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Chapter III SOCIAL CONDITIONS OF HANDLOOM WEAVERS
Chapter � III
SOCIAL CONDITIONS OF HANDLOOM WEAVERS
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Chapter - III
SOCIAL CONDITIONS OF HANDLOOM WEAVERS
The objective of this chapter is to examine the social conditions of
handloom weavers working in the sample area of Guntur district. The study
emphasises the issues covering gender, age composition, social grouping and
educational levels of the selected weavers.
3. 1. INTRODUCTION
The study focuses on the social conditions of selected weavers in
general and the following three types of sample weavers, in particular.
4. Independent weavers.
5. Weavers working under the control of Master Weavers.
6. Weavers working under the control of Primary Weavers� Co-operative
Societies.
As indicated earlier in the study, the parameters employed for judging
the social status of the sample weavers include the following:
Age
Gender
Social grouping and religion
Level of education of weavers and their children
Type and size of weavers� family
Dependents
Migratory character
Health conditions and awareness about health care
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Level of poverty among the weavers
Exposure to mass media and communication
Services/amenities enjoyed by the weavers
Social participation
Occupational preference of weavers� children
3. 2. AGE
Age is one of the important social factors which influences social,
economic and demographic situation of any country.1 Age is an achieved
characteristic in the life cycle of a human being. The position in a family or
society or group and performance of certain activities and also achieving some
other aspects of life in the human life cycle is determined by age.2 The young
age distribution of a population reveals the higher rate of growth of population
in the country. The aging of the population implies high dependency ratio. As
compared to developed countries, the aging of the population is less in the
developing countries such as India. According to the Third National Handloom
Census (2010), the age composition of the handloom workers shows that 49.1
per cent belong to the age group of 18 � 35 and 11.2 per cent fall within the
less than 18 years category. The majority of the handloom weavers belong to
the adult age group of 18 � 60 years. Workers above 60 years constitute only 4
per cent.3 Thus, the handloom work force is predominantly young.
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Table � III. 1. DISTRIBUTION OF HANDLOOM WEAVER HOUSEHOLDS
BY AGE GROUPS
Category of Weavers Age Group
Independent Weavers
Weavers under MWs
Weavers under Co-operative
Societies
Total
Count 7 49 10 66
Row% 10.6% 74.2% 15.2% 100.0% 18 - 35 years
Column % 10.3% 10.8% 9.3% 10.5%
Count 28 112 36 176
Row% 15.9% 63.6% 20.5% 100.0% 36 - 45 years
Column % 41.2% 24.7% 33.6% 28.0%
Count 22 185 52 259
Row% 8.5% 71.4% 20.1% 100.0% 46 - 60 years
Column % 32.4% 40.7% 48.6% 41.2%
Count 11 108 9 128
Row% 8.6% 84.4% 7.0% 100.0% Above 60 years Column % 16.2% 23.8% 8.4% 20.3%
Count 68 454 107 629
Row% 10.8% 72.2% 17.0% 100.0% Total
Column % 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Source: Compiled from collected data. Note: Pearson Chi-Square value: 20.865, df: 6, Significance: 0.002**
*0.05 Significant **0.01Highly Significant ***0.001 Very Highly Significant
Fig. III. 1: DISTRIBUTION OF HANDLOOM WEAVER HOUSEHOLDS BY AGE GROUPS
84
Turning our attention to the sample weavers, 41.2 per cent of them are in
the age group of 46-60 years (see Table-III.1.) much above the national average
of 15.1 per cent. It is also interesting to note that the number of persons
choosing weaving as the occupation is decelerating. It is clearly evident that
there are no persons opting weaving as their profession below the age group of
18 years. Similarly, the percentage of respondents in the age group of 18-35
years is only 10.5 per cent as against the national average of 49.1 per cent.
Similar trend could also be observed in respect of persons in the age group of
36-45 years. Perhaps, this could be an indication for the migration of people
from weaving to other activities. It is also not far to expect that the number of
people entering weaving after they cross 18 years is also very much doubtful.
Another startling revelation is that the number of people carrying out weaving
even though they attained the age of 60 years is significant. At around 20 per
cent of the sample weavers above the age of 60 years are still forced to
continue in the occupation for making a living without any retirement. The
Chi-square value is highly significant at 0.01 level.
3. 3. GENDER-WISE DISTRIBUTION OF SAMPLE WEAVERS
Gender is also an important social dimension. Distribution pattern of
population between males and females affects their relative and economic
relations.4
Weaving is one of the activities which have the scope for women
participation. It is surprising to note that the distribution of handloom workers
(18 years and above) by gender is dominated by females at the national level.
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As per the Third National Handloom Census, 77.9 per cent of the workers are
women.5 It contrast, the distribution of handloom workers by gender in the
present study is dominated by the presence of males. In contrast, the ratio
between males and females stood at 82:18 for the present study (see Table-III.
2.).
Table � III. 2. DISTRIBUTION OF HANDLOOM WEAVER HOUSEHOLDS
BY GENDER
Category of Weavers
S. No. Gender Independent
Weavers Weavers under
MWs
Weavers under Co-operative
Societies
Total
1. Male 51 (75.00)
373 (82.00)
90 (84.00)
514 (82.00)
2. Female 17
(25.00) 81
(18.00) 17
(14.00) 115
(18.00)
Total 68
(100.00) 454
(100.00) 107
(100.00) 629
(100.00)
Source: Compiled from collected data. Note: Figures in parenthesis are percentages.
Fig. III. 2: DISTRIBUTION OF HANDLOOM WEAVER
HOUSEHOLDS BY GENDER
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3. 4. SOCIAL GROUPING
Indian society is broadly divided into different communities such as
OCs, BCs, SCs, STs, etc. The traditions and customs depend upon the
community which in turn influences the social fabric. Caste is an important
social variable, especially in the present day Indian context. The communities
are broadly sub-divided into various sub-castes and people are grouped as per
the caste criteria.6 Caste is said to influence the voting pattern and also the
developmental process in the society. According to the Third National
Handloom Census, of the total 43.32 lakh handloom workers, 40.9 per cent are
Backward Castes (BCs), 22.1 per cent workers belong to Scheduled Tribe (ST),
9.8 per cent of workers belong to Scheduled Caste (SC) and the remaining 27.2
per cent are Others.7
Table � III. 3.
DISTRIBUTION OF HANDLOOM WEAVER HOUSEHOLDS BY SOCIAL GROUPS
Category of Weavers Social Class
Independent Weavers
Weavers under MWs
Weavers under Co-operative
Societies
Total
Count 4 7 8 19
Row% 21.1% 36.8% 42.1% 100.0% Scheduled Caste
(SCs) Column % 5.9% 1.5% 7.5% 3.0%
Count 64 447 99 610
Row% 10.5% 73.3% 16.2% 100.0% Backward Caste
(BC) Column % 94.1% 98.5% 92.5% 97.0%
Count 68 454 107 629
Row% 10.8% 72.2% 17.0% 100.0% Total
Column % 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Source: Compiled from collected data. Note: Pearson Chi-Square value: 12.543, df: 2, Significance: 0.002**
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Fig. III. 3: DISTRIBUTION OF HANDLOOM WEAVER HOUSEHOLDS BY SOCIAL GROUPS
The distribution of workers by caste in the present study reveals the fact
that 97 per cent (see Table-III.3) of the weavers belong to backward caste,
followed by scheduled caste weavers (3 per cent). It is because of the fact that
the study area is dominated by the backward caste weavers including
Padmasali, Devanga, Puttusali, etc. The Chi-square value is highly significant
at 0.01 level.
3. 5. RELIGION
In India, religion plays an important role in the social structure and
people are influenced by religion to a great extent. Every religion has its own
norms and customs, which in turn influence the social fabric of the society. At
all India level, 77.6 per cent of the handloom households follow Hindu
religion, 15 per cent of the handloom households follow Muslim religion and
only 7.3 per cent of the handloom households are from other faiths, mostly
Christians.8
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Table � III. 4. DISTRIBUTION OF HANDLOOM WEAVER HOUSEHOLDS
BY RELIGION Category of Weavers
Religion
Independent Weavers
Weavers under MWs
Weavers under Co-operative
Societies
Total
Count 68 453 97 618
Row% 11.0% 73.3% 15.7% 100.0% Hindu
Column % 100.0% 99.8% 90.7% 98.3%
Count 0 1 10 11
Row% .0% 9.1% 90.9% 100.0% Christian
Column % .0% .2% 9.3% 1.7%
Count 68 454 107 629
Row% 10.8% 72.2% 17.0% 100.0% Total
Column % 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Source: Compiled from collected data. Note: Pearson Chi-Square value: 43.325, df: 2, Significance: 0.000***
Fig. III. 4: DISTRIBUTION OF HANDLOOM WEAVER HOUSEHOLDS BY RELIGION
Table � III.4 presents the distribution of sample weavers by religion. It
is evident that the weavers who belong to the Hindu religion constituted 98.3
per cent, followed by Christians to the extent of 1.7 per cent. There are no
persons belonging to other religions in the study area. The Chi-square value is
very highly significant at 0.001 level.
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3. 6. EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND OF WEAVERS
Literacy is one of the important social variables that influence both
social and economic development of a country. Education certainly is a means
to all-round progress of individuals. In other words, the pathway to human-
development goes through the lanes of education. Moreover, true education is
the sole basis of achieving one�s purpose in life. It is education which can
ascertain ultimate peace for a human being. Education is considered the inner
capability of man that guides him continuously at various levels. Education is
the process which leaves an impact upon the mind, character and moral
strength and plays a vital role in the human development. 9
The high rates of illiteracy influence the economic development
adversely. Educational level is the better indicator of social development.
Educational status will influence economic development in different ways.
Therefore, there is every need to improve the educational status of the
population for better social and economic development.
In India, the literacy levels are low as compared to many of the
developed as well as some developing countries. Even though the literacy rate
has increased after independence, the absolute number of people remaining as
illiterate has also increased over time. Literacy level has surged forward in
India from 64.83 per cent in 2001 to 74.04 per cent in 2011; showing an
increase of 9.21 per cent. The literacy rate for male and female works out to
82.14 per cent and 65.46 per cent respectively. The increase in literacy rate in
male and female during 2001 � 2011 is in the order of 6.88 per cent and 11.79
90
per cent respectively.10 As seen from the Third National Handloom Census,
29.4 per cent of the handloom workers never attended the school and 12.7 per
cent have education below the primary level. A vast majority of them, i.e. 82.9
per cent have educational level of middle school and below. It would appear,
therefore, that handloom work as an occupational choice has not really had the
benefit of education. However, more than two out of every five workers
reported having completed at least middle � level education and the handloom
workers in rural areas are slightly better educated than their urban counterparts.
Table � III. 5. DISTRIBUTION OF HANDLOOM WEAVER HOUSEHOLDS
BY LEVEL OF EDUCATION
Category of Weavers
Level of Education
Independent Weavers
Weavers under MWs
Weavers under Co-operative
Societies
Total
Count 53 300 92 445
Row% 11.9% 67.4% 20.7% 100.0% Primary Education
Column % 77.9% 66.1% 86.0% 70.7%
Count 5 54 10 69
Row% 7.2% 78.3% 14.5% 100.0% Secondary Education
Column % 7.4% 11.9% 9.3% 11.0%
Count 10 100 5 115
Row% 8.7% 87.0% 4.3% 100.0% Illiterate
Column % 14.7% 22.0% 4.7% 18.3%
Count 68 454 107 629
Row% 10.8% 72.2% 17.0% 100.0% Total
Column % 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Source: Compiled from collected data. Note: Pearson Chi-Square value: 21.624, df: 4, Significance: 0.000***
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Fig. III. 5: DISTRIBUTION OF HANDLOOM WEAVER HOUSEHOLDS BY LEVEL OF EDUCATION
The survey conducted for the present study indicates that 18.3 per cent
of the sample weavers are illiterates. Most of the sample weavers i.e., 70.7 per
cent have education upto primary level and only 11 per cent of them have
education upto secondary level. Weavers under co-operative set up are
educationally in a better position compared to independent weavers and
weavers under master weavers. The study clearly shows that none of the
weavers had college education in the entire sample. The growth of the
handloom industry depends on the education of weavers to a certain extent.
The poor education background of sample weavers does not help them to
understand about the modernization plans and Government policies. There is a
general feeling that the benefits of different schemes introduced for the
development of handloom industry and welfare of weavers are grabbed by
middlemen because of their better education. The Chi-square value is very
highly significant at 0.001 level.
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3. 6.1. Education levels of children of sample weavers:
Social status of individuals can also be understood from the opportunity
available to provide good education to their children. An attempt has been
made to find out the education levels of children of the respondents. It is
unfortunate to note that of the 629 respondents, the children of 444 (70 per
cent) respondents are not going to any school. The percentage of children that
completed at least school final stood at only 8.9 and those that entered the
portals of University are about 5.7 per cent. However, the study area is
educationally prominent in the State of Andhra Pradesh. Nevertheless, the
schemes introduced by both Central and State Governments like Education for
All, Education Guarantee Scheme, Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan
(RMSA), Mid-Day Meal Scheme, etc. are not touching the lives of the people
involved in the handloom sector. It is also important to note that the provisions
of Right to Education are also not able to improve the level of education of the
sample weavers. This is mainly due to the innocence and poor educational
background of the selected weavers.
3. 7. TYPE AND SIZE OF WEAVERS� FAMILY
In Indian society, families are broadly grouped into nucleus, joint and
extended joint families. By tradition, joint family and extended joint families
are more popular in the society. Whereas nucleus family system is widely
expanded in the present society and are mainly found in the urban areas.
Slowly, this kind of trend is also extending to the rural areas.
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Table � III. 6. DISTRIBUTION OF HANDLOOM WEAVER HOUSEHOLDS
BY TYPE OF FAMILY
Category of Weavers
Type of Family
Independent Weavers
Weavers under MWs
Weavers under Co-operative Societies
Total
Count 0 79 10 89
Row% .0% 88.8% 11.2% 100.0% Joint
Column % .0% 17.4% 9.3% 14.1%
Count 68 375 97 540
Row% 12.6% 69.4% 18.0% 100.0% Nucleus
Column % 100.0% 82.6% 90.7% 85.9%
Count 68 454 107 629
Row% 10.8% 72.2% 17.0% 100.0% Total
Column % 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Source: Compiled from collected data Note: Pearson Chi-Square value: 17.191, df: 2, Significance: 0.000***
Fig. III. 6: DISTRIBUTION OF HANDLOOM WEAVER HOUSEHOLDS BY TYPE OF FAMILY
Type and size of the families are an important issue in the study of
social conditions of any group of respondents. Nucleus families have turned out
to be the general social norm. The same situation is also found among the
respondents. Of the total, 85.9 per cent of the respondents are organized as
nucleus families, thus devoid of the elderly care and advice (see Table-III. 6.).
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The respondents in the study area felt that the joint families get more earnings
than the nucleus families, since weaving is a group activity. The Chi-square
value is very highly significant at 0.001 level.
3. 7. 1. Size of the Family:
Size of the family is also important in terms of economic living and
extent of help available for carrying out handloom operations. The more should
be generated the income for the purpose of leading the family. Though the
respondents are maintaining nucleus families, the size of the family is
extending upto six members. However, vast majority have only upto three
members as their family size (see Table-III. 7).
Table � III. 7.
DISTRIBUTION OF HANDLOOM WEAVER HOUSEHOLDS BY SIZE OF THE FAMILY
Category of Weavers
S. No. Size of the Family Independent
Weavers
Weavers under MWs
Weavers under
Co-operative Societies
Total
1. 1-3 Members
45 (66)
231 (51)
56 (52)
332 (53)
2. 4-6 Members
23 (34)
222 (49)
51 (48)
296 (47)
3. 7-9 Members --- 1 --- 1
Total 68
(100) 454
(100) 107
(100) 629
(100)
Source: Compiled from collected data Note: Figures in parenthesis are percentages.
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Fig. III. 7: DISTRIBUTION OF HANDLOOM WEAVER HOUSEHOLDS BY SIZE OF THE FAMILY
3. 8. NUMBER OF DEPENDENTS
A family in general consists of head, his wife, children, other kith and
kin some of whom may be earning. Attempt has been made to study the
number of dependents of the respondents. For the purpose of this study,
�dependent� is considered as one who completely depends on the earnings of
the head of the family. The survey on this aspect revealed the fact that the
number of dependents for each respondent has varied. Out of the sample,
majority of respondents (representing 29.9 per cent) have three dependents,
followed by 28.1 per cent who have two dependents. Only 4.9 per cent of the
respondents did not have any dependent (see Table-III. 8.). There are, in total,
598 dependents and average number of dependents is 2.49. It can be concluded
that majority of the weavers have a considerable number of dependents less
than the national average of 4.59. The Chi-square value is very highly
significant at 0.001 level.
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Table - III. 8. DETAILS OF DEPENDENT RATIO AMONG THE SELECTED
HANDLOOM WEAVER HOUSEHOLDS Category of Weavers
No. of Dependents
Independent Weavers
Weavers under MWs
Weavers under Co-operative
Societies
Total
Count 7 18 6 31
Row% 22.6% 58.1% 19.4% 100.0% None
Column % 10.3% 4.0% 5.6% 4.9%
Count 17 82 20 119
Row% 14.3% 68.9% 16.8% 100.0% One member
Column % 25.0% 18.1% 18.7% 18.9%
Count 8 124 45 177
Row% 4.5% 70.1% 25.4% 100.0% Two members
Column % 11.8% 27.3% 42.1% 28.1%
Count 25 137 26 188
Row% 13.3% 72.9% 13.8% 100.0% Three members Column % 36.8% 30.2% 24.3% 29.9%
Count 11 93 10 114
Row% 9.6% 81.6% 8.8% 100.0% Four members Column % 16.2% 20.5% 9.3% 18.1%
Count 68 454 107 629
Row% 10.8% 72.2% 17.0% 100.0% Total Column % 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Source: Compiled from collected data Note: Pearson Chi-Square value: 28.684, df: 8, Significance: 0.000***
Fig. III. 8: DETAILS OF DEPENDENT RATIO AMONG THE SELECTED HANDLOOM WEAVER HOUSEHOLDS
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3. 9. MIGRATORY CHARACTER
Migration is an important feature of human civilization. It reflects
human endeavour to survive in the most testing conditions both natural and
man made. Migration in India is mostly influenced by social structures and
pattern of development. The development policies by all the Governments
since Independence have accelerated the process of migration. Uneven
development is the main cause of migration. The landless poor who mostly
belong to lower castes, indigenous communities and economically backward
regions constitute the major portion of migrants.11
Generally, people leave their place of residence due to poverty, high
population pressure on the land, lack of basic infrastructural facilities like
health care and education. Apart from these factors, natural disasters such as
floods, drought, cyclonic storms, earthquakes, tsunamis, wars and local
conflicts also provide extra push to the phenomenon. Sometimes, availability of
regular work and relatively high wages, adequate health facilities and sources
of entertainment also act as influencing factors.
Migration in India is predominantly of short distance nature; with
around 60 per cent of migrants changing their residences within their district of
birth and 20 per cent within their state (province), while the rest move across
the state boundaries.
In the State of Andhra Pradesh, handloom industry witnessed large scale
migration during the period of 1970-1975. The two agitations for separate
Andhra and Telangana, irregularities in the supplies of yarn and their prices,
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depression in the cloth market made independent weaving a difficult task.
Many co-operatives did not succeed in their effort to provide continuous
employment. This has led to large scale displacement of weavers and caused
migration from the districts of Karimnagar and Nellore to Prakasam and
Guntur districts.
The weaving community in Guntur district cannot escape from the
phenomenon of migration. Table � III.9 depicts the details of this phenomenon.
Table � III. 9. DISTRIBUTION OF MIGRATED WEAVER HOUSEHOLDS
ACCORDING TO THE DURATION OF STAY IN THE PRESENT PLACE OF WORK
Category of Weavers
S. No. Period of Stay Independent Weavers
Weavers under MWs
Weavers under
Co-operative Societies
Total
1. Below 20 years 2 (4) 99 (32) 7 (21) 108 (28)
2. 20 � 40 years 25 (53) 80 (27) 2 (6) 107 (28)
3. 40 � 60 years 11 (24) 108 (35) 18 (55) 137 (35)
4. Above 60 years 9 (19) 19 (6) 6 (18) 34 (9)
Total 47
(100) 306
(100) 33
(100) 386
(100)
Source: Compiled from collected data. Note: Figures in parenthesis are percentages.
It is evident from the particulars of migration among the respondents,
that out of 629 sample handloom households, 386 respondents (61 per cent)
have migrated from the other mandals and districts. It is to be noted that out of
386 migrated families, 47 weavers are independent weavers, 306 weavers are
working under master weavers and remaining 33 are weavers under societies.
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About 28 per cent of the migrants came to the present place of work,
some 20 years ago. About 28 per cent of the respondents migrated between 20
and 40 years. Majority of the migrants i.e. 35 per cent came to the Guntur
district long ago, beyond 40 � 60 years. Another 9 per cent of the weavers
migrated to the present place around 60 years back. It is concluded that the
weavers under master weavers mainly migrated from one handloom center to
another handloom center, where they expect to get adequate work throughout
the year and payment of higher rates of wage. Guntur district is one of the
prominent places for handloom industry in Andhra Pradesh and due to this fact
most of the handloom weavers migrated to this district for survival and also to
enhance their living conditions.
3. 10. HEALTH CONDITIONS OF THE HANDLOOM WEAVERS
The best wealth of a man is health. Good health can be defined as the
state of being where a person is free from all kinds of physical or mental
illness. It is the most precious possession of a man. Better health is one of the
prerequisites for improved productivity and production. The better the health of
the individual, the better will be his productive capacity.12
Numerous studies and reports have raised concern over occupational
health and safety of workers in India. The Second National Commission on
Labour (2002) has identified the reasons for serious health hazards of workers,
who have been working in textiles and block printing activities by using dyes
and chemicals where poor physical working conditions and improper
ventilation at their workplace. In 2010, 60 weavers in Ramanagaram district of
100
Karnataka reported eye injuries and blindness after handling chemically treated
silk yarn.
Subsequently, large number of weavers reported muscular pains in the
back, joints and lower abdomen. Other common complaints included hernia
and high/low blood pleasure, low appetite and sleep, weakness, stomach upset,
gastric and vomiting and may be related to the strenuous work environment due
to long working hours. Most of the weavers were found to have a case history
of fever and typhoid due to consumption of contaminated water and improper
sanitation facilities.13 Hence, to lead a productive and peaceful life, one needs
good health. Majority of health troubles caused in the handloom industry have
chronic or long term effects, caused by repeated exposure.
3. 10.1. Occupational Diseases:
It is too common for handloom weavers to suffer from a variety of
occupational health hazards and these problems become severe and acute, as
they become aged. Occupational diseases induced by prolonged work,
excessive physical exertion, association of psychological stress in work,
harmful factors inherent in materials used by the weavers, and working in poor
ventilated and illuminated conditions.14 Some of the health hazards associated
with handloom workers include the following:
a. Eye sight
b. Early cataract
c. Loss of vision for the work
d. High or low blood pressure
e. Heart problem
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f. Damage of lungs
g. Filaria
h. Arthritis
i. Musculo-skeletal disorder
The other important serious health hazards akin to handloom weavers
are those related to malnourishment. This is largely evident by their
disproportionate body structure, under-weight, loss of hair and anemia. The
aging process among the handloom weavers appears to be very rapid. A vast
majority of them appear much older than their age due to continuous movement
of the body in their weaving activity.
Table � III. 10. DETAILS OF HEALTH CONDITIONS OF THE SAMPLE
WEAVERS
Category of Weavers
Type of Disease
Independent Weavers
Weavers under MWs
Weavers under Co-operative
Societies
Total
Count 17 166 14 197
Row% 8.6% 84.3% 7.1% 100.0% Anemia Column % 25.0% 36.6% 13.1% 31.3%
Count 12 87 22 121
Row% 9.9% 71.9% 18.2% 100.0% Damage of Lungs Column % 17.6% 19.2% 20.6% 19.2%
Count 23 125 28 176
Row% 13.1% 71.0% 15.9% 100.0% Filaria Column % 33.8% 27.5% 26.2% 28.0% Count 7 38 4 49
Row% 14.3% 77.6% 8.2% 100.0% Blood Pressure / Heart Problem
Column % 10.3% 8.4% 3.7% 7.8%
Count 0 14 13 27
Row% .0% 51.9% 48.1% 100.0% Eye Problem Column % .0% 3.1% 12.1% 4.3% Count 9 24 26 59
Row% 15.3% 40.7% 44.1% 100.0% Arthritis Column % 13.2% 5.3% 24.3% 9.4%
Count 68 454 107 629 Row% 10.8% 72.2% 17.0% 100.0%
Total
Column % 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Source: Compiled from collected data Note: Pearson Chi-Square value: 74.820, df: 10, Significance: 0.000***
102
Fig. III. 9: DETAILS OF HEALTH CONDITIONS OF THE SAMPLE WEAVERS
The details given in the Table�III.10 revealed the fact that a vast
majority of the respondents (31.3 per cent) are suffering from anemia and a
significant percentage of workers also have been suffering from occupational
diseases. The Chi-square value is very highly significant at 0.001 level.
3.10.2. Children Health:
As per the Hunger and Malnutrition (HUNGaMA) Report (2012)
submitted by Naandi Foundation, the prevalence of malnutrition is significantly
higher among the children from low-income families. It has also noted that the
children belonging to the households of Backward Classes, Scheduled Castes
and Tribes communities generally have recorded worse nutrition indicators.15
A startling fact is that a vast majority of the children of handloom
weavers are found to be malnourished, leading to under-weight and serious
stunting � meaning their height is much lower for their age.
103
An attempt has been made to find out the health conditions of children
of the respondents. It is unfortunate to note that of the 629 respondents, the
children of 68 per cent respondents are suffering from the problem of
malnourishment and stunting. The low income level of the respondent weavers
is considered as the main reason and that they are unable to spend enough
amount for getting and providing nutritional food to their children.
3.10.3. Health Insurance:
Health insurance is a mechanism by which a person protects himself
from financial loss caused due to accident and/or disability.16 The Government
of India is providing a Health Insurance Scheme for weavers for providing
access to healthcare facilities for all existing diseases as well as new diseases
from the financial year 2007-08 onwards through ICICI Lombard General
Insurance Company Limited. The scheme envisages covering not only the
weavers but also his spouse and two children. The ICICI Lombard shall pay /
reimburse the expenses incurred by the weavers in course of medical treatment
availed of in any hospital or nursing home within the country to the limit of
Rs.15,000 per family per annum, out of which OPD coverage is Rs.7,500. The
coverage of weavers under the scheme during the succeeding years of 2007-08,
2008-09, 2009-10 and 2010-11 was 17.74 lakh, 18.78 lakh, 16.11 lakh and 16
lakh (target) respectively.
104
Table � III. 11. DETAILS OF COVERAGE OF HEALTH INSURANCE SCHEME
AMONG THE SAMPLE WEAVERS
Category of Weavers Coverage of
Health Insurance Scheme
Independent Weavers
Weavers under MWs
Weavers under Co-operative
Societies
Total
Count 23 89 83 195
Row% 11.8% 45.6% 42.6% 100.0% Yes Column %
33.8% 19.6% 77.6% 31.0%
Count 45 365 24 434
Row% 10.4% 84.1% 5.5% 100.0% No Column %
66.2% 80.4% 22.4% 69.0%
Count 68 454 107 629
Row% 10.8% 72.2% 17.0% 100.0% Total Column
% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Source: Compiled from collected data Note: Pearson Chi-Square value: 136.306, df: 2, Significance: 0.000***
Fig. III. 10: DETAILS OF COVERAGE OF HEALTH INSURANCE SCHEME AMONG THE SAMPLE WEAVERS
Table-III.11. presents the details of sample weavers whether they have
joined in health insurance scheme or not. Whereas in the study area, out of the
629 sample weavers, only 31 per cent of the weavers have joined the health
105
insurance schemes by paying Rs.180 per annum as premium towards health
insurance scheme. The Chi-square value is very highly significant at 0.001
level. The weavers also expressed their opinion about its coverage that they
have availed medical facilities at free of cost upto Rs.5,000 per annum.
The remaining respondents are unable to undergo any health insurance
scheme due to lack of awareness and savings. Majority of the handloom
workers in India are not aware of the occupational health risks, partly because
they are self-employed and unorganized and partly due to their willingness to
accept risk of injury or damage as being a part of traditional occupation.
It is also important to note that basic facilities at the work place,
including toilets, natural or artificial exhaust systems for circulation of fresh
air, adequate lighting and first aid facilities significantly reduce the health
hazards of handloom weavers.
3.10.4. Life Insurance:
The �Mahatma Gandhi Bunkar Bheema Yojana (MGBBY)� is being
implemented for providing life insurance coverage to the handloom weavers in
case of natural or accidental death, total and partially disability due to accident,
since 2005-06 by the Government of India. This scheme is being operated by
Life Insurance Corporation of India. In addition, under this scheme a
scholarship of Rs.300 per quarter per child is given to the students studying in
IX to XII standard for a maximum period of four years.
106
Table � III. 12. DETAILS OF COVERAGE OF LIFE INSURANCE SCHEME
AMONG THE SAMPLE WEAVERS
Category of Weavers Coverage of
Life Insurance Scheme
Independent Weavers
Weavers under MWs
Weavers under Co-operative
Societies
Total
Count 18 99 58 175
Row% 10.3% 56.6% 33.1% 100.0% Yes
Column % 26.5% 21.8% 54.2% 27.8%
Count 50 355 49 454
Row% 11.0% 78.2% 10.8% 100.0% No
Column % 73.5% 78.2% 45.8% 72.2%
Count 68 454 107 629
Row% 10.8% 72.2% 17.0% 100.0% Total
Column % 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Source: Compiled from collected data Note: Pearson Chi-Square value: 45.334, df: 2, Significance: 0.000***
Fig: III. 11: DETAILS OF COVERAGE OF LIFE INSURANCE SCHEME AMONG THE SAMPLE WEAVERS
The study reveals that out of 629 sample weavers, 175 weavers have
joined in MGBBY scheme which worked out only 27.8 per cent (see Table-
III.12.) and the remaining (72.2 per cent) are not covered under this scheme.
The Chi-square value is very highly significant at 0.001 level.
107
Among the three selected categories of the weavers, majority of the
weavers working for societies have awareness about life insurance scheme and
due to that 54 per cent of the society weavers joined in MGBBY scheme and
contributing their share of premium Rs.80 per annum. Due to lack of awareness
about welfare schemes offered by the Government, the independent and
weavers under master weavers are not able to take advantage of the benefits
provided under this and many other schemes.
3. 11. LEVEL OF POVERTY AMONG THE WEAVERS
Poverty is a state where a person finds it unable to maintain a minimum
socially accepted level of standard of living. It is regarded as the root cause for
low levels of health and educational outcomes, poor access to clean water and
sanitation, inadequate physical security, lack of voice and insufficient capacity
and opportunity for mobility. Poverty alleviation remained the central to all the
state and central level policy making.17
Since independence, poverty in India has remained an issue of great
concern. Poverty has been defined on basis of the money required to buy food
worth 2100 calories in urban areas and 2400 calories in rural areas. As of 2010,
more than 37 per cent of India�s population of 1.35 billion still lives below the
poverty line. More than 22 per cent of the entire rural population and 15 per
cent of the urban population of India exist in this difficult physical and
financial predicament.
The incidence of poverty is not uniform across India. The level of
poverty is below 10 per cent in states like Delhi, Goa, and Punjab, etc. whereas
108
it is very significant in states like Bihar (43 per cent) and Orissa (47 per cent).
It is between 30-40 per cent in States of Assam, Tripura, Mehgalaya, Tamil
Nadu and Uttar Pradesh.
It is often believed that handloom work is mostly undertaken by
economically weaker households, since it is because of lack of adequate
financial resources. According to the Third National Handloom Census, 9.7 per
cent of the handloom workers belong to the poorest of the poor category due to
holding of Antodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) card and 36.9 per cent belong to the
Below Poverty Line (BPL) category. About 34.5 per cent of the workers hold
Above Poverty Line (APL) cards. It is likely that many households (18.9 per
cent) belong to the �no ration card� category. It is also noted that the majority of
the BPL card holders are to be found in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu and Karnataka.
Table � III. 13. DISTRIBUTION OF HANDLOOM HOUSEHOLDS
BY TYPE OF RATION CARDS
Category of Weavers Type of
Ration Card
Independent Weavers
Weavers under MWs
Weavers under Co-operative Societies
Total
Count 61 345 102 508
Row% 12.0% 67.9% 20.1% 100.0% White card
Column % 89.7% 76.0% 95.3% 80.8%
Count 7 19 5 31
Row% 22.6% 61.3% 16.1% 100.0% Pink card
Column % 10.3% 4.2% 4.7% 4.9%
Count 0 90 0 90
Row% .0% 100.0% .0% 100.0% No Ration Card
Column % .0% 19.8% .0% 14.3%
Count 68 454 107 629
Row% 10.8% 72.2% 17.0% 100.0% Total
Column % 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Source: Compiled from collected data Note: Pearson Chi-Square value: 43.951, df: 4, Significance: 0.000***
109
Fig. III. 12: DISTRIBUTION OF HANDLOOM HOUSEHOLDS BY TYPE OF RATION CARDS
Different colours are used for categorization of the type of ration card.
However, in the State of Andhra Pradesh, the colour of APL card is pink, for
BPL card it is white and for AAY card it is blue.
The study also revealed that about 80.8 per cent (see Table-III.13.) of
the respondents have white ration cards as they belong to the poor category and
only 4.9 per cent of the weavers have pink ration cards. About 14.3 per cent of
the respondents do not have any card, since they are migrant weavers. The Chi-
square value is very highly significant at 0.001 level.
3. 12. EXPOSURE TO MASS MEDIA AND COMMUNICATION
Today, mass media play an important role. It exerts influence on
individuals� community, society and the nation at large. It creates place, time
and possession utilities. To an individual, the level of exposure to mass media
determines the level of awareness, knowledge, understanding, perception and
attitude on his/her own self and circumstances around him/her. Use of mass
110
media and frequency of usage have been considered to measure the level of
exposure.18 Thus, respondents were asked to answer the following questions:
i. Do you have telephone facility?
ii. What type of phone are you using?
iii. What is the average telephone bill paid per month?
iv. Do you have television/ radio facility?
Of the 629 respondents, 52 weavers have land phone connections and
271 weavers have mobile phones. 33 respondents have both of them. The
average telephone or mobile phone bill paid by the respondents worked out to
Rs.100-200. But it is unfortunate that 273 (44 per cent) respondents have no
telephone facility. So, in respect of their connectivity to mass media 62 per cent
of the respondents have a radio or transistor and 38 per cent of the respondents
have television sets of low range.
3.13. SERVICES/AMENITIES ENJOYED BY THE WEAVERS
3.13.1. Electricity Facility:
It is gratifying to note that a majority of the respondents (91 per cent)
have electricity connections. It is unfortunate to note that 9 per cent of the
households still do not enjoy the minimum facility, even in the independent
India. Though majority of the respondents have electricity connection and their
consumption levels are very low at less than 100 units a month including the
household and occupational consumption.
3.13.2. Toilet Facility:
Another measure of indication of better living enjoyed by the
respondents is the provision towards sanitation. The researcher has enquired
111
into the toilet facility available to the respondents and has noticed that about 83
per cent of the respondents have closets with adequate sanitation. The other
respondents are forced to utilize the services of group facility or use the open
defecation.
3.12.3. Cooking Fuel:
India derives the bulk of its cooking energy needs from solid fuels, such
as firewood and cattle dung. In contrast, economically developed countries use
cleaner cooking fuels. India also displays a striking rural-urban dichotomy in
its choice of cooking fuels. An overwhelming, about 80 per cent of the rural
homes use biomass-firewood, crop residue or cow dung as their primary
cooking fuel.
Several factors further explain this urban rural dichotomy. Urban areas
report higher per capita incomes, larger per capita household expenditures,
higher average levels of education, and greater ecological consciousness. As a
result, more urban homes opt for cleaner fuels like LPG or Piped Natural Gas
(PNG), in comparison to their rural counterparts.19
According to the Census of India (2011), two-thirds of households
continue to use of firewood, crop residue, and cow dung cakes for cooking �
putting women to significant health hazards and hardship. At present, the
proportion of handloom households are using cleaner fuels such as LPG and
electricity have significantly decreased indicating worsening of financial status
of the surveyed weavers� households. While 83 per cent of the surveyed
weaver households have been using firewood, crop residue and cow dung as
112
the cooking fuel. The rest of the households (17 per cent) are using LPG as the
cooking fuel.
3.12.4. Food Intake:
The competitive environment in the textile sector has adversely affected
the operation and growth of traditional handloom industry in rural areas,
making many traditional weavers financially ruined and weaker. The resulting
effect on the rural economy linked to the weaver community has been reflected
in deterioration in their socio-economic and livelihood status. The study
examines the changing livelihood conditions of the weaver community with
regard to their food security and quality of food intake.
The survey results pertaining to the intake of food present the disturbing
picture prevalent among the handloom weavers. It is unfortunate that majority
(67 per cent) of them are able to take meal twice a day. The quality of food also
is an issue of concern, because many of them are eating rice provided by the
Government under kg. for Rs.1 scheme. This states the pathetic situation of the
handloom weavers. The general body structure of the weavers is that majority
of them are very lean and apply to be �live-skeleton �.
3.12.5. Drinking Water:
Safe drinking water is paramount for healthy living. Article 47 of
Constitution of India confers the duty of providing clean drinking water and
improving public health standards to the State. Since independence, the
Government has been undertaking various programmes to provide safe
113
drinking water to the masses.20 Till the X Plan, an amount of Rs.1,105 billion
spent on providing safe drinking water.
According to the Census of India, 2011, 32 per cent of households use
treated water for drinking and 17 per cent still fetch drinking water from a
source located more than 500 metres in rural areas or 100 metres in urban
centres. The average availability of water in India is reducing steadily due to
the growing of population and India will become a water stressed nation by
2020.
Availability of safe drinking water and its use by the surveyed weaver
households have been analysed. Among the 629 surveyed households, nearly
11 per cent of them reported having their own dug-well/hand pump supplying
them water for drinking and other domestic purposes. Respondents (72 per
cent) belonging to the areas of Mangalagiri, Repalle, Bhattiprolu, Tenali,
Guntur and Ponnuru are mainly collecting drinking water from public hand
pumps/dug-wells installed in their areas by the authorities of
Panchayaties/Municipalities. The scarcity of drinking water is relatively more
prevalent particularly in summer season. About 11 per cent of the respondents
reported that there is scarcity of drinking water in the areas of Sattenapalli,
Chilakaluripet, Phirangipuram, Tsundur, Nekarikallu, Piduguralla and
Machavaram and they are getting drinking water from a source located more
than 400 metres.
114
These and many other contrasting facts of life have come out from the
studies initiated by the Government of India, as a part of their enumeration for
Census � 2011.
The data on housing, household amenities and assets cast new light on a
country in the throes of a complex transition, where millions have access to
state-of-the-art technologies and consumer goods � but a larger number lacks
access to the most rudimentary facilities.
It shows Indian society is overwhelmingly made up of nuclear families.
They have ever more access to electricity and gather their information from
television, rather than radio at the same time, women are forced to rely on
traditional smoky fuels to cook, and less than a third of the population have
access to treated drinking water.
Table � III. 14. LIFE STYLE OF THE PEOPLE OF INDIA
(HIGHLIGHTS OF CENSUS 2011) (Figures in %) S. No. Amenities Rural Urban Total
1. One-room households 39.4 32.1 37.1 2. Tap water from treated source 17.9 62.0 32.0 3. Electricity 55.3 92.7 67.2
Latrine facility in house 30.7 81.4 46.9 i. Of which piped sewer system 2.2 32.7 11.9
4.
ii. Of which no drainage 63.2 18.2 48.9 5. Firewood for cooking 62.5 20.1 49.0 6. LPG/PNG for cooking 11.4 65.0 28.5 7. Availing banking services 54.4 67.8 58.7 8. Television 33.4 76.7 47.2 9. Computer (with internet) 0.7 8.3 3.1 10. Computer (without internet) 4.4 10.4 6.3 11. Telephone (Landline or mobile) 54.3 82.0 63.2 12. Telephone ( Mobile only) 47.9 64.3 53.2 13. Bicycle 46.2 41.9 44.8 14. Scooter/Motorcycle/Moped 14.3 35.2 21.0 15. Car/Jeep/Van 2.3 9.7 4.7 16. None of the specified assets 22.9 7.0 17.8
Source: Houselisting and Housing Data Highlights, Census of India - 2011.
115
Only 46.9 per cent of the total 246.6 million households have toilet
facilities. Of the rest, 3.2 per cent use public toilets and 49.8 per cent ease
themselves in the open. In stark contrast, 63.2 per cent of the households own a
telephone connection � 53.2 per cent of mobile phones.
These bare facts (see Table-III.14) presents a contrasting picture of
Indian life, posing a big concern for the politicians and policy makers alike.
3.14. SOCIAL PARTICIPATION
Some of the researchers have attempted to account for the social
participation of handloom weavers in terms of their holding positions in
various social organizations. Social participation of an individual refers to
holding positions in various formal and informal social organizations such as
co-operatives, panchayat bodies, political parties, NGOs, religious
organizations, caste organizations, youth clubs, mahila mandals, self-help
groups, educational institutions, Government bodies, etc.21
Table � III. 15. DETAILS OF LEVEL OF SOCIAL PARTICIPATION OF
HANDLOOM WEAVER HOUSEHOLDS Category of Weavers
Level of Social Participation
Independent Weavers
Weavers under MWs
Weavers under Co-operative
Societies
Total
Count 6 38 9 53
Row% 11.3% 71.7% 17.0% 100.0% High
(21-30) Column % 8.8% 8.4% 8.4% 8.4%
Count 62 315 86 463
Row% 13.4% 68.0% 18.6% 100.0% Medium (11-20)
Column % 91.2% 69.4% 80.4% 73.6%
Count 0 101 12 113
Row% .0% 89.4% 10.6% 100.0% Low
(1-10) Column % .0% 22.2% 11.2% 18.0%
Count 68 454 107 629 Row% 10.8% 72.2% 17.0% 100.0%
Total
Column % 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% Source: Compiled from collected data Note: Pearson Chi-Square value: 24.195, df: 4, Significance: 0.000***
116
Fig. III. 13: DETAILS OF LEVEL OF SOCIAL PARTICIPATION OF HANDLOOM WEAVER HOUSEHOLDS
Based on the social participation, index score of respondents was
grouped into three categories viz. low level (score between1-10), medium level
(score between11-20) and high level (score between 21-30). The present study
reveals that the 73.6 per cent of the respondents have medium level of social
participation (see Table-III.15). High level of social participation was found
only among the independent weavers rather than weavers under master weavers
or co-operative societies. The Chi-square value is very highly significant at
0.001 level.
3.15. OCCUPATIONAL PREFERENCES OF WEAVERS� CHILDREN Occupational interest for children among respondents is measured in
terms of four aspects: whether the sample weavers prefer weaving, business,
gold work, painting, carpentry, Government service for their children.
117
Table � III. 16. DETAILS OF OCCUPATIONAL PREFERENCES OF CHILDREN
OF HANDLOOM WEAVER HOUSEHOLDS Category of Weavers
Occupational Preference of Children
Independent Weavers
Weavers under MWs
Weavers under Co-operative Societies
Total
Count 7 79 19 105
Row% 6.7% 75.2% 18.1% 100.0% Weaving
Column % 10.3% 17.4% 17.8% 16.7%
Count 32 62 27 121
Row% 26.4% 51.2% 22.3% 100.0% Business
Column % 47.1% 13.7% 25.2% 19.2%
Count 6 118 39 163
Row% 3.7% 72.4% 23.9% 100.0% Govt. Service
Column % 8.8% 26.0% 36.4% 25.9%
Count 23 195 22 240
Row% 9.6% 81.3% 9.2% 100.0% Gold work
Column % 33.8% 43.0% 20.6% 38.2%
Count 68 454 107 629
Row% 10.8% 72.2% 17.0% 100.0% Total
Column % 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Source: Compiled from collected data. Note: Pearson Chi-Square value: 62.589, df: 6, Significance: 0.000***
Fig. III. 14: DETAILS OF OCCUPATIONAL PREFERENCES OF CHILDREN OF HANDLOOM WEAVER HOUSEHOLDS
118
The present study reveals the fact that 38 per cent (see Table-III.16) of
the respondents prefer gold work as an occupation for their children, 25.9 per
cent of the weavers prefer Government service for their children and 19.2 per
cent of the respondents opt the business activity as an occupation for their
children. Only 16.7 per cent of the respondents prefer to involve their children
in the hereditary occupation of weaving. The weavers under co-operative
societies are more conscious about higher education and they intend to put their
children into Government service. But it is interesting to note that the
independent weavers and the weavers under master weavers have less interest
to put their children in their hereditary occupation and they have a strong
feeling that the goldsmithy work will provide better livelihood to their children.
The Chi-square value is very highly significant at 0.001 level.
119
3. 15. CONCLUSIONS
The following parameters are the conclusions drawn from the present
study:
1. Age is one of the important social factors having influence on the
economic and demographic profile of the working groups. The aging of
the population is a cause of worry to the nations, as it enhances the
dependency. Among the sample wavers, 41.2 per cent of are in the age
group of 46-60 years, much above the national average of 15.1 per cent.
Another startling revelation of the study is that the younger generation is
not opting weaving as their preferred profession.
2. Gender is also an important social dimension. Weaving is a kind of
profession which provides opportunity for all types of persons to
choose. Women are also the significant number in the handloom
activity. As per the Third National Handloom Census, 77.9 per cent of
the workers are women. In contrast, the ratio between males and females
stood at 82:18 for the present study.
3. In respect of social grouping, majority (97 per cent) of the handloom
workers in the study area belong to Backward Classes, dominated by
few communities, viz. Padmasali, Devanga, Puttusali, etc.
4. Literacy is one of the important social variables having influence on the
socio � economic development of individuals. It has been reported by
the Third National Handloom Census that 29.4 per cent of handloom
workers never attended the school and 12.7 per cent have education
below the primary level. A vast majority of them, i.e. 82.9 per cent have
120
educational level of middle school and below. The present survey
indicates that 18.3 per cent of the sample weavers are illiterate. Among
those having education, majority of them (70.7 per cent) have reached
upto primary level only.
5. An attempt has also been made to find the educational levels of the
children of the sample weavers. It is unfortunate to note that of the 629
respondents, the children of 444 (70 per cent) respondents are not going
to any school. The percentage of children that completed at least school
final stood at only 8.9 and those that entered the portals of University
are about 5.7 per cent.
6. Type and size of the families are an important issue in the study of
social conditions of any group of respondents. Nucleus families have
turned out to be the general social norm.
7. Migration is an important issue in understanding social and economic
dimensions of development. Migration with respect to handloom
workers is predominantly of short distance nature. Of the 629 sample
handloom households, 386 respondents (61 per cent) have migrated
from the other mandals and districts. It is to be noted that out of 386
migrated families, 47 weavers are independent weavers, 306 weavers are
working under master weavers and the remaining 33 weavers are
working with societies.
8. Numerous studies and reports have raised concern over the
occupational health and safety of the workers in India. Handloom is also
121
considered one of the activities having potential danger leading to
diseases such as eye sight, early cataract, loss of vision, high/low blood
pressure, heart problem, damage of lungs, filaria, arthritis and musculo-
skeletal disorder. Of the 629 sample handloom households, 31.3 per cent
of the respondents have reported that they have been suffering from
anemic and significant percentage of the respondents have been
suffering from filaria, damage of lungs, heart problems, blood pressure
and arthritis.
9. It is also unfortunate to note that the children of 68 per cent respondents
are suffering from the problems of malnourishment and stunting.
10. Though majority of the respondents have electricity connection and their
consumption levels are very low at less than 100 units a month including
the household and occupational consumption.
11. About 83 per cent of the respondents have closets with adequate
sanitation. The other respondents are forced to utilize the services of
group facility or use the open defecation. 83 per cent of the surveyed
weaver households have been using firewood, crop residue and cow
dung as the cooking fuel. The rest of the households (17 per cent) are
using LPG as the cooking.
12. It is unfortunate that majority (67 per cent) of them are able to take
meal twice a day. The quality of food also is an issue of concern,
because many of them are eating rice provided by the Government under
kg. for Rs.1 scheme.
122
13. Availability of safe drinking water and its use by the surveyed weaver
households have been analysed. Among the 629 surveyed households,
nearly 11 per cent of them reported having their own dug-well/hand
pump supplying them water for drinking and other domestic purposes.
Respondents (72 per cent) belonging to the areas of Mangalagiri,
Repalle, Bhattiprolu, Tenali, Guntur and Ponnuru are mainly collecting
drinking water from public hand pumps/dug-wells installed in their areas
by the authorities of Panchayaties/Municipalities.
14. The present study reveals the fact that majority of the respondents prefer
gold work and Government service as an occupation for their children.
The independent weavers and the weavers under master weavers have
less interest to put their children in their hereditary occupation and they
have a strong feeling that the goldsmithy work will provide better
livelihood to their children.
123
References:
1. Rama Mohana Rao K., �Impact of Handloom Co-operatives on the
Socio-Economic Conditions of Weavers in Visakhapatnam District�,
Indian Co-operative Review, Vol. XXXV, No.2, October 1997, P. 127.
2. Subbaraj B., Samwel Kakuko Lpoyetum & Karunakaran R., �Influence
of Demographic Dynamics and Socio-Economic Dimensions of
Members of Dairy Cooperative Societies in Dindigul District � An
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2004, P. 102.
3. National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER), �Third
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4. Op. cit., Rama Mohana Rao K., �Impact of Handloom Co-operatives on
the Socio-Economic Conditions of Weavers in Visakhapatnam District�,
P. 127.
5. Op. cit., �Third National Handloom Census�, P. 19.
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7. Op. cit., �Third National Handloom Census�, P. 20.
8. Ibid, P. 10.
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124
14. Nupur Bahl, �Promoting Occupational Health and Safety�, Yojana, May
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15. Prasun Benerjee & Somnath Gangopadhyay, �A Study on the
Prevalence of upper Extremity Repetitive Strain Injuries among the
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