

have agreed that time is a valuable resource which

demands effective management. According to Shuler51

, the real importance of

time management lies in the fact that many people have too many tasks they

need to do but not enough time for the things they want to do. Time is a unique

resource which controls and limits all other resources. Therefore, it is

considered the most precious resource available to human beings.

Kohn et.al52

have pointed out that time management plans must be

designed to fit into individual needs and differences, since each individual has

a personal view point about time. Time is the scarcest resource and unless it is

managed nothing else can be managed. Time management is about

effectiveness and efficiency of ‘what you are doing and how you do it’ 53

. In

regard of its importance, primarily, time management is a need, secondly it is a

good goal and third it must be taught.

Good time management has always been an important skill, but it is

arguably now more essential than ever. Factors such as widespread corporate

restructuring, accelerating technological changes, information overload and the

need to balance priority and working lives have put the squeeze on managers.

2.14 TIME MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES:

Time Management is really self management technique as to decide on

what to do and when to do it. Success requires self discipline and self

61

management. Effective self management is predicted upon a correct

understanding of the self, to control and manage consciously. Ferasat 200554

states that time management depends on self consciousness and the application

of time management principles won’t be effective unless the person be aware

of the attitude towards work. This section will summarize the following six

major time management principles :

i. Time use analysis

ii. Identification of time robbers

iii. Setting and prioritizing goals

iv. Formulation of action plans

v. Application of Time Management principles and

vi. Monitoring of progress

i. Time Use analysis:

The first principle in managing time is to analyze how time is utilized. A

time log is be used to find out how much time is consumed on various tasks.

The time inventory or log is necessary because, the painful task of changing

our habits requires far more conviction than learning from the experience of

others. The time log is a procedure which requires the maintaining of a diary of

actual time used for several days. This means that in everything, employees

should develop a habit of recording and analyzing how they spend their time to

meet the work deadlines.

Merill & Danna55

explains that to meet deadlines, eliminate recurring

crises, to create make to do lists, scheduling the most important things,

62

eliminate time wasters, avoid interruptions, prioritize the work and conquer

procrastination, it is important to have a time log. A time log is a list of daily

activities recorded at specified time intervals. The most important tool for time

management is a time audit or time log. By analyzing the use of time, it is

possible to determine more efficient ways of using time in the workplace and

outside it.

Time management means control of time and work, instead that time

controls us. Better usage of time requires a constant, adequate and rational

time management. Successful management of working time, needs to make

better business, perspectives, bigger work creativeness, less work stress, more

own free time and time for family and friends, consistent and systematic

achievement of defined business goals etc., requires managers need to plan

their business duties and tasks. Advantages of appropriate planning of time

management functions are numerous. Some of the most important are: better

preparation of working tasks, increasing efficiency through the coordination of

work tasks, a clear image of the work tasks, saving time and money, increase

the motivation of all employees, self-improvement and self-discipline,

distinguishing important from less important duties and making important

business decisions.

Active time management will allow the control of work and more time

for focusing on the most relevant jobs aspects. Anyone who wants to be

efficient and productive, had to benefit their own time on the most prudent

63

way. The most important is good planning of activities and duties, to separate

important from less important and choose realistic activities.

ii. Identification of Time Robbers :

A time robber may be defined as an activity at which a considerable

amount of time is spent, without an equivalent value or benefit. The next step

in time management is identifying time robbers and it may be done by

analyzing the time log and locating where time has been wasted. The time

robbers will fall into two general categories. They are, external time robbers

and internal time robbers. The external time robbers are generated from outside

sources such as phone calls, drop- in visitors, and other interruptions, whereas

internal time robbers such as lack of self discipline, failure to delegate,

disorganization and procrastination are self generated.

Once the time log has been used to identify time robbers, one can learn

to control them with techniques such as deferring time robbers, shortening the

time spent on time robbers, or eliminating portions of time robbers.

Mackenzie56

has suggested the following efforts to control time robbers:

1) set up a routine that contrasts with time robbers,

2) never let an exception occur until the new habit is firmly rooted, and

3) seize the first possible chance to act on the resolution.

iii. Setting and Prioritizing Goals :

The third principle in managing time is to set and prioritize goals.

Koellner57

has stated that goals provide a focus to help determine beforehand

64

the areas, where resources including time should be spent. The effectiveness of

use of time is determined by the goals set. Goal setting is the process of

prioritizing and selecting healthy behaviour outcomes specific to an

individual’s unique needs. ‘Without goals, time management is like a hammer

without a nail’. With goal, however, time management becomes a magic key to

success. Time can simply be managed by creating proportionality between the

short-term goals and long term goals. For example to minimize a gap between

short term and long term goals, a master to-do list and a deadline schedule for

each work with a estimate of the time needed to complete the project is

required.

Thus, Goal setting works through focusing on individuals attention and

efforts in achieving the desired outcomes on specific goals considering the

level of difficulty or complexity and the designated time frame for goal

attainment.

iv. Formulation of Action Plans :

Once goals are determined, a plan of action should be developed to

guide individuals in achieving established goals and to identify the factors or

conditions that will help or hinder in achieving established goals. Further,

action planning can be used to assess the appropriateness of goals over

progress. In achieving the goals, action plans should be evaluated for necessary

success. Problem solving, identifying helpful resources, skill building activities

and adjustment of goals, requires continuous monitoring of action plans. It

needs to be recognized that effective planning actually saves time.

65

Mackenzie58

has added that, “Managers resist planning because they

don’t have time or failing to look ahead to the significant long-range savings in

time as well as the improved performance that usually results”. So Action

plans should be set and a deadline for completing each step should be specified

that can produce a measurement of progress. Planning is the basis for

successful time management, since control starts with planning. Planning is

bringing the future into the present so that something can be done about it. An

hour of planning will save several hours of doing the wrong things, fighting

crises and avoiding the unimportant. According to Harper, effective short-term

planning will help save time. Time management necessitates planning, while it

is obvious to use it regularly. One of the basic planning guides for time

management is the ‘To Do List’. One of the real secrets of getting more done is

to make a To Do List everyday, keep it visible and use it as a guide to action

throughout the day . ‘To Do List’ is a list of items to be worked on which are

crossed off as items are completed and other items added as they arise. The

items on the ‘To Do List’ may be arranged according to function or similarity

of work content, location, and/or person and it must be prioritized.

v. Application of Time Management Principles :

The next main issue in time management is application of its operative

principles. A carefully thought-out plan with well defined goals and priorities is

a giant step toward getting control of time. Such a plan like a tool is valuable

only when if it’s used. The best plans remain daydreams until they are brought

to life through action.

66

a. Avoidance of Procrastination:

The first key to effective Time Management is to avoid procrastination.

Procrastination has been defined as a self-regulation style that involves delay in

the start and/or completion of a task and is described as the thief of time.

Procrastination can be the root of the many evils surrounding time

management. Emmett59

contended that every person has been guilty of

procrastinating for one reason or another.

Planning and doing may be close enough together that the plan draws

immediate action on high-priority items. However, he has noted that the

transition from planning to action may be less smooth, when procrastination

occurs. Procrastination is putting off a high priority task and doing a task of

lower priority. Time management experts have stated that a major key to

eliminating procrastination is to get started immediately.

b. Concentration on High-Priorities:

A second key to effective time management is to concentrate on high -

priorities. The effectiveness of time use is often weakened because time is

spent doing a high percentage of low-priority tasks. Low-priority tasks are done

before high-priority tasks because, they are easy to do and require less time.

Low-priority items are sometimes performed before high payoff ones because

they are easier to do, where in it is easy to see many items in ‘to do the list’ are

cleared. But, this tendency will harm the execution of high priority tasks, when

postponed.

67

Time management consultants have noted that the significance of

focusing on high-priorities is emphasized with Pareto’s 80/20 Law. Pareto’s

Law posits that in any given group the number of significant items will

normally be small. Inversely, the number of less significant items will

constitute the vast majority. 20 percent of one’s activities will produce 80

percent of the results.

c. Control of Perfectionism:

“Perfectionism is worth approaching when 80 percent of the value

comes from the last 20 percent of the effort”. It is easy to lose control of time

when striving for perfectionism. Perfectionism is often set as a goal for low-

priority activities.

d. Setting proper Deadlines:

A principle suggestion to help control perfectionism and procrastination

is setting deadlines, because they force action and serve as targets or goals. But

these deadlines must be realistic to appraise performance. The imposition of

due dates is mandatory for time management since just as goals and objectives,

realistic deadlines will also create enthusiasm to pursue the activity. Deadlines

work best when they are self—imposed and are viewed as reasonable and

equitable.

Combining rewards with deadlines will also increase enthusiasm and

motivation and rewards can be planned at various points throughout a large

project, as well as after the final completion.

68

e. Energy Level consideration:

Energy level should also be considered in managing time and difficult

jobs should be performed, when a person’s energy level is high. Doing a

difficult task is much easier, when a person is fresh than when he or she is

tired. During high energy periods, a person can often solve a problem in

minutes instead of the hours he or she might labor over the same problem when

energy level is down. A chart can be made to record energy peaks and lows

which could be used to plan specific projects and functioning at peak hours

enables an individual to achieve more effectively.

f. Control of Interruptions :

Controlling interruptions, crises and routine activities are essential for

effective time management. The goal is not to eliminate all interruptions, but

to control them by balancing the time spent with the value of the interruption.

Defer interruptions temporarily to more appropriate times. Eliminate medium

and low-priority interruptions by handling them more efficiently, delegating

them or deferring them indefinitely. Controlling interruptions and crises can

begin in the planning stages of a schedule and when making a schedule the

unexpected should be taken into consideration.

g. Monitoring of Progress :

The next step after applying important principles for effective time

management is monitoring the progress. A frequent monitoring of progress

helps to prevent the tendency to slip back as an analysis of interruptions is

69

necessary before controlling them. A log of interruptions is to be kept, which

includes what caused the interruption, when it occurred, how long it took, its

purpose and what was accomplished. Once interruptions have been identified,

they can be analyzed and prioritized according to their importance.

The three guidelines to handling interruptions are, reducing the time

spent on medium and low priority interruptions. Weekly time inventory may be

used to determine, if various time management principles have been successful

in eliminating and controlling routine interruptions and forecasting new

interruptions. The positive results identified with the follow-up are also

beneficial in reinforcing effective time use.

VI. Time Traps and effective Techniques to Manage Time:

It is possible to classify time traps in two headings as “time traps that are

sourced from individual” and “time traps that are sourced from management”.

Time management is a struggle of productively spending time which is an

important source in reaching both organizational and personal aims.

a. Time Traps that are sourced from lndividuals:

Time traps that are sourced from individuals can be summarized as

follows: lack of self discipline, undescribed individual aims, postponement,

unhealthy and non ergonomic working environment, untidy table and

disordered office, bureaucracy, difficultness at saying “no”, excessive social

relationships, high level doubts about decisions, open office politics,

ambiguousness of priorities, stress, time impression and rashness.

b. Time Traps in Work environment :

70

Time traps that are originated from work atmosphere can be summarized

as: telephone conversations, unexpected visitors, unwillingness in devolution of

authority, unnecessary gatherings, crisis, inadequate communication, uncertain

in managing aims and lack of coordination.

Tracy60

stated that people are surrounded by others and circumstances

that waste time and undermine effectiveness all day along. The only way to

combat this is to practice rigorous self discipline to steer clear from these time

thieves. She provided a list of seven major time wasters in the world of work

that she has derived from hundreds of time management studies and opinion

surveys on telephone interruptions. They are unexpected visitors, meetings, fire

fighting and emergencies, procrastination, socializing and idle conversations,

indecision and delay.

Best approach in dealing with time wasters is simple and

straightforward; get focused and stay focused. Ramsey 61

stated that, “The

ability to take control of time and to make the most of every moment on and off

with the job is the key to being successful and surviving in today’s world of

work.” For most people, the four greatest time-wasters on the job to be: (1)

paperwork (2) interruptions (3) meetings and (4) “worry-time.”

c. Discretionary time usage:

It is important to define discretionary time as time that is left over after

all necessary work is completed. While almost everyone knows how to plan,

prioritize and get organized, the problem that remains is that very few actually

71

do what they know they should be doing. Therefore, creating discretionary

time without a strong foundation is difficult because the important tasks may

still remain at the end of the day. Hager62

provided a list of items designed

specifically for creating discretionary time:

1. Anticipate interruptions

2. Schedule office hours specifically for drop-ins

3. Schedule break times

4. Schedule response/reading time

5. Meet in other areas rather than the office

6. Conduct stand-up meetings

7. Set time frames for conferences, meetings, phone calls, etc..

8. Master the art of delegation

9. Get in the habit of one-thing-at-a-time

2.15 TIME MANAGEMENT OBSERVATION

The work of Drucker(1966)63

formalized the concept and approach of

time management in terms of the workplace. From that foundation, time

management actions have typically focused on the prioritization of activities.

He emphasized deliberate concentration on the prioritized actions until they are

completed and development of a plan for work which uses the prioritization

scheme as an organising structure.64

While early attempts at time management

focused on organization and goal-setting, contemporary approaches require the

individual to assess the relative importance of their activities through the

development of a prioritization plan65

.

72

2.16 PLANNING BEHAVIORS

Since time management is a management process just like any other, it

must planned, monitored and regularly reviewed. Planning behavior can be

conceived as part of people’s work strategy. Several studies have been devoted

to the effects of planning behavior. Macan (1994)66

found that planning

behavior had a significant relationship with ‘perceived control of time,’ which

in turn was positively related to job satisfaction and negatively to job-induced

and somatic tensions. Thus, a direct relationship of planning behavior with

performance and work strain may exist, in addition to an indirect one, via

perceived control of time.

Prioritisation : Time management is a process of constantly asking what

is more important and arranging priorities to reflect each choice. Time

management techniques help establish to priorities of both professional and

personal responsibilities, thus leading to a more productive and better balanced

life style. Good time management behaviours such a setting goals and priorities

as well as monitoring the use of time67

can facilitate productivity and minimize

stress68

contributing to work effectiveness69

and performance70

. Harry Carter 71

suggests that to use time effectively one must “prepare lists of things to do in

order to identify priorities” and set priorities based on the relative urgency and

importance of the task.

Stephen Covey (1989)72

discusses the importance of setting priorities for

effective time management by advocating “put first things first” and that time

management can be summed up with the phrase “organize and execute around

73

priorities”. Several writers 73,74

suggest a system of prioritizing important tasks

according to predetermined goals as a practice for successful professionals. To

keep priorities in full view, daily priorities can be analyzed at the beginning

and ending of the day and decide which tasks are more important than others

on the “to-do” list and schedule high priority tasks. Setting job priorities,

working on them in order and listing on paper the major tasks for the day in

order of priority were time-management practices. “It’s important to make sure

that whatever system [is used] is aligned with what are trying to do” and keep

in mind the main functions of their job as they prioritize.

2.17 PERSONAL TIME MANAGEMENT:

Benjamin Franklin 75

is considered the father of modern time

management and linked the importance of its success to proper usage of

personal time. The idea of managing personal time as a successful way of

accomplishing important challenges in life introduced the concept of effective

use of time. The use of personal time analysis charts will show the various

activities in which employees spend their ‘time on’ apart from the general

schedule of activities for meeting the organizational activities.

Akomolage76

2005 and Ajayi77

2007 reiterated that the Personal analysis

chart will help individuals to study the use of their time and prepare a more

useful personal time tables for their activities during the day and each week and

it will allow the workers to identify their time wasters.

2.18 WORK LIFE BALANCE

74

In Clark’s78

view, the balance between work and life means satisfaction

and good performance in life with the least conflict on roles. According to

Kofodimge79

, balance means having satisfaction, health and productivity in the

life which includes work, leisure and love. Work-life conflict affects all aspects

of people’s life including their families, work places and even people’s mind

and their physical health. So the issue of work and life conflict includes a broad

and extensive spectrum. Hence, work and life balance is a degree of equality

and coordination in involvement and people’s satisfaction (male or female)

with each of the work and life roles. Work-life conflict happens when work

demands are not consistent with life aspirations. According to a report of

American institute for occupational safety and health, work-life conflict in

nature is one of the ten great stressors in work place.

In Adams and Jakk’s 80

study on time management was integrated in

work-life conflict model. The results showed that time management behaviors

have direct and indirect (Time control perception) relationship with work

interference with family and family interference with work. Green and

Skinner81

in their study expressed that employees need to enhance their

abilities to manage time efficiently to achieve an effective balance of work-life.

Proper time management has a positive influence on people in balancing their

work and life and optimum use of time enhances organizational productivity.

Major findings in the study of time relationship with work, work interference

with family and psychological distress showed that some occupational and

familial characteristics have a significant relationship with work time, and

75

work time had also a positive relationship with work interference with family

and a negative relationship with distress.

2.19 STRESS IDENTIFICATION

Job stress in today’s society is one of the matters that no one can escape

it. In this trend, employees have more stress because of pressure at work

environment with completely different specifications from home environment.

A lot of studies have been done in relation between time management and job

stress. Anittila and et al 82

(2012) surveyed the developing process concept of

stress and tension in industrial and organizational psychology. Shugars and

dimatteo83

, introduces that time management has one of the control

mechanisms to reduce stress.

Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman 84

suggested in 1984 that stress can

be thought of as resulting from an ‘imbalance between demands and resources”

or as occurring when “pressure exceeds one’s perceived ability to cope”. Good

time-management skills are critical for effective stress control. In particular,

learning to prioritize tasks and avoid over-commitment are critical measures to

make sure that work is not overscheduled. Grzywacz, Carlson and Shulkin , 85

(2008) find that employees engaged in formal flexible work schedules

particularly those engaged in an arrangement that allow them to modify their

work schedules around a set number of hours (as compared to compressed

work-week arrangements) experienced lower levels of job stress and burnout.

2.20 TIME MANAGEMENT AND PERFORMANCE OUTCOMES:

76

Organizations are ultimately interested in performance outcomes. While

it is inherently interesting to consider questions surrounding the manner in

which people’s time preferences and construal influence their time use

behaviours, more practical use is how these concepts relate to performance

outcomes. Existing literature lends some support for the relationship between

time use dimensions and performance outcomes. For example, Lim and Seers86

(1993) found that future time perspective, autonomy of time use and allocation

of time together predicted the performance of managers. Moreover, Gersick87

(1989) found that groups with more successful midpoint transitions performed

better than those who less successfully paced their work time. In other words,

the manner in which people use time seems to relate to performance outcomes.

However, proper understanding of the time use and performance relationship

could benefit from additional empirical evidence. Thus, the current study aims

to provide further support relating time use and performance outcomes.

A positive relationship is expected between engaging in time

management behaviors and performance. While the theoretical framework

describing how time management should relate to outcomes is limited,

Classens et al., (2010)88

state that time management is a unique form of self-

regulation89

in which people cycle through a process of goal establishment,

planning, striving and revision. They further explain that a key component of

action regulation theory is the assumption that planning is necessary for

successful action (for goal accomplishment or quality performance). As such,

time management should be positively related to later task performance.

77

Others have found certain dimensions of time management are related to

performances. For instance, Claessens et al. (2004) 90

found that the planning

behaviors dimension of time management was related to higher job

performance. Barling et al. (1996) 91

found that short-range planning interacted

with achievement striving to predict job performance of car salespeople. Thus,

given the weight of the evidence, it is replicated that there is positive

relationship between time management and Performance outcomes.

Identification of research problem

Surprisingly, little research attention has been given to the question of

what time management can contribute in connection with organizational or

work place factor. It is surmised that minimal research is available on using

time effectively and finishing task within deadlines. A concern for the lack of

effective use of time management is the basis for the study under exploration.

The factors or conditions in the work place as the prerequisite for time

management behavior were not included in past research. As planning was

identified to be an important aspect of time management, detailed aspects of

planning such as, planning alternative tasks in case the original plan could not

be executed, has not been research thoroughly. Past studies have not addressed

the social context, such as work relations among individual workers and

supervisors. A large number of past studies used only student samples and not

the employees or professionals. In past research studies related to job

outcomes, only few variables such as work life balance, stress control, higher

sales and higher grade point averages are studied and the variables such as

78

resource planning, work ethics, socializing, achieving the goals or professional

skills are not considered which is the main reason behind this study. In the

same way, many time management studies are based on schools, colleges and

universities only and not in the work places that too in the IT field which

recently emerged as a strong industry. In conclusion, this review of time

management literature demonstrate that there is still lot of work to be done on

the concept of time management.

The above review of many previous research efforts reflect empirical surveys

based on isolated dimensions of time management. Most of the studies

identified the implications of select individual variables affecting time

management concept.

Thus, the present study focused on a comprehensive approach, covering the

core variables integrated with the demographic characteristics of sample IT

respondents.

Figure No.1

Model of the present study

TIME MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

LEVEL OF TIME MANAGEMENT

TECHNIQUES ADOPTED

DAILY WORK

SCHEDULE

PROFESSIONAL

DEVELOPMENT

OUTCOMES

IMPEDIMENTS OF TIME MANAGEMENT

PERSONAL TIME

PLANNING

79

This model of present research enquiry explains that the implications of

Time Management techniques, level of time management adopted, daily work

schedule, personal time planning and impediments of time management leads

to effects on professional development outcomes.

Conclusion:

In the next chapter, an attempt is made to analyze factors influencing

time management and perceptions of IT professionals on time management and

professional development outcomes based on demographic, social and

economic variables.

END NOTES

1. North.Y 2004 God’s Clock Maker . Richard of Wallingford and the

invention of time Ox Bow Books

2. Hisrich and Peters 2002 If I only had time – The Canadian Manager –

Vol.5 No.4 (14- 18)

3. Classens et.al., 2007 Time Management Logic Effectiveness and

Challenges. Time in Organizational Research, London Rovtledgevk-23-

41

4. Moos.R. 1994 Work Environment Scale Manual 3rd

Edition, 54

5. Ramsey R.D. 1994 Work Smarter and Save time – Supervision 55(7)

14-26

6. Taylor.F.W., 1978, Principles of Scientific Management. Classics of

Organizational theory (9) 23

7. Ive Lee 1930 Management Consultant Time Management Encyclopedia

of Business 369

8. Drucker.P. 1967 The Effective Execution – Hememann, London, 107

9. Covey.S. Merill.R. & Merill.R. 1994 First Things First Newyork Simon-

Sehuster

10. Ibid 22-23

11. Ibid 24

12. Lee.E. 2005 The relationship of Motivation and flow experienced to

academic procrastination. The Journal of Genetic Psychology 166(1) 5-14

13. Nonis S.A. & Teng (2005) A cross cultural investigation of time

management practices and job outcomes. The journal of psychology, Vol.31,

18-29

14. Luecke.R. 2005 Time Management increase your personal productivity

and effectiveness. Harvard Business School, 34

15. Kaufman and Lane 1991 Time Congruity in the organization. Journal of

Business Psychology 6 79-106

16.Kaufman and Scarborough 1999 Time Management and polychronity.

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END NOTES

1. Classens.et.al. (2007) A review of time management literature.

Personnel review Vol.36, 255-276

2. Ojokuku.R.M. & Ubasankehinde (2011) Time management and

organizational performance-A casual analysis Pakistan Journal of

Business and economic review Vol.2(1) 60-76

3. Shepeer (2010) Time management. McGraw Hill Publishers, 37

4. Benjamin.O.Omolayo, Influence of workers attitude towards time and

work on perceived job performance in private and public sectors. Nigerian

Journal of management and strategy Vol.3(3) June 2012

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techniques that will work for you, 16

6. Adejo (2012) The effective time management for high performance in

an organization. Journal of managerial psychology, Vol.10(2). 58-70

7. Lucy Karim (2012) Time Management and job performace in selected

parastatals in Kenya. Australian Journal of Business and Management research

Vol.2(5) 19-29

8. Ibid Adejo (2012) The effective time management for high performance

in an organization. Journal of managerial psychology, Vol.10(2). 58-70

9. Steve.M.Jex and Elaqua (1999) Time management as a moderator of

relations between stressors and employee strain. Work and stress 3, 182-

191

10.Nonis S.A. & Teng (2005) Measuring time perception in a cross cultural

environment. The journal of psychology, Vol.31, 18-29

11. Hassanzabeh, R., & Ebadi, a.G. (2007). Measure the share of the

effective factors and time management. World Applied Science Journal,

2(3), 168-174

12. Ibid, Hassanzabeh, R., & Ebadi, a.G. (2007). Measure the share of the

effective factors and time management. World Applied Science Journal,

2(3), 168-174

13. R.B.Radhakrishna, C.D.Baggett, and E.P.Yoder, Time management and

job performance of Maryland Country Extension Directors , University Park

: Penn State, Department of Agricultural and Extension Education, 1989

14. M.M.Islam, W.C.Depositario, and J.B.Valera, Factors of Job

performance of the Barangay Council Officials of Laguna Province,

Phillipines, Indian Journal of Extension Education, XXIII (Nos. 3 and 4,

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15. J.Noon, A.Time : The Busy Manager’s Action Plan for Effective Self

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evaluation. A publication of National Institute for Educational Planning

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17. Akomolfe , C.O. (2005) Principals’ time management abilities in

secondary schools in Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Educational

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18. J.B.Schriber and B.A. Gutek, Some time dimensions of work: Measurement

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19. Adebisi (2012) Time management practices and its effect on Business

performance. Canadian Social Sciences 9(1) 165-168