CHAPTER II

The Geography of the Ganga- Brahmaputra Basin

The Regional Setting

Situated in the Northern half of the Indian sub continent, the Ganga­

Brahmaputra basin constitutes the second largest hydrologic region in

the world. The total drainage area of the basin region is about 17 4 million

hectare spreading over India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan in South

Asia and Tibet region of China north of Himalayan divide. Nestled amidst

the natural watersheds of Himalayas in the north (and beyond into Tibet),

Vindhayas in the south, the Aravalis in the west, Patkai, Naga and

Lushai hills in the east. The Ganga-Brahmaputra basin is a single,

sprawling, integrated, transboundary drainage system with a common

terminus. The basin consists of two major river systems of the Ganga and

the Brahmaputra and one relatively smaller river system of the Barak,

which becomes the Meghna in Bangladesh.

About 63 percent of the basin is in India, 7 percent in Bangladesh, 8

percent in Nepal, and 2.5 per cent in Bhutan. Almost 10 percent of the

world's humanity lives in this region, which contains only 1.2 percent of

the landmass.

The Physical Geography of the Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin

The Ganga-Brahmaputra basin can broadly be divided into four

geographical regions the Himalayan zone, the Great Plains, hilly areas of

east and hill and plateau tracts of the south.

The Himalayas

The Himalayas, with some of the loftiest peaks of the world is one of the

youngest mountain regions on earth and is still rising owing to the

tectonic activity. The Himalayas form a highly rugged and continuous

4fi

stretch (2400 km), between the gorges of Indus and Brahmaputra. Their

width varies from 500 km in Kashmir to 200 km in Arunachal Pradesh.

The entire Himalayan area as well as plain remained under the level of

the sea till comparatively recent geological times. The region was

occupied by a great geosyncline called the Tethys Sea as late as Mesozoic

times. The sediments deposited in the Tethys Sea were folded to acquire

the present form of the Himalayas and the associated mountain chains,

in the very last phase of mountain building in the earth's history. This

tertiary mountain building [or orogenic phase] is often referred to as

Alpine after Alps, which were also uplifted roughly at the same time.l The

modern Plate Tectonic theory explains the mountain building phases of

the Himalayas.

The Himalayan ranges were formed when the Indian plate was driven

northwards and pushed beneath the Eurasian plate. With the advance of

the Indian plate towards the north, the Tethys started contracting about

65-70 million years ago. About 30-60 million years ago, the two plates

came closer and the Tethys sea crust began to fracture into thrust edges.

About 20-30 million years ago, the Himalayan ranges started emerging.

Intensive erosion from these mountain ranges resulted in the deposition

of molasses in a basin towards south of Himalayan range. The Himalaya

is still rising at the rate of 7.5 - 10 em per year.2 The Himalayas

comprises of three almost parallel fold ranges interspersed with deep

valleys and extensive plateaus (1) Siwaliks - The Siwaliks represent the

outermost range of the Himalayas made up mostly of sediments brought

by rivers from the main Himalayan ranges situated farther north. These

hills have roughly a hog back appearance with relatively steeper slopes

towards south. These hills form almost a continuos chain to the south of

Himachal [Middle Himalaya] from Jammu to Arunachal Pradesh. Their

A. Ahmad and Moonis Raza, India: A General Geography, National Council of Educational Research and Training Publication, New Delhi, 1991, p. 11.

2 S.M. Mathur, Physical Geology of India, National Book Trust Publication, New Delhi, 1991, p.l4.

47

height varies from 600 to 1500m. The Dangh Range, Dundwa Range and

the Churia Ghati Hills of Nepal form parts of the Siwalik range.

Most of the Himalayan Rivers, which have their sources in the Middle or

Greater Himalaya or beyond in the Tibetan plateau, pass through the

Siwalik range through wide and often steep gorge like valleys. The gorges

of the Teesta and Raidak in West Bengal have joined and form a 90 km

wide gap in the Siwalik range.

Flat bottomed, cultivated valleys called "Duns" in the central part,

covered with thick gravel and alluvium, separate the Siwalik range from

the Middle Himalaya. The Dehradun valley, 75 km long and 15-20 km

wide, is a typical depression of this type. The range is covered with

tropical wet deciduous forests in the east upto the Nepal; the vegetation

becomes thinner farther west.

Middle Himalaya

Lying to the north of the Siwalik range, the Himachal or Middle

Himalaya ranges form a most intricate and rugged mountain system.

The range is 60-80 km wide and 1,000-4,500 in height, with several

---peak-s-rising-up"fo-5~000in.- In-the-Eastern Section few ranges can be

marked clearly like Mussorie and the Nag Tibba ranges. The

Mahabharat Lekh of Nepal is important Middle Himalaya range

running through the country west to east. Its height varies from

1,500 to 2,000 m above mean seal level. The Middle Mountains form

the great Central belt of Nepal and cover 30 per cent of the Kingdom.

This zone, which has been long been under extensive agricultural

use, is composed almost entirely of mosaic ridges and valleys with

less than 5 per cent being flat land.

The Great Himalaya

The northern most Range of the Himalaya is a long continuous,inner

most and loftiest range. It is the highest range in the world with an

48

average height of 6,100 meters above sea level. One of its peaks, the

Mount Everest (8,848 meters) situated at the northern border of Nepal, is

the highest peak in the world. Its other notable peaks are Kanchanjunga

(8,598 meters), Makalu (8,481 meters) Dhaula Giri (8, 172 meters) etc. 3

This range is forbidding and can be crossed only by a few passes which

too are snow bound during winter months (generally higher than 4,570

meters above sea level), for example Nathu La and Jelep La in Sikkim.4

Bhutan is a land locked country and almost entirely mountainous with

flat lands limited to the broader river valleys. With altitudes ranging from

200 m to over 7,500 m., it displays enormous physiographic and

ecological diversity.

The complex geological history of the Himalaya and the tectonic stresses

thrown up by dynamic geological process of seismicity, weathering, mass

wastage and erosion affect and modify the environment of the basin. The

central axis of these ranges consists of crystalline rocks, granites,

gneisses and metamorphosed sediments ranging in Pre- Cambrian to as

late as Miocene. To the south of this crystalline axis, occur mixed zones

of sedimentary rocks and metamorphies, which are highly folded and

faulted. The northern contact of these sedimentaries with the central axis

is well marked tectonic feature called the Main Central Thrust (MCT),

along which the crystallines are thought to have moved partially over the

sedimentary zone. Another major tectonic feature called the Main

Boundary Fault (MBF) south of the MCT and running almost along the

entire Himalayan axis from Kashmir to Assam, makes the southern

boundary of the sedimentaries and the northern margin of the Siwaliks.

The geologically young Himalaya, with its residual stresses and highly

compressed and tectonised rocks, is very susceptible to weathering and

damage by seismic activity. The problem is further compounded by the

3

4

C.B. Mamoria, Economic and Commercial Geography of India, Shiv Lal Aggaral and Company, Agra, 1992, p.4. Gopal Singh, A Geography of India, Atma Ram and Sons Publication, New Delhi, 1988, p.7.

Af\

steep slopes (300 to 400) of these mountain systems, which results in

heavy landslides and erosion. Human interference in form of various

development activities and the quest for arable lands aggravate the

geologically dynamic processes that lead to disasters and damage to

these mountain's ecosystems. Any development envisaged in the basin

has therefore, to take into account the geological hazards.s

Role of Himalaya

The Himalayas do not only shelter the Great Plains in south from the cold

winds of central Asia in winter and check the moisture laden South West

Monsoons causing rainfall in the plains in summer, but also they are

mainly responsible for the Monsoon type climate prevailing in the

subcontinent. The Himalayas acts as a natural frontier separating India,

Bhutan and Nepal from China.

The Himalayas constitutes the largest reservoir of snow and ice in the

world outside the Polar Regions. Nearly fifteen thousand Himalayan

glaciers as well as the large snow cover, estimated to be 1,400 cubic

kilometers in volume, constitute a vast water storage system. The figure

of glaciers in the Indian part of Himalaya according to an exercise taken

Geological Survey of India safely be taken as 3,000. Nepal and Bhutan

may similarly have 3, 000 glaciers. The Tibetan Himalaya also has

equally large number of glaciers, many of which drain into the

Brahmaputra, Sutlej and Indus. Around 3,500 glaciers probably drain

into Ganga basin while 611 glaciers drain into the Teesta and

Brahmaputra from southern slopes. It accumulates over the winter and

draining into many rivers and tributaries through the summer dry

season, which is matter of great significance to the economy of the plains

below.

s B.G. Vergheese and R. Ramaswary Iyer [eds.] Harnessing the Eastern Himalayan Rivers: Regional Cooperation in South Asia, Konark Publishers, New Delhi, 1993,p.ll.

50

Drainage System of the Himalaya

The Brahmaputra has its sources near Lake Mansarovar in Tibet. The

Greater Himalaya Range is bout 1,500 in higher than the level of the

source region of these rivers. It crosses the Great Himalaya through a

very deep and narrow gorge before entering India.6 According to the

geologists, the present course of the river was already in existence before

the Himalayas folded. Subsequently, as the Himalayas rose, the river cut

their beds deeper and deeper leading to the formation of the present

gorges. The rivers thus form antecedent drainage through the Himalayas.

Headwaters of many other rivers including the Bhagirathi, Alaknanda,

Karnali, Gandak, Arun Kosi, Teesta and Manas have cut deep gorges in

the Himadri on its southern slopes.

The Great Plains

The Great Plains stretch in an east west direction between the Himalayas

in the north and peninsular plateaus in the south. The Great Plains is a

depositional surface of great extent formed after the Himalayas. Their

average depth is 1,300-1,400 meters. The crescent of alluvium, from the

Ganga Brahmaputra delta in the east to the Indus delta in the west,

probably represents the infilling of a fore deep warped down between the

peninsular block and advancing Himalayas.

Rivers emerging from the Himalayas deposit their load in fans along the

foothills. These fans have merged together to form a 10-15 km wide

piedmont plain of gravel and unassorted sediments called "Bhabhar",

which forms the northern boundary of the Great Plains. 7 The Terai belt is

marked by a reemergence of the streams on the surface from the

Bhabhar belt. It is a zone of excessive dampness, with a thick growth of

6 R.L. Singh, India: A Regional Geography, UBS Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Varanasi, 1993, p.lO.

7 D.R.Khullar, India: A Comprehensive Geography, Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana, 2000, p.28.

51

forest and variety of wildlife. Terai Zone occupies about 19 percent of the

geographical area of Nepal.

The Ganges plain in upper part has gradient of about 25 em per km.,

where river bluff's, meanders, ox- bow lakes, sandy stretches and nver

channels break the monotony of the flat and featureless plain. It is

drained by tributaries like Yamuna, Ghaghra, Sarda, Gomti etc. The

Middle Ganga Plain is drained by Gandak and Kosi which flow sluggishly

to form levees, bluffs, ox bow lakes, marshes, ravines etc. Almost all the

rivers keep on shifting their course making this area prone to frequent

floods. The Kosi River is notorious in this aspect.

The Lower Ganga plain is formed by the sediments deposited by the

Teesta, Jaldhaka, Torsa and old alluvium tract of Kosi- Mahananda and

Sunkosh. The huge delta of Ganga form two third of this plain, where the

Ganga divides itself into several channels (slope of the land is mere 2 em

per km). The seaward face of the delta is studded with large number of

estuaries, mudflats, mangrove swamps, sandbanks, and islands and fore

lands. The impenetrable Sundari forest called Sunderban covers large

part of the coastal delta.

The Brahmaputra plain IS an aggradational plain built up by the

depositional works of the Brahmaputra and its tributaries. Bangladesh is

dominated by the combined delta of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and

Meghna rivers. The country is laced with numerous distributaries, tidal

creeks and spill channels. Along the South Western coast, the Sunderban

is a heavily forested swamp area with numerous low islands.8

The Aravallis, the Vindhayas, Baghelkhand and Chotanagpur plateau

and the eastern frontier hills which form the western, southern and

eastern boundaries of the basin respectively are geologically old, ranging

in the age almost from the oldest to the Tertiary. These hills except for

s A.H. Khan and S. Miah, "The Brahmaputra River Development", in Munir Zaman [ed.J River Basin Development, Tycooly International Publishing Limited, Dublin, 1983, p.89.

52

those belonging to the Tertiary system in parts of northeastern India are

tectonically for more stable as compared to the Himalaya.

Climate

The climate of the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin is characterized as

"Tropical Monsoon"; clearly indicating on it the dominant influence of the

regions tropical location and the monsoon winds. The word 'monsoon'

conveys comprehensively the rhythm of seasons and changes that occur

in direction of winds in the distribution pattern of rainfall and

temperature with the change of seasons. The Monsoon wind system and

insolation pattern divide the basins weather into hot wet summer

seasons and cool dry winter seasons.

This view of the broad unity of the Monsoon type of climate should not

however, lead us to ignore the regional variations in the climatic

characteristics of different parts of the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin.9 The

western parts by and large are hot and arid whereas the eastern areas

are warm and hot. The Monsoon significant climatic feature is the South

West Monsoon winds which bring in the bulk of rainfall from June to

September, the rainfall being heaviest in the mountains and generally

decreasing from east to the west of the basin. Winter rains, usually

caused by western depressions, decreases moving east, are only a

fraction of the total rainfall. The winters rainfall, if occurs timely are very

important for the Rabi crops in the plains. While the rainfall is more or

less evenly distributed on the both sides of the Ganga, the Brahmaputra

and the Barak basins get very heavy rainfall because of the major

depressions traversing these areas do not travel away from the basin. The

annual rainfall in the basin ranges from 1,360 to 2,760 mm (Mukteshwar

· and Darjeeling respectively) and decreases at higher altitudes where

heavy snowfall occurs during winter. The rainfall in the hilly areas of the

basin is heavy and varies from 1,300 to 5,000 mm annually with the

9 R.C. Tiwari ,Geography of India ,Prayag Pustak Bhawan, Allahabad, 2003, pp.llB-120.

53

world's highest rainfall being observed at Cherrapunji (12,500 mm) in

Meghalaya. In the plains, the annual rainfall ranges from 350 mm

(western plains) to 2,210 mm in the eastern plains and the deltaic area.

The climate in Bangladesh is tropical and wet to extremely wet. The

period from November to February is usually dry and cool. The rainfall

varies from 1,200 to 6,500 mm, the maximum rainfall being recorded in

the coastal areas of Chittagong and the northern parts of the country.

The rainfall distribution patterns are uneven and erratic, the bulk of

rainfall (80 per cent) being received in the Monsoon months from June to

October. Cyclones coming from the Bay of Bengal bring torrential rain,

frequently followed by tidal waves that cause severe damage in the

coastal regions.

There is great seasonal variability in the total amount of rainfall and its

areal distribution in the basin. Consequently, some areas in the basin

suffer from severe drought in the dry months, while floods inundate large

area during the monsoon season.

The heavy rainfall and the instability of the geologically young Himalayan

foothills result in a high level of erosion and frequent landslides in

Northern India, Nepal and Bhutan. Thus, the robust rainfall that makes

the Himalaya such a rich source of hydroelectric energy also causes

severe problem of sedimentation. The rivers carry huge amounts of

sediment from the mountains towards the sea causing siltation and

sedimentation related problems. However, erosion is the combined effect

of rainfall quantity and intensity, soil gradient and type, plant coverage,

agricultural and livestock practices and resource extraction policies. 10

JO D.A.Eaton and M.C. Chaturvedi , Water Resources Challenges in the Ganges Brahmaputra River Basin, Lyndon. B. Johnson School Publication, Austin, 1993, p.2.

54

Drainage

The Ganga- Brahmaputra basin with an annual average run-off of over

1.25 BCM is formed of two large river systems i.e., Ganga and

Brahmaputra river system and a relatively smaller river system i.e.

Meghna.

The Ganga System

The Ganga, the master stream of the system, is formed by two head

streams namely Alaknanda and Bhagirathi, they meat at Devprayag. The

Alaknanda rises near the Garhwal-Tibet border at an elevation of 7,800m

and Bhagirathi has its source at Gangotri Glacier, at an elevation of

about 6,600m. The Ganga enters the Great Plains at Haridwar from

where it flows towards south and southeast to Allahabad. Between

Allahabad and the Bihar West Bengal border, the course is roughly from

west to east and from there onwards towards south. 11 The Ganga is

joined by a number of tributaries on the right and left banks. The

Yamuna and the Son are the important right bank tributaries. The

Ghaghra (Karnali in Nepal), the Gandak and the Kosi, which flow from

the Nepal, form left bank tributaries and contribute a significant part of

the flows of the Ganga particularly in the dry season.

After its confluence, the Ganga continues its eastward flow in Bihar for

another 40 km and as it enters West Bengal it swings around the

Rajmahal hill range. From about 16 km below Farakka, it forms the

common boundary between India and Bangladesh for about 100 krn.

Downstream of Farakka the river divides into two arms, one flows

eastward into Bangladesh as the Padma (Ganges) and other flows

southwest becomes the Hooghly. The river then flows eastwards inside

Bangladesh and Joms the Brahmaputra at Goalundo.

Bhagirathi/ Hooghly takes off India about 40 km below Farakka while the

u T.C. Sharma and 0. Cautinho, Economic and Commercial Geography of India, Vikash Publishing House Pvt. Ltd, 1983, p.l6.

55

Map 1

LEGEND --·-- International Bound1ry

o Country Clpltll ® State Clpltal ~River ,_ Like

• 0

Dams Barrages Proposed Barrages

THE GANGA BRAHMAPUTRA BASIN

K. G. . 1 Kill Galldakl SIPI• K. 1 Septa Ko•l Old 8r~llm. ~ Old Brlllll\lpulra

0 I

SCALE

'?0 " ....... .

N A

100 I

Gorai, the Arial Khan, the Kumar, and the Mathabhanga are other

important distributaries in Bangladesh. The combined flow of the Ganges

and the Brahmaputra continues under the name of Padma till it joins the

Meghna near Chandpur.

The drainage area of the Ganga/Ganges system is l,OOO,OOOsq km of

which 861,000sq km lies in India, 140,000sq km in Nepal and 46,000sq

km in Bangladesh with the balance lying in Tibet.l2 The length of the

river from the source to the sea along the Bhagirathi-Hooghly route in

India is about 2,525 km. The distance from the source to Goalundo is

about 2,528 km. The average annual flow in the river as recorded at

Farakka in India in around 380 BCM and as recorded at Hardinge Bridge

in Bangladesh around 383 BCM. The culturalable area in the

Ganga/Ganges basin is estimated to be about 65.5 million hectare of

which 60.2 mha is in India.

The Brahmaputra System

The Brahmaputra rises in the Great Glacier in the Kailash range of

the Himalaya, at about 5,150 in the Tibet region of China and 1s

locally named the Tsangpo. It flows eastward through southern Tibet

for some 1, 700 km, generally parallel to the ma1n range of the

Himalaya and in joined by many tributaries. It emerges at the

foothills in Arunachal Pradesh in India under the names of Siang and

Dihang. The Dibang and the Lohit join the river near Sadiya town and

thereafter it is known as the Brahmaputra.

During its course, the Brahmaputra River is joined by many tributaries

both from the north and the south. The major northern tributaries are

the. Subansiri, the Kameng, the Dhansiri, the Manas, the Champamati

and the Sunkosh. The principal southern tributaries are the Noa Dihing,

the Buri Dihing, the Disang, the Dhansiri and the Kopili. Throughout its

12 K.D. Adhikary et. al. [eds.J Cooperation on the Eastern Himalayan Rivers, Opportunities and Challenges, Konark Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2000, pp.2-5.

56

course in India, the Brahmaputra has wide braided channel (up to 18

km. in the widest stretch).

After swinging around the spurs of the Garo hills near Goalpara, the river

enters Bangladesh and flows southwesterly for another 270 km until it

joins the Ganges at Goalundo. Many tributaries join the Brahmaputra in

this reach, of which the major ones are the Dudhkumar, Dharla and the

Teesta. Below the confluence of the Teesta the old channel of the

Brahmaputra branches off the left bank. From here to Goalundo the river

is called the Jamuna. The joint stream of the Brahmaputra and the

Ganges beyond Goalundo continues to flow southeast under the name of

the Padma. The Padma is joined by the Meghna River on the left at

Chandpur, 105 km. below Goalundo.

The length of Brahmaputra River from its source in Tibet to Goalundo is

about 2,817 km., of which 1,625 km lies in Tibet, 918 km. in India and

the balance in Bangladesh. The total drainage area of the river is 580,000

sq. km., of which 293,000 sq.km. is in Tibet, 195,000 sq. km. in India,

45,000 sq. km. in Bhutan and 47,000 sq. km. in Bangladesh. The

average annual flow recorded at Bahadurabad (in Bangladesh) is around

620 BCM.

The estimated culturable area in the Brahmaputra basin is around 9.3

million ha, mostly in India and Bangladesh. The estimated present

population ( 1996) in the Brahmaputra basin is around 82 million, with

more than half living in Bangladesh.

The Meghna

The Barak River, which rises in the hills of Manipur state in India at an

elevation of 2,900m, forms the headstream of the Meghna. It flows south,

winding its way through the hills for 250 km before it takes a sharp turn

at Tipaimukh and flows north. At Lakhipur it emerges into the plains and

starts flowing west, in a meandering course. The Barak bifurcates into

the Surma and the Kushiyara near. the Indo-Bangladesh border and both

57

enter Bangladesh. The Surma flows along northern Sylhet and is joined

by a number of tributaries from the hills. The Kushiyara receives the

waters of the north flowing tributaries like the Singla, the Langai, the

Manu, and the Khowai.

The Surma and the Kushiyara join at Markuli after which the united

stream is called the Kalni, which flows in a southerly direction. Near

Kuliarchar, the Kalni receives waters of Ghorautia (which carries the

flows of the Someswari, the Kangsa, the Baulai and the Mogra) and

thereafter the river is called the Meghna. From there the Meghna flows

southwest to meet the Padma (which carries the combined flows of the

Brahmaputra and the Ganges) at Chandpur. The Meghna is joined by

Titas and the Gumti join from the right, and the Lakhya and Buriganga

from the left, between the stretch of Kuliarchar and Chandpur. Below

Chandpur the combined river is known as the lower Meghna and it soon

forms wide and deep estuary. The Lower Meghna enters the Bay of

Bengal through four principal mouths, the Tetulia, the Shahbazpur, the

Hatia and the Bamni.

The Meghna from its source flows for about 900 km up to Chandpur, of

which the first 564 km. lie in India and the rest in Bangladesh. The

distance between Chandpur and the sea is about 130 km.l3 The total

drainage area of the Meghna is 85,000 sq. km., of which 49,000 sq. km.

lie in India and 36,000 sq. km. in Bangladesh. The average annual

discharge of the Meghna (at Bhairab Bazar) upstream of its confluence

with the Padma is around 150 BCM.

The culturable area in the Meghna basin is estimated to be 4 million ha,

laying in India and Bangladesh. The population figures in 1996 was

about 49 million people; the majority of which are in Bangladesh.

13 Ibid.

58

Water Resources

Detailed hydrological data for the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin regwn 1s

not available in published from. However, the picture of the water

resource potential in available in general terms.

The average annual flow in the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin is estimated to

be around 1350 billion Cubic metres (BCM). The Ganga accounts for

about 500 BCM, the Brahmaputra for 700 BCM and the Meghna for 150

BCM. The combined run off in the tributaries of the Ganga as they cross

into India is assessed at around 225 BCM, the remaining run off in the

river being largely added in India. The average flow in Brahmaputra

system contributed by Tibet (China) and India is around 630 BCM; the

rest balance comes from Bhutan and Bangladesh.l4

Compared to an annual average water availability of 269,000 cubic

metres per square kilometer of the world the availability in the GBM

region is 771,400 cubic metres per square kilometer - which is nearly

three times the world average.

Nepal covers the large part of the upper catchment of north Ganga basin.

It is estimated that its total average annual runoff is about 200 cu.km.

out of which about 170 cu. km. originates within the country itself.

The three Trans Himalayan tributaries (the Karnali, Sapt Gandaki and

Sapt Kosi from Nepal) contribute about 71 percent of the natural and

historic any season flows and 41 per cent of the total annual flow of the

Ganges. 1s

The Bangladesh National water plan (1988) estimates that 90 percent of

the. country's total stream flow originates in the upper Ganga-

14 B.G. Verghese and R. Rangachari "Making Water Work to Translate Poverty into Prosperity: The Ganga Brahmaputra Barak Region", in Q.K. Ahmad et. al (eds.) Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna Region; A Framework for Sustainable Development, University Press Limited, Dhaka, 2001, p.83.

1s G.R. Chaudhary and T.A. Khan "Developing Ganges Basin", in Zaman Munir [ed.] River Basin Development, Tycoolly Publishing Limited, Dublin, 1983, p.31.

59

Brahmaputra basin. Each day, approximately 3,400 m cu mt. of water is

discharged into the Bay of Bengal, which is about 3. 9 times the average

daily rainfall over Bangladesh.

The groundwater potential of India has been assessed on 171 BCM in the

Ganges sub system and 26 BCM in the Brahmaputra sub system. The

South Asian Regional Vision Document estimates the economically

exploitable groundwater in Nepal as 13 BCM. Similar estimates for

Bangladesh put the annual recharge at 21 BCM.

Another set of data on water resource of the Ganga Brahmaputra

countries is provided by Shahjahan ( 1983), based on studies by National

Commission on Agriculture (India), H.N.M. Shrestha (Nepal) and,

Bangladesh Water development Board.

INDIA

Surface Water: According to the National Commission of Agriculture the

average annual flow of the Ganges is 51 Mham and for Brahmaputra and

Barak is 54 Mham (based on annual normal rainfall and main annual

rainfall).

The commission also views that usable water resources is substantially

less than the total availability in the rivers, due to limitation of

topography, physiography, geology, dependability and quality.

Ground Water: The groundwater potential of the Ganges basin has been

estimated at 26 M ha m, of which 60% is usable. The Brahmaputra

Barak basin has a potential of 1.59 M ham.

BANGLADESH

Surface Water: There are about 300 major rivers creeks and canals in

Bangladesh forming a network together with the three large rivers of the

Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna. The average annual flow of

60

Brahmaputra (at Bahadurabad) is 507.4 MAF, of Meghna (at Bhairab

Bazaar) in 116.2 MAF, and of Ganges (at Hardinge Bridge) is 275.7 MAF.

Ground Water: Investigations of the major hydro-geological regions show

that groundwater is available for irrigation and agriculture in an area

covering some 13.85 million acres. The average available groundwater for

extraction in the lean period of November to April has been calculated at

about 9 MAF.I6

NEPAL

Surface Water: Nepal has more than 6,000 rivers with a total length of

45,000 km and an average approximate density of 0.3 kilometer per

square kilometer. The four main river systems of Nepal and their

discharge date are as following Mahakali (6,861 m3.fs), Karnali (1,333

m3js), Sapt Kosi (1,540 m3/s), Narayani (1,572 m3/s). About 27 percent

of the catchment area of Nepal's rivers lies in Nepal and only 10 percent

of the surface run off is available from Tibetan side.

Ground Water: In Nepal much of the Terai region and some parts of the

Siwaliks valley region have significant groundwater resources, which are

estimated to be 1.2 million hectare, of which 0.8 million hectare are

rechargeable. Utilization of groundwater in Nepal is about 8 percent. 17

Whatever be the exact figures, the total surface and ground water

resources of the region are adequate to meet all reasonable needs.

Water Resource Development Issues

The Ganga-Brahmaputra basin is a water rich reg10n. It is the single

most important natural resource of the basin countries. The development

of water resource can ensure social and economic development of the

16 M. Shahjahan, "Regional Cooperation in the Utilization of Water Resources of the Himalayan Rivers", in Munir Zaman (ed.) River Basin Development, Tycoolly International Publication Ltd., Dublin, 1983, p.118.

17 Water Based Integrated Development .of the GBM Region, Institute of Integrated Development Studies, Kathmandu, 2000, p.22.

61

region by meeting the growing demands of food, energy and water supply

for industry and households. IS

Water is abundant during the monsoon but scarce during the dry season.

The basin has a monthly surface run off of approximately 10 billion cubic

meters for about eight months of the year. During the four months of

monsoon, average monthly run off is 110 billion cubic meters. This

tremendous disparity in the seasonal extremes, coupled with burgeoning

needs for irrigation and development, has made apportionment of lean

season flows essential.

Dry winter season and unreliable rainfall (even during the monsoons

months) make irrigation essential for modern agricultural development

and ensuring food security. Large-scale development of modern irrigation

projects in the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin started in the last century,

based on canal irrigation and ground water utilization. The gestation

period of the irrigation projects was unduly prolonged, utilization has

been slow, most importantly, and neither croppmg intensity nor

productivity gains have matched expectations. 19 . Floods on the Ganges and Brahmaputra take colossal proportions in both

India and Bangladesh. In India, the combined effects of prolonged and

intense rainfall and sleep, well developed, drainage networks in the

Himalayan foothills make low land flooding an annual routine event. 20

The two third area of Bangladesh is flood prone. In exceptionally severe

yeas, half of the country of Bangladesh is inundated. Annual average

flood damage to Bangladesh is estimated at 945 million dollars, but in an

impoverished country even a figure that large understates the hardships.

1s S.K. Malia , Three Country Study on Water Resources Development of the Ganga­Brahmaputra Barak River Basins, Nepal Country Report, IIDS Publication, Kathmandu, Nepal, 1993, p.3.

19 B. G. Verghese , Waters of Hope, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1990, p.96.

20 R. Kettleman "Conflict and Cooperation over the Floods in the Himalayan - Ganges Region" Water International, 15, 1990, p.190.

Loss of life, disruption of communication and other social consequences

often cannot be measured in terms of money.

Because of the fragility of the mountains and the severity of the

monsoons, the Ganges Brahmaputra washes huge amounts of sediments

into the river each rainy season. The high level of sediment in water

affects both the basins agriculture and its industry. Siltation has affected

the navigation in India as well as Bangladesh. In Bangladesh continued

siltation has gradually changed the topography of flood plains and

drainage conditions.21

Vast opportunities lie m the generation of hydroelectric energy, which

can transform the economic scenario of the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin.

The rivers originating in Himalayan and sub Himalayan ranges with

steep topographical slopes and almost year around availability of the

flows has a tremendous hydropower potential. Although there are varying

estimates generally accepted figures are that India has 45, 635 MW,

Nepal has 83,000 MW and Bhutan has 21,000 MW estimated potential of

HEP. The potential developed so far is meager (5%) as compared to

hydropower potential in the basin region is concerned.22 Major causes

are lack of cooperation among nations, politicization of the water

resource development and management aspects, prolonged negotiations,

disagreements on the location of dams, reservoir safety, resettlement and

rehabilitation issues, environmental concerns, cost and benefits sharing,

etc.

Water quality has witnessed progressive deterioration due to growing

urbanization and industrialization. The increased use. of agrochemicals,

21 A.T.M. Huda Shamshul, Constraints and Opportunities for Cooperation Towards Development of Water Resources in the Ganges Basin, in A.K. Biswas and I.J. Uitto [eds.] Sustainable Development of the Ganges Brahmaputra Basins, United Nation University Press, Tokyo, 2000, p.48.

22 R.B. Shah, "Ganges Brahmaputra: The Outlook for the Twenty First Century", in A.K. Biswas and I.J.Uitto [eds.] Sustainable Development of Ganga Brahmaputra MeghnaBasin", United Nation University Press, Tokyo, 2000, p.23 ..

63

discharge of untreated domestic sewage, poor sanitation facilities have

aggravated the problem of water pollution.

The optimum utilization of the water resource, effective management

to meet the multisectoral uses, enhancing the efficiency of water

utilization, technological modernization, checking pollution and inter

countries cooperation are the major issues for the water resource

development in the basin region.

Social and Economic Geography of the Basin

Population

The Ganga-Brahmaputra basin accounts for about 10 percent of

the world population, which contains only 1.2 percent of the

worlds land mass. The total population of the basin has reached a

level of about 600 million by 1999, of which the share of India is

76 per cent, while the corresponding figure of Bangladesh and

Nepal are 21 percent and 3.5 per cent respectively. The total

population figures [year 1998] for the different countries are,

India- 987 million, Bangladesh -128 million, Nepal- 24 million and

Bhutan- 1. 7 million.

The fertile alluvial soil m the plains, warm climate, good rainfall,

numerous small and large rivers and easy agricultural production

attracted people from different areas and the region become one of most

densely populated parts of the world, particularly in the plains. The

density of population is highest in the plains, especially in Bangladesh

7 40 per sq.km ( 1991 figures) and the adjacent Indian states of West

Bengal (904 per sq. km), Bihar (880 per sq. km) and Uttar Pradesh 689

persons per sq. km [2001 figures]. The population density is significantly

low in the hills of Uttaranchal, North Eastern states of India, Nepal and

Bhutan. The growth of population has caused expansion of agriculture by

cleaning the remaining forest in the hills to cultivate and build new

habitats. As a consequence the region has been losing,ecological balance,

64

and massive deforestation has been aggravating soil erosion, siltation

and flash floods.23

The population of the region has doubled during the last 30 years. The

population growth rates figure for 1995-2000 periods of India,

Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan are 1.8, 2.2, 2.5 and 2.4 percent

respectively. Despite some moderate reductions in fertility and mortality

levels, both remain unacceptably high. There is tremendous growth

potential as about half of the population is below 15 years of age and the

Net Reproduction Rate (NRR) is between 1.5 to 2.0 (1991 figures). If the

population of the region continues to grow at the present rate, it may

double again in another 35 to 40 years. The Crude Birth Rate (per 1000)

still remains high for all countries of the basin; the 1991 figures for India,

Nepal and Bangladesh are 27.5, 29.6, and 31.60 respectively. The

demographic figures reflect the socio-economic situation of the basin

where all the riparian countries still belong to second stage of

demographic transition characterized by subsistence agrarian economy.24

Poverty

The Ganga-Brahmaputra basin is characterized by endemic poverty -

being home to about 40 percent of the total number of poor people

residing in the developing world. In the region, 60 to 70 percent of the

population depends on agriculture for employment, which 1s

characterized by limited scope of expansion and seasonality. Unskilled

agricultural labour receives low wage, which is inadequate to meet the

basic needs. The factors that lead to poverty in the region are low

productivity, substantial unemployment and under unemployment, low

wages and inadequate access to income generating opportunities. The

poverty in the region manifest itself in low per capita income leading to

23 B.G. Verghese et.al. [eds.] Converting Water into Wealth, Konark Publishers Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 1997, p.3.

24 Majid Husain ,Human Geography, Rawat Publication, Jaipur, 2002, p.l28.

inadequate calorie intake, high incidence of diseases and short life

expectancy.

The Ganga-Brahmaputra basin is inhabited by about two fifth of the

developing world's poor people with a daily calorie intake of less than

2,200-2,400 Kcal. The critically vulnerable groups affected by poverty

are the landless and marginal farmers, disabled persons, and destitute

with no access to economic activities, rural non-farm workers, urban

slum dwellers and rapidly increasing female leaded rural households. 25

In India there has been significantly decline in poverty. In 1983,37

percent population was living below poverty line, in 1999-2000 the figure

declined to 26.10 percent, however, there is considerable regional

variation. The population living below poverty line in Bihar, Assam,

Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh is 42.60 percent, 36.09 percent, 37.43

percent and 31.05 percent respectively, which is much higher than

national average. The incidence of poverty is higher in rural areas than in

urban areas.

Nepal planning commiSSion estimated in 1984 that 42 percent of the

population had incomes below the poverty line 95 percent of the poor

lived in rural areas of whom 82 percent were agricultural labourers of self

employed.

The per capita GNP for India, Bangladesh and Nepal is (as of 1998) 430

US dollar, 350 US dollar and 210 US dollar respectively; the

corresponding global average is 4,890 US dollar.

Literacy: The adult literacy has improved in recent decades. For male

the adult literacy rate for India, Bangladesh and Nepal are 67 per cent,

50 per cent and 56 per cent respectively. But female literacy is still very

low in all the countries 39 per cent, 27 per cent and 21 per cent percent

respectively.

2s Q.K. Ahmad, Nilufer Ahmad and K.B.S. Rasheed (eds.) Resources Environment and Development in Bangladesh, Academic Publishers, Dhaka, 1994, p.14.

66

Health: The indicators of health present a dismal picture. In India,

Bangladesh and Nepal annual average expenditures on health (as percent

of GOP during 1990-97) were only 0.7, 1.2 and 1.2 respectively. Whereas

the global average is 2.5 percent; and for the high income or developed

countries it is about 6 percent. In riparian countries of the Ganga­

Brahmaputra basin health care systems are inefficient and grossly

inadequate. The Infant and Child Mortality Rates are much higher than

of other developing countries. The Infant Mortality Rate (per 1,000 live

births) [ 1997 figures] for India, Bangladesh and Nepal are 71, 75 and 83

respectively. Large section of the population in these countries doesn't

. have access to safe drinking water. In 1995, only 29 percent, 35 percent

and 20 percent population of the total population ( 1995) of India,

Bangladesh and Nepal had access to sanitation facilities. The situation is

much worse in the rural areas. The poor sanitation facility has affect on

health situation and water quality available in the region, and there is

wise incidence of water borne diseases especially among children. As a

whole, wide gender disparity is visible in all the social indicators in the

riparian countries of the basin.

Urbanisation: The countries of the Ganga- Brahmaputra basin have

witnessed very low level of urbanisation and remain largely rural in

nature. In India the urban population accounts for 27 percent of total

population, for Nepal and Bangladesh the figures are 14 percent and 20

percent respectively. Large scale regional disparity occurs in different

parts of the basin where few cities/metros have grown as big in migration

centers from rural hinterland. In Bangladesh, India and Nepal annual

urban growth rates are 5.2, 3.0 and 6.5 percent respectively (1995-2000).

These rates are much higher than those of Europe (0.5 percent), Latin

America (2.3 ·percent), Australia (1.2 percent), USA and Canada (1.2

percent).

High rural-urban migration is the major cause for rapid urbanization in

the basin countries. An important aspect in rural-urban migration is the

push factor that is increasing pressure of population in the rural areas

67

and the consequent poverty of the people.26 The push migrants from

landless or marginal households, who are unable to find employment in

the labour surplus agriculture sector, and have no or poor access to land

and other productive assess, are forced to move out their villages. In the

urban areas, significant numbers of rural migrants live in slums, having

little access to sanitation, safe water, health, education and other basic

needs. The provision of basic amenities such as piped water supply,

sewerage, drainage, electricity to the slum dwellers and the fringe villages

poses a major problem to the city administration. The slums have high

population density, per room occupancy and high incidence of health

problems. The rural migrants are mostly young males and urban

populations have disproportionate male-female ratios.

Agriculture in the Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin

Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy of the Ganga-Brahmaputra

basin region countries. It provides employment to the 66 percent of the

labour force in India, 75 percent in Bangladesh and 90 percent in Nepal

(1987-88). The self-employed agriculture is usually subsistence in

nature.

The rising population pressure on land has led to decline in the per

capita arable land. Nearly 45 percent of the basin region is arable but per

capita availability of land in India, Bangladesh and Nepal are 0.17, 0.07

and 0.13 respectively (1994-96 figures). The potential for extending the

arable area under cultivation had already been over exploited.

In India the agriculture sector, provides livelihood to about 64 percent of

the labour force and attributes nearly 26 percent of the Gross Domestic

Product.27 Besides low per capita land availability, fragmentation of the

land is a serious problem, which adversely affects the farm production.

26 R. Ramchandran, Urbanization and Urban System in India, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1989, p.92.

27 India 2002: A Reference Manual, Publication Division, Ministry of Information and broadcasting, New Delhi, 2002, p.373.

68

The average operational holding has decreased from 2.1 hectare in 1960-

1 to 1.3 hectare in 1991-92. The number of marginal holdings (less than

one hectare) grew up from 22 to 56 million, constituting 48.3 percent of

all land holdings in 1991-92. The Land Reforms programme initiated

which included ceiling on land ownership, consolidation of lands,

redistribution of lands, etc. has not been effectively implemented.

Besides, the lack of credit, economic assets and irrigation facilities has

affected the agriculture output.

Nepal has sluggish and mainly subsistence oriented agriculture. Still,

agriculture is the single largest sector with reference to income and

employment though its share in GNP has declined from 70 percent 1974

to around 50 percent or less yet it remains the source of livelihood for

bulk of the population. The country's cultivable area of 2.6 million

hectare accounts for no more than a fifth of its total land area. In

irrigation the area that has some infrastructure developed is 1. 06 million

hectare, which is 60 per cent of the potential irrigable agricultural land

and 33 per cent of the total potential agricultural land. The land

distribution is showed. 28 Two third of all households owns less than a

hectare of land and 10 percent is landless. The agricultural productivity

is low and increases in production have mostly come from expansion of

acreage. Due to rapid growth of population, Nepal has a food deficit since

1983, cereal output in 1996-97 being a little less than four million tones.

In Bangladesh, the contribution of agriculture to the GDP had declined to

32.4 percent by 1997; still agriculture continues to be the largest

provider of employment. The agriculture in Bangladesh is troubled by

declining cultivated area due to increasing urbanization and diversion of

land to non-agricultural uses. Though the population growth rate has

come down, per capita food grain production and consumption have

remained stagnant since 1980-81.

2s Nepal Water Partnership, Frame Work for Action: Achie.lling Nepal Water Vision, 2025, JVS Publication, December 1999, p. 1.

69

The technological transformation is the key factor for agricultural

transformation in Ganges-Brahmaputra basin. The riparian countries

have been using modern technology such as irrigation, HYV seeds,

chemical fertilizers and pesticides since the late 1960's but the

application of this technology has not been uniform in all parts of the

region. The major constraints facing the application of technology have

been limited access to irrigation, fertilizers and credit facilities, an

efficient distribution system and extension services. Besides there is a

need to promote agro based industry and inter-regional marketing of

products.

There must be an acceleration in industrial and service sector growth to

reduce dependence on land, absorb surplus rural and urban labour and

raise labour productivity.

Energy

The countries of Ganga-Brahmaputra basin have a very low dependence

on and utilization of commercial energy. The per capita commercial

energy consumption figures in India, Bangladesh and Nepal are 4 76,

197and 320 Kgoe (Kilogram of oil equivalent) respectively. Per capita

energy use in the world is about 1,680 Kgoe on an average while it is

around 5,340 Kgoe for high-income countries. The low energy

consumption is not due low actual demand. Instead commercial energy

supply is very limited and subject to shortages. The biomass is the major

source of energy not only in the rural areas but also for urban poor .The

consumption of biomass - wood fuel in the industrial sector is also

substantial.29 The dependence on biomass is causing deforestation and

other adverse environmental impacts in the region.

Despite the poor socio economic situation of the Ganga-Brahmaputra

region the hope lies in the natural endowments of water, land and

29 H.M. Shrestha, "Energy as a Security Issue" in S.U. Khatri (ed.] Energy Policy and Regional Implication, NEFAS Publication, Kathmandu, 2002, p.90.

70

energy. The abundance of water resource in the region can become the

engine of growth for the millions of the people living in the region. The

shared river system if optimally utilized through collaborative efforts can

enhance the quality of life though human development and

environmental sustainability and economic growth. The cooperative

efforts of riparian countries for integrated development and management

of resources, though, have been impeded due to political factors.

Table: GBM Region: Socio-economic Indicators

Indicator Bangladesh India Nepal

Population (million) 1998 128 987 24

Annual population growth rate: 1995-2000(%) 1.9 1.8 2.5

Infant mortality rate (per 1,000 lie births) 1997 75 71 83

Under-5 mortality rate (per 1,000 live births) 1997 104 88 117

Maternal mortality rate (per 100,000 live births) 850 437 1,500

1990-97

Access to safe water (% of population) 1995 84 85 59

Access to sanitation (% of population) 1995 35 29 20

Adult literacy rate(% of people 15 & above) 1997 50(M) 27(F) 67(M) 39(F) 56(M) 2l(F)

Female (as % of labour force) 1998 42 32 40

Arable land (hectare per capita) 1994-96 0.07 0.17 0.13

Per capita commercial energy use: annual (Kgoe) 197 476 320

1996

Per capita electricity consumption (KWH\h) 1996 97 347 39

Population below national poverty line (%), early 48 37 43

1990s

Per Capita GNP (US$) 1998 350 430 210

Notes: Kgoe = Kilogram of oil equivalent, KWh = Kilowatt hours

71

Political Geography of The Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin

The Ganga-Brahmaputra basin is part of South Asia, which forms a

geopolitical system having its own characteristics. 30 The South Asian sub

continent includes India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Pakistan (also

called countries of the Himalayan block. 31 These countries were part of

the British Indian Empire till recently. Hence, for almost a century, their

political system, economy, foreign policy and defence were treated as a

composite unit.

The political geography of South Asia changed radically m 194 7 when

after two centuries of colonial administration; the British were forced to

relinquish their control over the Indian sub continent. The region

witnessed emergence of two states India and Pakistan and few decades

later Bangladesh. The colonial legacies of unresolved boundary dispute,

the division of British India into India and Pakistan in 194 7 without

much regard for the geography and integrity of the major river basins,

followed by the breakup of Pakistan and emergence of. Bangladesh as

sovereign state in 1971, these geopolitical development in the post world

war II era lies at heat of hydropolitics in the Ganges Brahmaputra basin.

Bangladesh and India are runned by democratically elected governments

while Pakistan experiments with democracy have been difficult one.

Bhutan remains a constitutional monarchy while Nepal is gradually

making a turbulent transition from monarchy to democracy. These

riparian states are the members of International Organizations like

United Nations, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.

The South Asian countries have also formed a regional organization,

South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) in 1985 with a

permanent secretariat at Kathmandu.

30 K.R. Singh, "Cooperation for Security", in M.S. Agwani et. al. (eds.) South Asia: Stability and Regional Cooperation, Centre for Research in Rural and Industrial Development, Chandigarh, 1983, p.77.

31 The World Bank, M.A.S. Salman and S. Uprety, Conflict and Cooperation on South Asia's International Rivers, The World Bank Publication, Washington D.C., 2002, p.S.

72

India, the biggest country in terms of size and population in the region,

had remained the worlds largest democracy from the beginning of its

independence and regular elections have been held in the country to

chose the Central and State (Provincial) governments. Despite the

immense diversity, the central administrations have so far managed to

keep the country together, although separatist movements have on many

occasions threatened India's territorial integrity.32

Due to the pre-independence partition, independent India had lost a

sizeable chunk of its most fertile irrigated land in Indus and Ganges

basin to the newly created state of Pakistan, at both the western and

eastern ends of its border.

The Indus Treaty

The Indus basin is located in the Northwest of India and Pakistan and is

one of the most important rivers in the world. In 194 7 the line of partition

cut across the Indus system, leaving India upstream and the Pakistan

the downstream riparian on five of the six rivers in the Indus system.

After partition, Pakistan got 18 million acres of irrigated land for

population of 22 million in the area around Indus, where India received 5

million acres of irrigated land for the population of 20 million. India had

large areas that needed irrigation facilities, thus it claimed the right to

devote to its own use the waters from Indus system. An understanding

on water sharing between the two new countries was clearly necessary.

After prolonged talks between the two governments and the mediation

offered by good offices of the World Bank two countries signed Indus

Treaty in 1960.

According to the Treaty, the three western nvers Jhelum, the Chenab

and the Indus were allocated to Pakistan, and the three eastern rivers

(Ravi, Beas and the Sutlej) were allocated to India. Certain restrictions

32 R.P. Koirala, SAARC Nepal's Role in Collective Utilisation of Its Water Resources, The Team publication, Kathmandu 1990, p.l4.

73

Map 2 'fhc Indus River Basin

74"· 78• 82 ..

CHINA 36"

36'

AFGHANISTAN

32' lJ2•

INDIA

NEPAL

INDUS RIVER BASIN

o SELEGED CITIES

® NATIONAl CAPITALS

0 I 00 200 :.JOO 400 Kilomolcn I I I I I

74"

were placed on India as the upper npanan. On the nvers allocated to

Pakistan, India was not allowed to build storages, except to a limited

extent. Restrictions were also imposed on the irrigation development in

India. On Pakistan, the lower riparian, there were some· relatively less

significant restrictions. 33

The treaty also provided for permanent institutional mechanism in form

of Indus Water Commission to serve as regular channel of

communication on all matters relating to the implementation of the

Treaty. There was to be a commissioner each for India and Pakistan, and

there were to be periodical meetings and exchanges of visits. The treaty

has been working reasonably well despite a difficult political relationship

between the two countries. Interestingly, the treaty solved the water­

sharing problem between the two countries, when the diplomacy has

failed to solve the contentious issue such as Kashmir. 34The treaty was

not abrogated even during the two Indo - Pakistan wars. Differences do

arise from time to time, but these usually get resolved within the

framework of the Treaty. At present there is an unresolved dispute

regarding Tulbul Navigation Project, which is being resolved through

inter -governmental talks.

India: Post Independence Water Resource Development

The new government under Jawaharlal Nehru, facing a severe food

scarcity and massive post partition migration, almost immediately

launched a grand scheme of large-scale surface water development to

increase the agricultural production. The initial spectacular success m

the agricultural sector inspired the Indian leadership to reorient India's

development strategy towards one overriding and widely accepted

national goal: maximizing self reliance. India carried out rapid expansion

of industrial and agricultural infrastructures, which laid emphasis on

33 Ramaswamy R. lyer, "Conflict Resolution: Three River treaties," Economic and Political Weekly, June 12, 1999,p. 1509.

34 Sangeeta Thapliyal, "Water and Conflict: The South Asian Scenario," Strategic Analysis, October 1996,p.1041.

74

heavy industry and maximized food gram production. The energy

requirements of this rapid industrialization doubled government efforts

toward large-scale surface water development projects. These projects

were also visualized as the symbol of national of unity and prestige as

well as the harbinger of future development.35

The Ganges- Brahmaputra basin has also a sub national level of political

angle in India. The Ganges flows through states like Uttaranchal, Uttar

Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal. The centrally administered territory of

Delhi also lies within the Ganges basin. The Brahmaputra basin on the

other land, covers portions of territories of eight North Eastern Indian

states. As India has a democratic and federal political system, state level

jurisdiction over all the water projects and water allocations, conflicting

needs and interests of the different set up have to be reconciled before

any international agreement with the neighbouring countries can be

arrived at or ratified. On some occasion the centre has been successful in

dissuading the states from implementing water projects which could

harm the Indian neighbours, on other occasions like The Ganges Treaty

1996, West Bengal cooperated with the Centre, though the state's

interest was going to be affected most seriously by the Treaty.36 The

Centre and state cooperation over water in India also depends on the

relationship between the political parties in power at the two levels of

administration, at any point of time. The ups and downs of Centre and

state relations in India continue to have substantial impact on

transboundary water management m the basin. India carried out

massive irrigation schemes in post-Independence period without much

concerns over social and environmental impact of the projects. However,

m recent years, the concerns of domestic and international

environmental movements and Non- Governmental Organizations have

also be taken into account and reconciled before large water projects can

35 Leif Ohlsson, Hydropolitics: Conflicts Over Water as a Development Constraint, University Press Limited, Dhaka, 1996, pp.124-125.

36 Frontline, Delhi, April 4 1997, p. 17.

be launched and completed as in the case of Sardar Sarovar Project,

Silent Valley Project etc.

The domestic politics of Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan add further

complications to the basin hydropolitics. Bangladesh emerged as a

sovereign and secular state in 1971. There was an apparent help of India

in freedom of Bangladesh.37 Bangladesh went through one party rule and

a series of military coups installing General Zia as President, who in 1977

declared the country to be an Islamic state.38 The defiant attitude of new

regime towards India led to further deterioration in Bangladesh-India

relations, which were already strained by the assassination of the first

and allegedly pro- Indian leader of Bangladesh. Bangladesh entered a

decade of political turmoil, which also adversely affected its relations ·with

India.

Many factions in Bangladesh continue to suspect India of hegemonic

ambitions in South Asia, and different political groups in Bangladesh

continue to exploit any dispute with their powerful neighbour to create

domestic upheaval and gain political leverage with the ruling party. The

water issue indeed constitutes one of the recurrent themes in domestic

politics of Bangladesh. The foreign policy experts in Dhaka feel that the

people of Bangladesh realised since the early days of Independence that

New Delhi was determined to capitalise on Bangladesh's geopolitically

"India locked" situation to do everything to compound the vulnerability of

their country.39 Bangladesh abject poverty, its near total dependence on

waters originating outside its borders and its extreme vulnerability to

floods and droughts have made its domestic politics and international

relations highly susceptible to hydro politics in the basin.

37 Jagdish C. Pokharel,Environmental Resources: Negotiation Between Unequal Powers, Vikas Publishing Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1996, p.84.

38 Khursida Begum, Tension over the Farakka Barrage, University Press Limited, Dhaka, 1987, pp.156-157.

39 Iftekharuzzaman, "The Ganges Water Sharing Issue: Diplomacy and Domestic Politics in Bangladesh", BIISSJoumal, Vol.l5, No.3, 1994, p.230.

76

In Nepal, the post world war II period, until 1981 when the first national

election since 1959 was held, was one of the great political turmoil. Over

the next decade there were many clashes between the various political

parties and the monarchy. Under the provisions of a new constitution

promulgated in 1990, Nepal remains a constitutional monarchy. A new

multiparty democratic order was instituted in the country through

elections in June 1991. In November 1994, a coalition led by communist

party came to power in Kathmandu. The new government decided to take

a pragmatic stance on all issues towards it neighbours, including India.

However, the new leadership also called for negotiating substantial

modifications to the 1951 Treaty of Friendship with India as well as

reexamining bilateral cooperation for several joint water and hydroelectric

projects proposed over the years. In 1995 this government was dissolved

and Kathmandu has been moving towards more friendly relations with

India. However, in the end as in Bangladesh, any attempt by the

Nepalese leadership to cooperate with India over the shared waters

remains vulnerable to exploitation by various political parties/ factions

who many accuse the ruling party of compromising Nepal's sovereignty

and national interest.40

In Bhutan a hereditary monarchy was founded in 1907, followed in 1910

by the Anglo Bhutanese Treaty, which placed Bhutan's foreign relations

under the supervision of the government of British India. After India

became independent, the Indo-Bhutanese Treaty of Friendship replaced

the Treaty in August 1949. According to the Treaty Bhutan agreed to

seek the advice of the Government of India with regard to its external

relations but it remained free to decide whether or not to accept the

advice. Bhutan is now governed by the King, a council of Ministers, a

National Assembly and the powerful :ffead of the Buddhist lamas. On the

whole Bhutan has benefited greatly from friendly relations with India.

40 Arun P. Elhance, Hydropolitics in The Third World. Conflict and Cooperation in International River Basins, United States Institute of Peace Press, Washington D.C., 1999, pp.l67-170.

77

But some Bhutanese have questioned the country's near total

dependence on India for security, trade and aid.

The analysis of political geography of the Ganga- Brahmaputra basin and

the water resource management issues in the thesis focuses mainly on

India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan, although China shares the basin

by virtue of its control over Tibet autonomous region. Till date China has

not made any substantial claims relating to its acquired uppermost

riparian status on the Tsangpo -Brahmaputra or any of the tributaries

originating in Tibet. The main reason for this is the unique physical

geography of the basin, which does not allow China to substantially

manipulate the river waters.41

Chinese disinclination to participate in hydro politics of the basin is also

partly due the special status of Tibet in Chinese policy as well as other

domestic and international preoccupations of the Chinese leadership.

China is actively engaged with India through domestic channels to solve

the border problem and recently has stopped making territorial claims

over Sikkim. Though India and China are two Asian regional powers, they

are cooperating with each other on trade and commerce issues. Further,

even if China wishes to develop the hydroelectric potential of the Tsangpo

in Tibet, the mostly coastal and southeastern orientation of its mainland

economy would extract very high costs and losses for transmitting

electricity from Tibet to Chinese cities and industrial areas. Because of

the rugged Himalayas, navigation in the Brahmaputra is also not a

concern for China. Thus, the physical and economic geography of the

basin effectively shut China off playing a major direct role in the

hydropolitics of the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin.

Without China's active involvement in the basin's hydropolitics, India is

by ·far the strongest riparian state in the basin. India's size, both in terms

of its area, population and its far superior economic and military

capabilities have placed it in a potentially hegemonic relationship with its

weaker neighbours. These power imbalances have often engendered fear,

41 Ibid, p.l71.

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suspicion, insecurity and even envy in smaller states. The smaller states

of south Asia have been especially sensitive to issues of national

sovereignty, identity and autonomy and to the very real possibility of

cultural and economic domination by their big neighbour. India many

times has been less than enough sensitive towards perceptions of smaller

states.

South Asia, which has Ganga Brahmaputra rivers, flowing through some

of the world's most density populated and poorest regions, is a geo­

political region whose internal post Independence political characteristics

have interacted with its highly contrasted physical and economic

environments to produce widely differing scenarios for large scale water

development and management.42 Though in terms of sub continental

hydrography, the post colonial, post partitioned states of South Asia, are

united, sharing the Ganges Brahmaputra basin (India-Bangladesh-Nepal)

geo-politically they stand divided; as against the backdrop of asymmetry

of wealth, knowledge and information, water issues continue to induce

conflict and struggle among them for power in various forms. 43

The political geography of the basin, especially the contentious nature of

domestic politics in each of the riparian states and their interstate

relations, till recently prevented the emergence of riparian relation

conducive to basin wide cooperation. However during 1990's new sense

of dialogue, cooperation, mutual trust are visible among India,

Bangladesh and Nepal. Political will, diplomatic initiatives and track II

exchanges have fostered some sense of urgency for cooperative efforts in

water resource development not only to end decades old transboundary

water related conflicts but also for optimum utilization of water resources

for human development, social economic welfare and environmental

conservation. Hopefully 1996, the year of. Mahakali and Ganges Treaty

will stand as the watershed for riparian relations among the basin states.

42 Colombi B.Stephen and Bradnock W. Robert, "Geopolitics, Water and Development in South Asia: Cooperative Development in the Ganges Brahmaputra Delta" The Geographical Journal, Vol.169, No.1, March 2003, p.47.

43 Eva Saroch, "Geopolitics of Water: From Security to Sustainability," Water Nepal, Vol.9j10, No.l/2, 2003, p.lll.

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