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CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

A. Theoretical Review

1. The Description of Hotel Driver’s Tasks

A hotel driver, also called a shuttle driver, drives a limousine, van or

small bus to collect and deliver hotel guests to and from the airport. The hotel

drivers are also responsible for taking guests to the tourists’ areas, such as the

beach or other destinations and provide information on the local areas. They

project an important image of the hotel because drivers are usually the first and

last hotel representative for meeting some guests.

Hotel driver’s position is important in hotel business. The hotel drivers

are needed to take the guests and tourists. Hotel drivers take the tourists to enjoy

beautiful places. Hotel drivers must know many places in the city and can

describe the history of the places to the guests or tourists. That is why hotel

drivers must be able to speak in English in order to communicate with the tourists.

The hotel driver’s responsibility is taking guests from the hotel to the

interesting places. All guests must be greeted when they enter the vehicle. The

driver must assist disabled guests if requested. The drivers also have the

responsibility for the vehicle and ensure that maintenance is regularly performed.

Drivers may be required to lift items into the vehicle and unload them at the hotel.

Hotel drivers also have some expressions in different conditions. It can

be said that hotel drivers have many expressions in doing their job. Sometimes,

they look friendly but in some condition hotel driver meets some people who are

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not friendly as they are. It is make the hotel drivers strange and nervous. Although

the expressions of hotel drivers are not the same in every condition, they must

control and look natural in front of the tourists or guests. When the hotel drivers

meet guests, they will greet by says “Good morning/evening sir. Can I help you?”

When they greet the tourist, they are giving their polite gesture and smiling to

guests. Then, they will ask what the guests’ need. The hotel drivers will

accompany them and give some descriptions about the place.

It can be assumed that hotel drivers can greet or communicate with the

tourist. To greet they should show his friendly expressions, smile and look patient

to accompany guests.

2. English for Specific Purposes (ESP)

In learning English for hotel drivers, there should be an approach to teach

English. The approach is ESP (English for Specific Purposes), which is designed

to meet the specific needs of the learners. For further explanation, there are some

definitions of ESP proposed by some experts. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) also

state that ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to

content and method are based on the learner’s reason for learning. They also show

that:

• ESP is not a matter of teaching ‘specialized varieties’ of English.

• ESP is not just a matter of science words and grammar for

scientists, hotel words and grammar for hotel staff and so on.

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• ESP is not different in kind from any other form of language

teaching, in that it should be based in the first instance on principle

of effective and efficient learning.

Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) state that the definition of ESP can be

seen through two characteristics:

a) Absolute characteristics

1) ESP is designed to meet specific needs of the learner.

2) ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the

disciplines it serves.

3) ESP is centered on the language (grammar, lexis, register), skills,

discourse and genres that are appropriate to activities.

b) Variable characteristics

1) ESP may be related or designed for specific disciplines.

2) ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different

methodology from that general English.

3) ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary

level institution or in a professional work situation; it could be used

for learners at secondary school level.

4) ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced

learners, and

5) Most ESP courses assume basic knowledge of the language system,

but it can be used with beginners.

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Based on the explanation above, it can be concluded that ESP is an

approach to teach language which is designed to meet the specific needs of the

learners. In other words, ESP is not any particular language product but an

approach to language teaching which is directed by specific reasons for learning.

3. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

To teach English, it needs some communicative language teaching.

Learners must be able to catch the English lessons easily. That is why the teachers

must be ble to give a good communication in teaching learning process.

a. The Definition of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

Nunan (1991) states that CLT is an approach to the teaching of second

and foreign languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the

communicative approach to the teaching of foreign language. Brown (2006) states

that CLT is an approach to language teaching. CLT has its roots in the idea that

the goal of language learning is to become good at using language for

communication.

Communicative language teaching is important in teaching English. A

good Communication in the teaching learning process makes the students enjoy

studying English. Larsen-Freeman (2000: 121) states that “being able to

communicate requires more than linguistic competence; it requires

communicative competence – knowing when and how to say what to whom”. It

can be said that communicative teaching is needed more than only linguistic

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competence. Teachers must know how to handle the class and the students well,

that is why, it needs communicative language teaching.

b. Objective of CLT

Johnson and Morrow (1981: 10) state that “a communicative language

teaching is one which recognizes the teaching of communicative competence as

its aim”. It can be said that communicative language teaching has the purpose of

improving communicative competence teaching to others or learners. By having

communicative competence, one can explain and teach learners in an easy way.

The communicative language uses in communicative teaching because it easy to

be understood and it is interesting to be learned.

In other words, the communicative language teaching is used to give the

materials to the students in communication. There is no hard way to teach students

and the communication becomes the easy way to make students enjoy learning

English.

c. Principles of CLT

Communicative language teaching uses some exercise materials to give

students or learners an effort in expanding their learning ways. Those materials

can be some English exercises. If the learners want to improve their speaking

ability, they will be given conversation exercises in the class. If the learners want

to master English writing, they will be given writing exercises. The

communicative way is done to make learners enjoy studying English without

worrying to make a mistake in learning English.

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Morrow in Johnson and Morrow (1981) gives three principles of CLT

such as:

1) Know what you are doing.

2) The whole is more than the sum of the parts.

3) The processes are as important as the forms.

4) To learn it, do it (learners must be actively involved).

5) Mistakes are not always a mistake (do not correct everything).

Brown also gives six characteristics of CLT (2001) as follows:

1) Classroom goals are focused on all of the components (grammatical,

discourse, functional, sociolinguistic, and strategic) of communicative

competence.

2) Language techniques are designed to engage learners in the pragmatic,

authentic, functional use of language for meaningful purposes.

Organizational language forms are not the central focus, but rather

aspects of language that enable the learner to accomplish those

purposes.

3) Fluency and accuracy are seen as complementary principles underlying

communicative techniques. At times fluency may have to take on more

importance than accuracy in order to keep learners meaningfully

engaged in language use.

4) Students in a communicative class ultimately have to use the language,

productively and receptively, in unrehearsed contexts outside the

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classroom. Classroom tasks must therefore equip students with the

skills necessary for communication in those contexts.

5) Students are given opportunities to focus on their own learning process

through an understanding of their own styles of learning and through

the development of appropriate strategies for autonomous learning.

6) The role of the teacher is that of facilitator and guide, not an all-

knowing bestowed of knowledge. Students are therefore encouraged to

construct meaning through genuine linguistic interaction with others.

d. CLT views on language

Nunan (1989, in Brown, 2001) states that language is more than a system

for communication. It involves whole person, culture, educational, developmental

communicative process. Besides, Nunan’s other perception of language according

to CLT is “a system for the expression of meaning; primary function interaction

and communication”. It can be assumed that language expresses meaning that is

used in communication. The communication will be easy to be understood if the

listeners attent the language. Language is used in communication and involves

process such as information sharing, negotiation of meaning and interaction with

people outer world.

e. Learning Theory of CLT

Brown (2001) states that language learning is learning to communicate. It

can be assumed that language learning is learning to communicate with others in

some language. For example if one learns English, he/she will try to communicate

in English, try to arrange sentences, to improve pronunciation and vocabulary.

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In learning a language according to the CLT point of view, there is

communicative approach to learn foreign language that emphasizes interaction as

both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. Learning a language

by using CLT will make the learners enjoy in focusing the teaching learning

process because the communicative approach in learning is applied. Using the

communicative learning teaching, the learners can learn a foreign language with

some communicative approaches, interactive approaches and creative teaching

approaches for example by using games, puzzles and goup work in CLT.

f. Typical Activities of CLT

Communicative language teaching or CLT is one of the best approaches

of learning a language. Richard and Rodger (2001) state that teacher has two main

roles in CLT. The first is to facilitate the communication process between all

participants in the classroom and between these participants and the various

activities or texts. The second is to act as an independent participant within the

learning-teaching group. The description of typical classroom activity based on

CLT is:

1) Presentation of a brief dialogue or several mini dialogues

2) Oral practice of each utterance of the dialogue segment to be

presented that day

3) Question and answer based on the dialogue topic

4) Question and answer related to the student’s personal experience

5) Study of the basic communicative expression in dialogue

6) Oral recognition, interpretative activities

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7) Oral production activities-proceeding from guided to freer

communicative activities

Here are other activities of CLT using module:

1. Incomplete plans and diagrams to complete (Byrne, 1978).

2. Communication behind the screen (Allwright, 1977).

3. Functional communication activities and social interaction activities

(Littlewood, 1981).

4. Opinion-sharing activities: activities in which students compare values,

opinions, or beliefs, such as describing attractive places in Yogyakarta.

5. Information-transfer activities: These require learners to take information that

is presented in one form, and represent it in a different form (Richards. 2006).

4. Second Language Acquisition (SLA)

a. The Definition of Second Language Acquistion

Krashen’s input hypothesis theory is the most important thing to provide

acquirers with is “comprehensible input” (Krashen, 1982), Krashen’s input

hypothesis theory states that 'humans acquire language in only one way - by

understanding messages or by receiving "comprehensible input"'. According to

Krashen’s input hypothesis, language acquisition takes place during human

interaction in the target language environment. Krashen (1982, 1985) termed

“comprehensible input.” Comprehensible input is that input which is slightly

beyond the current level of competence of the language learner. If i is the

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language learner’s current level of competence in the foreign language, then i + 1

is the next immediate step along the development continuum. Therefore, if the

goal is to assist the language learner progress in their task, it is essential to provide

the student/learner with comprehensible input [i +1].

Besides, Long (1983) proposes the interaction hypothesis; interactional

modification makes input comprehensible, comprehensible input promotes

acquisition, and interactional modification promotes acquisition. His interaction

hypothesis also stresses the importance of comprehensible input as a major factor

in second language acquisition; however, he also believes that interactive input is

more important than non-interactive input. In addition, Long stresses the

significance of interactional modifications which occur in the negotiating meaning

when communication problems arise (Ellis, 1994).

Then, Swain’s Output Hypothesis (1980) argues that without production

(output) expectations that correspond to the input that the language learner

receives, the student’s conversational abilities in the second language will lag far

behind their comprehension abilities. Second language production, or output

solicited from the language learner, is what most effectively drives the

development of a second language.

McLaughlin (1987) suggests that most learning, including language

learning, starts with declarative knowledge (knowledge what). Through practice,

declarative knowledge may become procedural knowledge (knowledge how).

Anderson’s model (1990) conceptualizes automization as the process of

converting that declarative knowledge into procedural knowledge. The model has

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two stages. They are declarative stage and proceduralization knowledge. In the

first stage, the learner is given knowledge which is memorized. In the second

stage, the knowledge becomes procedualized and automatized. The declarative

knowledge is knowledge to try the skill performance disrupts the smooth

performance of it. In SLA, the path from declarative to procedural knowledge is

often like classroom learning where rule learning is followed by practice.

b. Communicative Competence

Communicative competence deals with linguistic term which refers to

second language learner’s ability. It does not only refer to a learner’s ability to

apply and use grammatical rules, but also to form correct utterances, and know

how to use these utterances appropriately and it implies to the communicative

approach in language teaching. The following classroom model present shows the

hypothetical integration of four components of communicative competence

(Savignon 1972, 1983,1987, 2000; Canale and Swain 1980; Canale 1983; Byram

1997) adapted (Savignon, 2002).

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Figure 1. Communicative competences

from the familiar ‘‘inverted pyramid’’ classroom model proposed in Savignon

(1983), the current model shows the communicative competence, which

comprises grammatical competence, discourse competence, sociocultural

competence, and strategic competence. Although the relative importance of the

various components depends on the overall level of communicative competence,

each is essential. Moreover, all the components are interrelated. They cannot be

developed or measured in isolation, and one cannot go from one component to the

other as when stringing beads on a necklace. Rather, when an increase occurs in

one area, that component interacts with other components to produce a

corresponding increase in overall communicative competence.

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Grammatical competence refers to sentence-level grammatical forms, the

ability to recognize the lexical, morphological, syntactical and phonological

features of a language and to make use of those features to interpret and form

words and sentences. Grammatical competence is not linked to any single theory

of grammar and does not include the ability to state rules of usage. One

demonstrates grammatical competence not by stating a rule but by using a rule in

the interpretation, expression, or negotiation of meaning.

Discourse competence is concerned not with isolated words or phrases but

with the interconnectedness of a series of utterances or written words or phrases to

form a text, a meaningful whole. The text might be a poem, an e-mail message, a

sportscast, a telephone conversation, or a novel. Identification of isolated sounds

or words contributes to interpretation of the overall meaning of the text. This is

known as bottom-up processing. In contrast, top down processing involves

understanding of the theme or purpose of the text, which in turn helps in the

interpretation of isolated sounds or words. Both kinds of processing are essential

for communicative competence.

Two other familiar concepts that arise in discussions of discourse

competence are text coherence and cohesion. Text coherence is the relation of all

sentences or utterances in a text to a single global proposition. The establishment

of a global meaning, or topic, for a whole poem, e-mail message, sportscast,

telephone conversation, or novel is an integral part of both expression and

interpretation and makes possible the interpretation of the individual sentences

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that make up the text. Local connections or structural links between individual

sentences provide cohesion.

Sociocultural competence, a broader view of what Canale and Swain

(1980) identified as sociolinguistic competence, extends well beyond linguistic

forms and is an interdisciplinary field of inquiry having to do with the social rules

of language use. Sociocultural competence requires an understanding of the social

context in which language is used: the roles of the participants, the information

they share, and the function of the interaction. Although we have yet to provide a

satisfactory description of grammar, we are even further from an adequate

description of sociocultural rules of appropriateness. However, we use them to

communicate successfully in many diferent situational contexts.

Learners cannot be expected to anticipate the sociocultural dimension of

every situation. The likelihood of encountering the unexpected is easily seen for a

language like English, which serves not only as a first languge in many countries,

and within diferent cultural groups in those countries, but also as a language of

wider communication across national and cultural boundaries. Just knowing

something about the culture of an English-speaking country will not suffice. What

must be learned is a general empathy and openness toward other cultures.

Sociocultural competence includes a willingness to engage in the active

negotiation of meaning along with a willingness to suspend judgment and take

into consideration the possibility of cultural diferences in conventions of use.

Together these features might be subsumed under the term ‘‘cultural flexibility,’’

or ‘‘cultural awareness.’’ The ‘‘ideal native speaker,’’ someone who knows a

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language perfectly and uses it appropriately in all social interactions, exists in

theory only.

Strategic Competence refers to the learners’ ability to acquire verbal and

non-verbal communication strategies. The strategies are the means by which

learners deal with potential breakdowns in communication which arise from either

“limiting conditions in actual communication or insufficient competence in one or

more of the other areas of communicative competence, and to enhance the

effectiveness of communication" (Canale & Swain, 1980).

This theoretical model of communicative competence has undergone some

further modifications over time. Bachman (1990) has proposed a more complex

model of communicative competence, which he calls “Language Competence.”

Bachman’s model of language competence is illustrated in the following figure.

Figure 2. Components of Language Competence (Bachman, 1990, p.87)

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According to this model, grammatical and discourse competence are placed under

one node which Bachman called organizational competence. Organizational

competence involves the rules and systems that govern what we can do with

different forms of language, both at sentence-level and discourse level. Also,

sociolinguistic competence as defined by Canale and Swain was divided into two

separate pragmatic categories, namely illocutionary competence and

sociolinguistic competence. By sociolinguistic competence, Bachman referred to

issues of formality, politeness, register, metaphorical, as well as cultural aspects

of language.

5. Speaking

a. The Definition of Speaking

One of the important abilities to be learned in communication is speaking

because one can know what people say and what people do purpose in

communication. Speaking becomes the alternative way to know people’s

intention, purpose, idea etc. Spratt & Pulverness (2005: 34) describesthat speaking

is a productive skill, like writing. It involves using speech to express meaning to

other people. Brown states (2004) that “speaking is a productive skill that can be

directly and empirically observed. Those observations are invariably colored by

the accuracy and effectiveness of a test-taker’s listening skill”. It can be described

that speaking is a skill using some speeches by words or dialogues to express the

idea and people’s expression in communication.

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Then, Miguel Bengoa (2008) gives speaking sub-skills. That are:

1) Producing segmental features of English at words level (especially consonant

sounds and vowel, stressed and unstressed syllables)

2) Using supra segmental features of English (especially intonation, stress in

sentences, word-linking) accurately in spoken utterances.

3) Expressing grammatical (syntactic and morphological) relationship in spoken

utterances at the level of the sentence.

4) Expressing relationships between parts of a spoken utterance through

cohesive devices (especially grammatical cohesion such as noun-pronoun

reference)

5) Using markers in spoken discourse, in particular (introducing an idea,

developing an idea, transition to another idea, concluding an idea,

emphasizing a point to indicate important information, explaining or

clarifying a point already made)

6) Sustaining communicative dialog with and without explicit markers (single

exchange, double exchange, multiple exchanges)

7) Expressing conceptual meaning in spoken utterances.

8) Expressing attitudinal meaning in spoken text and utterances (especially by

intonation).

9) Marking the main points or important information in spoken text and

utterances (especially through emphasis or vocal underlining and through

verbal cues).

10) Expressing information or knowledge in informal and semi-formal utterances.

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11) Explaining and organizing information in formal expository discourse (oral

narrative, oral description of phenomena the ideas.

12) Oral descriptions of process or change of state. Bengoa, Miguel. February

16th, 2008. Speaking sub-skills (miguelbengia.com/elt/, August 2011).

b. Teaching speaking

Littlewood (1991) gives descriptions of speaking learning process; it has

two steps:

1) Pre-communicative activity: Littlewood (1991) suggests ‘help the learners to

develop links with meanings that will later enable them, we use this language

for communicative purposes’ (p.8). Pre-communicative activities are

therefore divided into two subcategories: ‘structural activities’, such as

mechanical drills or verb paradigms, for producing accurate andappropriate

language forms, on one hand; and, ‘quasi-communicative activities’, such

asquestion-and-answer activities, giving directions to a stranger basing

learner’s replies on, for example, a town plan, or questionnaires, which bear a

potential functional meanings of the language.

2) Communicative activity: Littlewood divides it into two further categories:

‘functional activities’, and ‘social interaction activities’. The aim of the

functional communication activities is to practise students’ ability to get

meaning across as effectively as possible. Littlewood includes here activities

based on sharing information with restricted and unrestricted cooperation

(identifying pictures, discovering sequences, locations, missing information,

‘secrets’, differences, etc.), sharing and processing information

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(reconstructing story sequences, pooling information to solve a problem,

etc.), or processing information (for example, groups must decide what they

will take for a trip). On the other hand, social interaction activities, in addition

to overcoming an information gap or solving a problem, extend the social

meanings of the language through, for example, simulation and role-play

activities, discussions or conversations thus developing also social

acceptability in the language use.

Spratt & Pulverness (2005) state that there are some concepts to be a basic

concept of learning English speaking. It can be used when people say something

with other. It can be described that in speaking English learning, students must

have some preparations. The steps for learning English are pronouncing words,

answering questions, using intonation, and using accurate grammar and

vocabulary. It can be described that in pronouncing words, one must be able to

speak in good pronunciation in order to make the listener catch the meaning of his

words and can understand what he tries to say.

The second step is answering questions; one who wants to communicate

in English must interact with foreign people so he must answer the question in

English too. The third is using intonation. In speaking with foreign people one

must has good intonation. It can be differentiate in the situations of polite and

impolite. It can be said that in the situations of polite, one must use low intonation

but in situation if impolite, one can use general intonation because it is not

emphasize the situation of polite. The fourth is using fully accurate grammar and

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vocabulary. It can be described that in speaking, one must use accurate grammar

and vocabulary because the listener will catch the vocabulary/English words and

gives the responses. If the speaker cannot use correct grammar and vocabulary,

the listener will be confused.

In teaching speaking for adults, some adults’ characteristics are known

for examples:

1) Adults are more able to handle abstract rules and concepts. Do not use much

abstract generalization about usage and not enough real life language use can

be deadly for adults.

2) Adults have longer attention for material that may not be intrinsically

interesting to them. The rule of keeping the activities short and sweet applies

also to adult-age teaching.

3) Sensory input need not always be quite as varied with adult, but one of the

secrets of lively adult classes is their appeal to multiple senses.

4) Adults with their more developed abstract thinking ability are better able to

understand a context-reduced segment of language (Brown, 2001).

It can be concluded that teaching learning speaking for adults and students or

young people are diffrent. Adults are more able to handle abstract rules and

concepts. Adults need much more time to attent the material so it be intrinsically

interesting.

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6. Module

In the limitation of the problem, the researcher chooses module as the

material for hotel drivers. Torralba in Gracia (2006) states that module is a self-

contained and independent unit of instruction with a primary focus on a few well-

defined and objectives.

According to Russel in Setyosari (1990), module is a unit of learning

which relates to a singular concept unit of learning. The concept of learning based

on Associational Communication and Techno-logy (Setyosari, 1990) that module

is a collection of learning experience which is designed to achieve specific

purposes, and then it is related of each other and usually consists of some meeting.

In short, module is a learning package which contains units of learning material

and arranges some purposes clearly to help the students. The module has three

parts of a learning cycle model (Dasna I, 2005), for example:

1) Pre-introduction

2) Introduction

3) Content/learning activity

English module for hotel drivers should have good criteria of module

materials. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) explain that good materials will contain

interesting texts, enjoyable activities that engage the learners’ thinking capacities,

opportunities for learners to use their existing knowledge and skills, and content

which both learners and teachers can cope with. They also state that good

materials should provide a clear and coherent unit structure, which will guide

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teachers and learners through various activities in such a way as to maximize the

chance of learning.

Amri (2010) states that learning activities which use a module will have

some characteristics, such as:

1) Every module must give a clear information of implementation about what

learners should do, how to prepare learning and what learners try to use.

2) Module is individual learning that tries to make learners join the teaching

learning activity. Every module must be:

(a) Trying to make a learner in improving his study based on his ability.

(b) Trying to make a learner to classify his study ability or competence

gained.

(c) Trying to focus a learner to specify the study purpose.

3) Study exposure nature module is prepared to help learners to gain the effective

learning purpose. Besides, it helps learners to study not only reading,

listening but also studying more subjects in the teaching learning process.

Module gives a chance to play, experimentation and have discussions.

4) Learning materials make the learner knows when he/she starts and finish a

module. Besides, it does not make some questions about what should he/she

do or study.

5) Each module has learners’ purpose to achieve.

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Generally, a module has some components such as learners’ activity

sheet, work sheet, key work sheet, question sheet, answer sheet, key answer. The

components of the module format are follows:

1) Introduction contains general descriptions such as material, information,

knowledge, ability and attitude to study the module.

2) Learning purpose contains specifically learning purpose that must be mastered

by the learners after learning the module. This phase describes about the

terminal purposes in the final purpose and the conditions to achieve the

purpose.

3) The first test is used to classify learners’ position and to know the first ability,

to know where he/she must leaned, to know she/he need in learning module.

4) Learning exposure contains material explanation of each purpose in learning.

5) Source study contains learning sources that can be searched and used by

learners.

6) Final test contains an instrument which is used as the first test. It focuses on

the terminal purpose in each module.

Each unit has opening activities, opportunities to learn, practice

activities, and closing activities. Each module also includes a closing, evaluation,

and other resources for the collaborative learning team CLT.

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Figure 3. Module components

7. Task

Ellis (2003: 16) defines task in the following way:

A task is a workplan that requires learners to process language pragmatically in order to achieve an outcome that can be evaluated in terms of whether the correct or appropriate propositional content has been conveyed. To this end, it requires them to give primary attention to meaning and to make use of their own linguistic resources, although the design of the task may predispose them to choose particular forms. A task is intended to result in language use that bears a resemblance, direct or indirect, to the way language is used in the real world. Like other language activities, a task can engage productive or receptive, and oral or written skills and also various cognitive processes. Nunan (2006) states that a task is a piece of classroom work that involves

learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target

31

language while their attention is focused on mobilizing their grammatical

knowledge in order to express meaning, and in which the intention is to convey

meaning rather than to manipulate form. The task should also have a sense of

completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right

with a beginning, a middle and an end. The deployment of grammatical

knowledge to express meaning, highlighting the fact that meaning and form are

highly interrelated, and that grammar exists to enable the language user to express

different communicative meanings (Nunan. 2008).

According to Nunan (2004), the model of task is represented

diagramatically below:

Goal Teacher role

Input Task Learner role

Procedure Setting

Figure 4. Task

From the figure above, the explanations of the task models are:

1) Goals

Nunan (2004) states that goals are the vague, general intentions behind

any learning task. They provide a link between the task and the broader

curriculum. They are more specific than Halliday’s three macroskills

(interpersoanal, transactional and aesthetic) (1973) mentioned in the last chapter,

but are more general than formal performance objectives. The answer that a

teacher might give to a question from a visitor to his or her class about why

32

learners are undertaking a particular task will often take the form of a goal

statement.” So, the goals is something that is one of the purpose to get something

as a result of the work or plan.

2) Input

Nunan (2004) states that input refers to the spoken, writen and visual data

that learners work with in the course of completing a task. Data can be provided

by a teacher, a textbook or some other source. Alternatively, it can be generated

by the learners themselves.Input is the maerials or media that provided by the

teacher to make easy and make the learners more understand about the materials

that be teach. For example, article from newspaper, radio, television, and the

others.

3) Procedures

According to Nunan (2004) states that ‘procedures’ specifies what

learners will actually do with the input that forms the point of departure for the

learning task.So, procedure is the ways that are aspects in each units such as

presentation, practice, and production.

4) Teacher Roles and Learners Roles

Richard and Rodger (1986 cited in Nunan 2004) state that role’ refers to

the part that learners and teachers are expected to play in carrying out learning as

well as the social and interpersonal relationships between the participants.

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5) Settings

According to Nunan (2004) sates that‘setting’ refers to the classroom

arrangement specified or implied in the task. It also requires consideration of

whether the task is to be carried out wholly or partly outside the classroom.

B. Conceptual Framework

The research is improving hotel drivers’ speaking ability. Most materials

available on general English for students. Most English learning materials cannot

be accepted by hotel drivers. Besides, some hotel drivers have working hours that

are not fixed so they cannot join in English courses and another reason; they do

not have enough money to join the course. That is why several hotel drivers learn

English read a module to improve their knowledge especially speaking.

The components of module are systematically organized around a well-

defined topic, which contains the elements of instruction-specific objectives,

teaching-learning activities and evaluation using criterion-referenced measures.

The criteria of a good module should have introduction or instruction for the

learners and also has learning activity. The content should be based on the

learners’ needs and can give clear information of implementation about what

learners should do, how to prepare the learning and what learners try to use. Then,

the learning activity between the theory and practice are balanced. The learners

can understand the theory and practice instruction and it will measure their

English understanding.

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This research uses communicative language teaching (CLT) as the

approach. CLT has four components; they are grammatical, discourse,

sociolinguitic, and strategic components. To develop the module, this research has

many steps; they are conducting needs analysis, writing course grid and writing

the first draft of module, getting expert validation, wring the second draft, trying

out the module, and writing the first draft of module.