Page 1
194
CHAPTER III
PROFILE OF CASHEW INDUSTRIES AND SOCIO-
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF SAMPLE RESPONDENTS
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Profile of Kanyakumari District
3.3 Agriculutre in Kanyakumari District
3.4 Cashewnut Cultivation in Kanyakumari District
3.5 Origin of Cashew Industry in Kanyakumari District
3.6 Cashew Industries in Kanyakumari District
3.7 Socio-Economic Condition of Sample Respondnets
3.8 Nature of Cashew Workers in Kanyakumari District
Page 2
195
3.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter is divided in to two parts. The first part examins the
profile of cashew industries in the selected district and the second part deals
with the socio-economic background of the sample respondents.
3.2 PROFILE OF KANYAKUMARI DISTRICT
Kanyakumari district once known as the granary of Travancore lies at
the southwestern part of India peninsular. It was with the erstwhile
Travancore for a long time and then merged with Tamil Nadu in 1956 under
the State Linguistic Reorganization Act. It is famous for its vast green
stretches of paddy fields, rich forests, coconut groves and mineral sands.
Kanyakumari district with Nagercoil as district headquarters has two
revenue divisions with four Taluks: Padmanabhapuram has Vilavancode and
Kalkulam Taluks and Nagercoil has Agasteeswaram and Thovalai Taluks.1
3.2.1 Demography
According to the provisional figures for the 2011 census,
Kanyakumari District has a population of 1863174 with the density of 1106
person (2605/54 m1).2 It shows that this district has the highest population
density next to Chennai in Tamil Nadu. The literacy rate is about 90.25 per
cent in the district. Moreover, this district has a high female sex ratio that is
1010 female per 1000 male. Area wise population of Kanyakumari district is
depicted in Table 3.1.
Page 3
196
TABLE 3.1
Area Wise Population
Sl.
No Block/
Municipalities Area in
s.q.km Population
Total Literate
Total
Male Female Male Female 1 Agastheswaram 133.12 73260 75159 148419 60120 28658 88778
2 Rajakkamangalam 120.16 68119 69135 137254 55337 53202 108539
3 Thovalai 369.07 55057 55662 110719 44101 41031 85132
4 Kurunthancodde 106.85 81823 83247 165070 64369 62513 126882
5 Thuckalay 130.33 82488 84774 167262 66461 64967 131428
6 Thiruvattar 344.8 80220 81399 161619 62524 60186 122710
7 Killiyoor 82.7 78663 77724 156387 62173 57758 119931
8 Munchiri 72.01 89122 88103 177225 68366 63095 131461
9 Melpuram 271.89 88578 90957 179535 70560 66651 137211
10 Nagercoil 24.27 102907 105272 208179 88590 86658 175248
11 Padmanabapuram 6.47 9967 10108 20075 8372 7901 16273
12 Colachel 5.18 11996 11791 23787 9275 8733 18008
13 Kuzhithurai 5.15 10069 10434 20503 8419 82933 91352
Source: Census of India 2011, District Statistical Hand Book
It is evident from Table 3.1 that, among the blocks, Agasteswaram is
the biggest block and Munchirai is the smallest block. As far as block wise
population is concerned, Melpuram block has the highest population and
Thovalai block has lowest population. Out of 4 municipalites, Nagercoil is
the biggest municipality having highest population Padmanabhapuram is the
second biggest municipality area wise but having lowest population.3
Page 4
197
3.3 AGRICULTURE IN KANYAKUMARI DISTRICT
Kanyakumari District has a conducive agro climatic and topographic
condition for the development of agriculture and agricultural productivity. In
fact the hill based areas are suitable for growing crops like rubber and the
valleys are fit for cultivating crops like paddy, tapioca, banana, coconut,
ginger, areca nut, etc. The low lands comprising the coastal belt is ideal for
crops like coconut and cashew nut. Thus most of the major crops are grown
in the district. The major crop-wise cultivated areas, production and
productivity are given in Table 3.2.
TABLE 3.2
Crop- Wise Area, Production and Productivity
Sl.No Crop Area (ha) Production
(000’ tons)
Productivity
(kg/ha)
1. Paddy 17710 81611 4608
2. Pulses (Black gram) 986 296.8 301
3. Coconut 24864 2725 lakh nuts 10960 Nuts/ha
4. Banana 5633 134685 23910
5. Tapioca 7817 199427 25512
6. Cashew 1938 1573.6 812
7. Jack 1735 4925.6 2839
8. Jack 773 10232.9 13238
9. Pepper 134 20.1 150
10. Rubber 23357 12847 550
11. Areca nut 532 818.2 1538
12. Cloves & Cinnamon 596 525.6 882
13. Ginger 131 2620 20,000
14. Pineapple 33 1220.7 36,993
15. Cucumber 258 1806 7000
16. Jasmine 117 1643 9118
Source: Season and Crop Report Govt. of Tamil Nadu 2011.
Page 5
198
As revealed by Table 3.2, it is understood that paddy, pulses, coconut,
banana, tapioca, and cashew are grown at large level. The area used for the
cultivation of cashew nut is 1938 hectare and production is 1573600 tons
and the productivity is 812 kg per hectare. But it was grown in 2029 hectare
during 2004-2009. Thus the area under cashew cultivation has been
decreasing even among area under non- agricultural activities. It is true that
more construction of rated houses, buildings and increase of the land used
for cultivation of various crops other than cashew nut results in reduction of
the availability of area for cashew cultivation, production and productivity
of cashew nuts in Kannyakumari District.
3.4 CASHEW NUT- CULTIVATION IN KANYAKUMARI DISTRICT
The cashew nut cultivation from 1960 to 2012 is given Table 3.3.
TABLE 3.3
Cashew nut- Cultivation in Kanyakumari District
(Area and Production)
Sl. No Year Area in
hectare
Production
in tons
1 1960-61 4017 843.2
2 1970-71 4369 918.7
3 1980-81 3124 756.8
4 1990-91 2963 683.1
5 1995-96 2718 604.3
6 2000-01 2617 549.6
7 2004-05 2029 413.0
8 2005-06 1938 337.0
9 2010-11 1643 301.8
10 2011-12 1499 286.1
Source: Season and Crop Report, Govt. of Tamil Nadu, 2011.
Page 6
199
Table 3.3 reveals that the area used for cultivating cashew was 4017
hectare in 1960-61 which increased to 1489 hectare in 2011-2012.
Consequently, cashew production also decreased from 843.2 tons to 286.1
tons during the same period. It is understood that, the importance of cashew
production is neglected in the study area.5 Hence the future of cashew nut,
cashew kernel, cashew nut shell liquid will be depending on imports of these
from other states of India or from foreign countries for domestic use and
market.
3.5 ORIGIN OF CASHEW INDUSTRY IN KANYAKUMARI
DISTRICT
The origin and growth of the cashew industry owes a great deal to the
influence of the industrialists and business men of Kerala than their counter
parts in Tamil Nadu in general and Kanya kumari District in particular. As
per historical evidence available, the first cashew factory in Tamil Nadu was
started in the year 1955 at palavilai in Kanyakumari District by late Mr.
Innasi Muthu Nadar. He was inspired by his close associate. Mr.G.Biswas, a
prominent cashew industrialist of Quilon. Mr. Biswas was in fact a native of
Kanyakumari district.6
The export of cashew kernels to the international market from Tamil
Nadu (Kanyakumari District) was undertaken first by Mr. Biswas himself. It
is evident from available data that in the year 1953, under the firm name
“Cape Cashew Industries”, Mr.G.Biswas sent the first consignment of his
Page 7
200
export containing 400 cases of cashew kernels through the Cochin port. The
pioneering efforts of Mr.G. Biswas paved the way for the growth of cashew
industry in the District. Out of the 234 cashew factories in the district now,
more than 90 per cent are in Kalkulam and Vilavancode Taluks of
Kanyakumari District. In the year 1988 about 50,000 workers were
employed in these factories.7
Reasons for Localization of Cashew Factories in the District.
· Kanyakumari District is very near to Kerala which is the centre of
cashew production, processing and exporting
· The increased government intervention in Kerala owing to a variety
of circumstances led to the gradual shifting of the processing activity
to Kanyakumari District.
· The abundant supply of cheep labour and the low wages paid to the
laborers are the main reasons for the shifting of cashew factories from
Kerala to Kanyakumari District.
· The abundant production of cashew nut in the district is also one of
the reasons for the development of cashew industries.
· Kanyakumari district is thickly populated and industrially backward.
Many people are unemployed. So, it is possible to get more labourers
at low wages rate.
Page 8
201
· Since political awareness is lacking in the region, the employers
could resort to unfair labourer practices. They can exploit the laborers
and need not implement the “Labourer Acts”.
· Transport, water, electricity facilities and the cooperation of the
public are also partially responsible for the localization of factories in
this district.
The Cashew nut factories are running with five types of organization in
the district. They are:
(1) Factories owned and processed by same company / proprietor :
This is simple and self-explanatory. An individual or company will have its
own factory premises and process the cashew nut and market it;
(2) Factories owned by a single person/family but they do not own
raw Cashew. They will process cashew nut for others and charge on the
basis of bag. They will incur the entire expenses and process cashew nut for
others.
(3) Direct Leasing : Some factories, when they incur heavy loss, and
are at the verge of closure, will be leased out to some other companies. The
company, which took the factory for lease will pay a monthly rent, and it
will incur all other expenses including wages and maintenance, etc.
Page 9
202
(4) Indirect Leasing: Some companies, when they exhausted all their
stocks, will invite other companies to process the cashew nut. They will get
a fixed rent for the machinery on the basis of the bags processed. In this
case, the lessee has to pay wages.
(5) Commission Processors: Some employers who are not able to run
the factory and if no company is ready to lease-in their firm or if they do not
want to lease-out, they may give it to individuals who in turn process cashew
nut and will get processing charges. They are also known as commission
processors. They will incur all the cost of labourer, electricity, maintenance
and pay rent to factory owner. They may process cashew nut for one or more
companies.
The cashew nut- processing industry plays a crucial role within the
factory sector employment. It accounts for 24 per cent of the total number of
factories but gives employment to 77 per cent of the total organized sector
employment. Among small-scale industries and agro-based industries also,
the role of cashew nut industry is a critical one.
3.6 CASHEW INDUSTRIES IN KANYAKUMARI DISTRICT
Kanyakumari district is an industrially backward district in Tamil
Nadu. But a large number of cashew industries are in the district. The role of
cashew factory is very important in converting the cashew nuts in to cashew
kernel. The entire cashew processing activities that is, Drying, Roasting,
Page 10
203
Shelling, Peeling, Grading and Packing are done in cashew industries. When
Kanyakumari was the part of Kerala, cashew units were started in Kerala
before the independence of India. Subsequently, after the merger of
Kanyakumari in the Tamil Nadu the rise in wage rate of labourers in Kerala
resulted in the establishment of a number of cashew industries in the district.
That is why concentration of cashew industries is more in Kanyakumari
District than in any other district in Tamil Nadu. The number of cashew
industries in the study area is displayed in Table 3.4.
TABLE 3.4
Cashew Industries in Kanyakumari District
Sl. No Year No. of cashew
Industries
1 1960-61 103
2 1970-71 196
3 1980-81 489
4 1990-91 812
5 2000-01 764
6 2004-05 518
7 2005-06 491
8 2006-07 487
9 2007-08 472
10 2008-09 468
11 2009-10 466
12 2010-11 462
13 2011-12 462
Source: Memo Graph of Marist
Community Party Office Kuzhithurai Kanyakumari District
04.12.2012 Office Record District Industrial Centre
Nagercoil, 2012
Table 3.4 proves that the number of cashew industries had been
increasing in the initial stages, that is it increased from 103 in 1960-61 to
Page 11
204
812 cashew industries in 1990-91. After the year 1990-91 the number of
cashew industries started declining due to the expansion of area under
rubber and coconut cultivation and non- agricultural purposes.8 The taluk /
block wise statistics of cashew factories is presented in Table 3.5.
TABLE 3.5
Taluk / Block Wise Cashew Factories
Taluk & Block No. of
Factories Total Percentage
VILAVANCDE
Melpuram 183 323 39.61
Munchirai 81 17.53
Killiyoor 59 12.77
KALKULAM
Thirvattar 64 112 13.85
Thuckalay 27 5.85
Kurunthencode 21 4.55
AGASTEESWARAM
Rajakkamangalam 7 19 1.52
Augusteeswaram 12 2.59
THOVALAI
Thovalai 8 8 1.73
Total 462 100
Source: Official Document Issued by Inspector of Factories
Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu dated 13-12-2012.
Page 12
205
As revealed by Table 3.5, the highest number of cashew industries are
located in Vilavancode Taluk and out of that 39.661 per cent is in Melpuram
block, 17.53 per cent in Munchirai block and 12.77 per cent in Killiyoor
block. Of the total 69.41 per cent cashew industries found in Vilavancode
taluk. About 24.25 per cent cashew industries are found in Kalkulam taluk.
Among the three blocks in the taluk, 13.85 per cent are located in
Thiruvattar and 5.85 per cent in Thackalay. Similarly, 4.55 per cent cashew
industries are found in Agasteeswaram taluk and out of that 1.52 per cent is
in Rajakkamagalam and 2.59 per cent in Agateeswaram Block. Thovalai
taluk is the one with lowest concentration of cashew industries compared
with the other three taluks of the district. The study shows that only 1.73 per
cent of the cashew industries are found in Thovalai taluk. The number of
male and female cashew workers during 2012 is displayed in Table 3.6.
TABLE3.6
Cashew Workers in Kanyakumari District- 2012
Taluk
No. of Workers Total
Per cent
Per cent of
Women
Workers Male Female
Vilavancode
527
26752
27260
67.50
98.07
Kalkulam
697
11241
11938
29.54
94.16
Thovalai
217
702
919
2.27
76.39
Agasteeswaram 63 216 279 0.69 77.42
Total 1504 38911 40396 100.00 346.04
Source: Memograph Kuzhithurai
Page 13
206
Table 3.6 shows that out of the total cashew workers, a majority of
67.5 per cent are in Vilavancode taluk, 29.54 per cent in Kalukulam Taluk
and 2.27 per cent are from Thovalai taluk. It is understood that Vilavancode
taluk accounts for more workers than all other taluks. Agasteeswaram taluk
has the lowest cashew works in the district. It is also important to note that
more than 95 per cent of workers in cashew industries are female workers. It
is 96.28 per cent in Kanyakumari District.9
Industrialization in Kanyakumari District
The industrial development started in Tamil Nadu over the last few
decades has not made any significant impact on Kanyakumari. It continued
to be one of the industrially backward districts in the state. Once, out of the
total industrial units in the district, 90 per cent of them were cashew nut
industries. Since this accounts for 90 per cent of cashew units in Tamil
Nadu, the trend of the cashew industry in Kanyakumari could be generalized
as the trend of cashew nut industries in Tamil Nadu.10
Many studies have pointed out that there was a major shifting of
industries from Kerala to Tamil Nadu. It is also found that the cashew nut
industrialists shifted their firms to evade labour legislation and to deny the
worker’s legitimate share of wages in Kerala. However, it is imperative to
find out the exact reasons for such a shift, and its implications for both the
states.
Page 14
207
3.7 SOCIO ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF SAMPLE RESPONDENTS
This part of the study presents the socio- economic conditions of
cashew labourers in Kanyakumari District. Deepa (1994)11
in her study
indicates that the major share of the work force in the cashew Processing
industry is women and about 95 per cent of the workers are drawn from the
depressed castes. Kannan2 in his study points out that nearly three fourth of
the workers belong to the scheduled castes and that they as well as half of
those belonging to other backward communities were employed in Roasting
and Shelling. The forward castes and Muslims constitute only 14 per cent
and 8 per cent respectively of the workers engaged in these categories of
work. Workers belonging to forward and Muslim communities are
concentrated in the Peeling section. He highlights the fact that the majority
of the workers in the cashew, processing industry were socially backward
and economically disadvantaged groups. Lindaberg (2004)12
in her study
states that the women workers of the cashew factories in Kerala suffer from
great poverty deprivation and starvation than the average Malayalee. Hence,
attempt is made to find out the socio- economic conditions of cashew
labourers in the study area.
3.7.1 Age of the Sample Respondents
The age distribution of workers indicate a pattern in which women
workers start working from the late childhood stage until marriage. After
Page 15
208
marriage, they discontinue for a few years, probably to look after kids or
because of the unwillingness of the husband to allow the wife to go out for
work. After a few years, they rejoin the workforce in order to supplement
the family income. They work in the Shelling, Peeling and Grading sections
alone. Male workers are generally engaged in the roasting section. Only one
male worker was found to be working as a tin-filling macaud, a category of
worker who are not exactly supervisors but assisted the management. All the
male workers are between the age group of 25 to 55. There is no clear
segregation of workers in certain sections where children work. The data on
age at work reveales that five women workers started working at the age of
7-10. There is significant difference between male and female workers in
terms of the age they enter the factory. In the case of male workers, all of
them are found to have joined only after the age of 20.
Age is one of the most important determinants of social status and the
economic activities of the individual. Generally, the physical, intellectual
and social development, and vocational efficiency is found high in between
the age of 18 and 60. Hence, the efficiency of cashew labourers is closely
and directly associated with their age. Here, all sample respondents have
been grouped on the basis of their respective age. The age wise distribution
of the sample respondents is shown in Table 3.7.
Page 16
209
TABLE 3.7
Age wise Distribution of the Sample Respondents
Sl.
No Category
Age and No. of Respondents Total
10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70
1 Shelling 9 13 20 31 22 5 100
2 Peeling 6 16 27 24 19 8 100
3 Grading 4 9 12 15 7 3 50
Total 19
(7.6)
38
(15.2)
59
(23.6)
70
(28.0)
48
(19.2)
16
(6.4)
250
(100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total.
Table 3.7 reveals that only a few cashew labourers in between the age
of 10 and 20, and 60 and 70 are working in cashew industry. It is 7.6 per
cent and 6.4 per cent respectively. It is interesting to note that 28 per cent of
the labourers are in between the age group of 40 and 50, 23.6 per cent in
between 30 and 40 age and 19.2 per cent labourers come under the age
group of 50 and 60. It is also seen that only 15.2 per cent labourers in
cashew industry fall under the age group of 20 and 30. It shows that no
labourer in between 10 and 20 age is found working in cashew industries.
This may be due to the labourer policy of the Government of India. Most of
the labourers are in between age 30-50, that is 51.6 per cent labourers under
this group are engaged in cashew processing activities.
Page 17
210
3.7.2 Religion
In comparison to other districts, Kanyakumari has the largest
proportion of Christians. This is also reflected in the study. Nearly 58 per
cent workers are Christians and the rest are Hindus and Muslims. These are
the major religious categories found in Kanyakumari District. It is also one
of the factors that determines or differentiates the status of the individual in
the society. It is in no way influencing the efficiency of labourer in cashew
industry. However, it is better to have an understanding of the religious
affiliation of the sample respondents. The religious affiliation and the
number of sample respondents is shown in Table 3.8.
TABLE 3.8
Religious wise Distribution of Sample Respondents
Sl.
No Category
Religion and No. of Respondents Total
Hindu Christian Muslim
1 Shelling 51 44 5 100
2 Peeling 49 43 8 100
3 Grading 23 21 6 50
Total 123
(49.2)
108
(43.2)
19
(7.6)
250
(100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentages to total
Table 3.8 exhibits that, 49.2 per cent of women workers engaged in
cashew processing belong to Hindu religion, 43.2 per cent from Christian,
Page 18
211
and 7.6 per cent are Muslim. It is understood that the number of Hindu
women in cashew processing is higher than that of Christians and Muslims.
Out of 100 respondents engaged in Shelling, 51 are Hindus, 44 are
Christians and 5 are Muslims. In the case of 100 respondents in Peeling, 49
are Hindus, 43 are Christians and 8 are Muslims. As for as Grading is
concerned, out of 50 respondents, 46 are Hindus, 42 are Christians and 12
are Muslims. Thus, the number of Hindu women labourers working in
cashew industry is higher than the labourers belonging to other religions.
3.7.3 Community
Nadars, a backward community is predominant in the district.
Invariably they constitute more than 50 per cent of the total workers. A rigid
caste-based segregation of work was not found in the surveyed factories of
Kanyakumari. Workers from all castes work in the Shelling section. In fact
one worker, who happened to be a Panikker, a backward caste two other
workers, from the Pillais, a forward caste, and other one from Ezhava
communty considered backward caste in Kerala is also working respectively
in the Shelling and Grading section. Accordingly, of the sample respondents
five workers belong to forward castes and 78 workers to the backward
category. Another surprising finding is that there are no forward caste men
working in the Cashewnut industry as workers.
Page 19
212
On the socio-economic basis in India, there are five community
groups namely Forward, Backward, Most backward, Scheduled Caste and
Scheduled Tribes. Therefore, the selected sample respondents are classified
on the basis of community. The community wise distribution of respondents
is exhibited in Table 3.9.
TABLE 3.9
Community wise Distribution of Samples
Sl. No Category
Community and No. of
Respondents Total
F.C B.C M.B.C SC/ST
1 Shelling 4 71 3 22 100
2 Peeling 12 54 9 25 100
3 Grading 7 23 8 12 50
Total 23
(9.2)
148
(59.2)
20
(8.0)
59
(23.6)
250
(100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total
It is clear from Table 3.9 that of the total, 59.2 per cent women
labourers working in cashew industry belong to Backward communities, and
23.6 per cent from SC/ ST , 9.2 per cent from Forward, and 8 per cent from
Most Backward Communities. It is observed from the study that the number
of Backward Community women workers working in cashew industry is
higher than that belonging to other communities. This is true in the case of
Kerala and other states of India where labourers mostly belong to Backward
Page 20
213
and Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes and their concentration is high in
cashew processing activities.
3.7.4 Education
Kanyakumari stands first in literacy level compared to other districts
of Tamil Nadu. In the study, out of 250 cashew nut workers, nearly 80 per
cent of them are literates. Of these, 29 per cent workers have studied up to
primary level, 35 per cent up to middle school level and 14 per cent up to
secondary level. Almost all the male workers are literates. Among females,
Shelling workers are both literates as well as illiterates. It appears that there
is no link between the section where the worker works and his / her literacy.
All the ‘macauds’ have studied up to middle school. This means, that
literacy level appears to play a very limited role in accessing jobs in
cashewnut industry, particularly for women. The participation of the
individual in any social or economic activities is highly influenced by his/
her level of education. This is applicable to different types of cashew
processing also. People of different levels of education are found working in
the cashew industry. So, an attempt is made to find out the educational status
of cashew labourers engaged in different types of cashew processing. The
educational status of sample respondents is expressed in Table 3.10.
Page 21
214
TABLE 3.10
Education wise Distribution of Sample Respondents
Sl
.
N
o
Categor
y
Level of literacy and No. of Respondents
Tota
l
Illitera
cy
Primar
y
School
Middl
e
Schoo
l
High
Scho
ol
Hr. Sec.
School
Colleg
e
1 Shelling 18 29 26 17 10 - 100
2 Peeling 21 15 27 20 14 3 100
3 Grading - 4 18 17 9 2 50
Total 39
(15.6)
48
(19.2)
71
(28.4)
54
(21.6)
33
(13.2)
5
(2.0)
250
100
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total
It is evident from Table 3.10 that among cashew workers 84.4 per
cent are literates and 15.6 per cent illiterates. Out of the total respondents,
19.2 per cent have primary education, 28.4 per cent have middle school
education, 21.6 per cent have high school education, 13.2 per cent have
higher secondary education and 2.0 per cent have college education. The
table also shows that no illiterate labourer is found in the Grading section
and no college educated labourer in Shelling section. It is observed that
most of the labourers working in cashew industries have middle school
education.
Page 22
215
3.7.5 Marital Status
The respondents are classified into four groups. More than 60 per
cent of them are married and among them eight per cent are widows in
categorized random sample. Out of 47 unmarried workers, 35 were in the
Roasting and Shelling sections. In other sections such as Pass, Grading and
Packing too, more married ones workers are working. It may be due to the
fact that employers prefer unmarried workers to married because they could
work till late in the evening, whereas married women had to rush back to do
household chores and to look after their children. Efficiency could also be
another reason. But it is surprising to find that destitute widows are working
in Roasting, Shelling and Grading sections but not given any macaud jobs.
Cashew processing is a highly labourer intensive industry. About 95
per cent of the labourers engaged in cashew industry are women. Both
married and unmarried women labourers are working in the industry, Hence,
the total sample respondents are stratified on the basis of their marital status.
The maritial status of the sample respondents is presented in Table 3.11.
Page 23
216
TABLE 3.11
Marital Status of Sample Respondents
Sl.
No Category
Marital Status and No. of Respondents
Total
Marrie
d
Un
married
Diverse or
separatio
n
Wido
w
1 Shelling 71 13 7 9 100
2 Peeling 67 18 5 10 100
3 Grading 32 11 3 4 50
Total 170
(68.0)
42
(16.8)
15
(6.0)
23
(9.2)
250
(100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total
Table 3.11 displays that 83.8 percent married and 16.8 per cent
unmarried labourers are working in cashew industry, the percentage of
married cashew labourers include widows, divorced and separated women.
The widows and separated women account for 9.2 per cent and 6.0 per cent
of the total cashew labourers respectively. It is important to note that the per
centage of unmarried cashew labourers (16.8 per cent) is lower than that
(83.2 per cent) of married cashew labourers. It is observed that unmarried
women are not much interested to work in cashew industry.
3.7.6 Size of Family
The size of family refers to the number of members residing in a
family. It includes the number of children and grand parents who reside in
the same house and depend on the respondents for existence. It shows the
Page 24
217
social back ground of the family. Such a study or survey enables to
understand the demographic characteristics of cashew labourers in the study
area. The number of respondents and their family size is depicted in
Table 3.12.
TABLE 3.12
Size of Family wise Distribution of Sample Respondents
Sl.
No Category
Size of Family and No. of
Respondents Total
3 4 5 6 7
1 Shelling 8 17 39 26 10 100
2 Peeling 5 14 46 31 4 100
3 Grading 3 12 17 10 8 50
Total 16
(6.4)
43
(17.2)
102
(40.8)
67
(26.8)
22
(8.8)
250
(100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total
Table 3.12 reveals that out of the total respondents. 6.4 per cent
families have three members in a house, 17.2 per cent have four members
per family, 40.8 per cent have five members per family, 26.8 per cent
families have six members in a house and, 8.8 per cent families have seven
members in a house. It is interesting to note that most families working in
cashew industries has an average of five members. It is also observed that
6.4 per cent families have three members per family and 8.8 per cent have
seven members. However, the size of family of cashew workers is high and
about 67.6 per cent families have three children.
Page 25
218
3.7.7 Nature of Family
Size of the family is directly related to the nature of family. There are
joint and nuclear families. The number of members in joint family is higher
than that in a nuclear family. This is so because the family heads, their
parents, grand parents, wife, children and their brothers’ family live together
in the joint family system. On the other hand, only a family head, his wife
and children reside together in the nuclear family. In the present study, an
attempt is made to know the nature of family of the sample respondents. The
nature of the family of the respondents is presented in Table 3.13.
TABLE 3.13
Nature of Family of Sample Respondents
Sl. No Category
Nature of Family and No. of
Respondents Total
Joint Family Nature Family
1 Shelling 11 89 100
2 Peeling 17 83 100
3 Grading 4 46 50
Total 32
(12.8)
218
(87.2)
250
(100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total
It is clear from Table 3.13 that out of the total sample respondents,
87.2 per cent are living in nuclear family, and only 12.8 per cent living in
joint family. It reveals that the number of nuclear families are higher than
Page 26
219
that of joint families. This is also found as a common characteristic of the
Indian family system.
3.7.8 Types of House
The types of houses is also one of the indicators of the economic
status which determines the labour efficiency. There are four types of houses
found in the study area. They are concrete, tiled, asbestos and thatched
houses. The sample cashew labourers are living in all types of houses. It
demonstrates the economic status of women labourers working in cashew
industries. Most of the labourers are living in concrete houses and a very few
labourers are in thatched house. The Type of house of the sample
respondents is presented in Table 3.14.
TABLE 3.14
House- wise Distribution of Sample Respondents
Sl.
No Category
Types of House and No. of Respondents Total
Concrete Tiles Asbestos Thatched
1 Shelling 44 31 23 2 100
2 Peeling 47 29 21 3 100
3 Grading 30 8 10 2 50
Total 121
(48.4)
68
(27.2)
54
(21.6)
7
(2.8)
250
(100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total
Page 27
220
Table 3.14 indicates that out of the total sample respondents, a
majority of 48.4 per cent cashew labourers are living in concrete houses,
27.2 per cent are in tiled houses, 21.6 per cent are in asbestos houses and 2.8
per cent in thatched houses. It conveys the fact that most of the labourers
working in cashew industries are living in cement concrete houses. But, the
small size of house, labourer cost, and non availability of materials for the
construction of thatched houses, and rise in income and change in life style
are reasons for switching over to concrete houses in the study area.
3.7.9 Nature of Employment
It refers to the availability of employment to individual in any one of
the centres of economic activity. Some are getting regular employment and
others are getting seasonal employment or irregular employment. The
irregular employment of household head influences the participation of
women in cashew processing and in turn their efficiency in production.
Hence, an attempt is made to stratify the respondents on the basis of the
employment of the heads of families. The type and nature of employment of
the head of the family is given in Table 3.15.
Page 28
221
TABLE 3.15
Employment wise Distribution of Sample Respondents Family Head
Sl.
No Category
Nature of Employment and No.
of Respondents Total
Regular Irregular
1 Shelling 42 58 100
2 Peeling 47 53 100
3 Grading 23 27 50
Total 112
(44.8)
158
(55.2)
250
(100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total
Table 3.15 shows that of the total sample respondents, (112), the
heads families of 44.8 per cent cashew labourers are getting regular
employment and 55. 2 per cent family heads are having irregular or seasonal
employment. It is observed that the heads to families of more labourers in
cashew industry have irregular or seasonal employment compared to that of
labourers employed in other industries. Thus, the availability of cashew
labourers is influenced by the nature employment of the head of the family.
3.7.10 Type of Occupation
The types of occupation of the heads of family of the sample
respondents’ family head has been classified as coolie, mason, carpenter and
petty business people. Cashew processing is the source of employment and
income for the socially and economically disadvantaged women in these
families. In fact, most of the family heads of cashew labourers are coolies,
Page 29
222
whose income is lower than that of masion, carpenter or that of business
men. The type of occupation and number of respondents is shown in
Table 3.16.
TABLE 3.16
Occupation wise Distribution of Respondents’ Heads
Sl.
No Category
Occupation Total
Coolie Masion Carpenter Business
1 Shelling 39 22 10 13 84
2 Peeling 32 20 14 19 85
3 Grading 17 11 9 6 43
Total 88
(41.5)
53
(25.0)
33
(15.6)
38
(17.9)
212
(100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total
38 respondents are widow and divorced women labourers excluded
from total sample.
Note : Father or mother of unmarried labourer is considered as family
head.
It is evident from Table 3.16 that 38 of the respondents, that is 9.2 per
cent are widows, and 6.0 per cent are divorced or separated who are
excluded from this sample. Out of the remaining 84.8 percent of samples
respondents, 41.5 per cent family heads cashew labourers’ are coolies, 25per
cent are masions, 15.6 per cent carpenters and 17.9 per cent business men. It
is vivid from the study that coolie workers’ wives or daughters contribute a
large portion to cashew processing than the wives and daughters of mason’s,
Page 30
223
carpenters and business men. It is observed that types of occupation of
family heads influence the participation of labourers in cashew industry.
3.7.11 Size of Land Holding
Land is the gift of nature and source of income and employment
opportunities. So, it occupies an important role in the determination of the
economic conditions of the labourers in cashew industry. In fact, size of land
is also one of the determinants of labourer participation in cashew
processing. So, activities distribution of respondents is made on the basis of
land holding. The size of land holding of the respondents is given in
Table 3.17.
TABLE 3.17
Size of Land Holding wise Distribution of Respondents
Sl. No Category Land Holding in cents
Total 1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50
1 Shelling 18 34 31 12 5 100
2 Peeling 12 34 37 7 10 100
3 Grading 9 16 14 6 5 50
Total 39
(15.6)
84
(33.6)
82
(32.8)
25
(10.0)
20
(8.0)
250
(100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total
Table 3.17 indicates that of the total respondents, 15.6 per cent
labourers are holding less than 10 cents, 33.6 per cent 11-20 cents, 32.8 per
cent 21-30 cents, 10 per cent 31-40 and 8 per cent have lands between 41-50
Page 31
224
cents. Thus, it reveals that large number of cashew labourers are holding
land between 11 and 20 cents. Only 8 per cent of labourers have land
between 41-50 cents. It is also observed that no labourer in the study has
more than 50 cents.
3.7.12 Livestock Holding
Livestock holding is an additional source of family income. So, an
attempt is made here to know the type of livestock reared by the sample
respondents. Generally, livestock such as poultry, cow and sheep are
brought up by a few families. Most of the cashew labourers have either
poultry or sheep or cow or some of them have all these live stocks. The type
of livestock holding of the sample respondents is displayed in Table 3.18.
TABLE 3.18
Livestock Holdings of the Sample Respondents
Sl. No Category
Types of Livestock
Total Cow Sheep Poultry
All
items
1 Shelling 8 17 51 5 81
(38.57)
2 Peeling 9 21 48 2 80
(41.43)
3 Grading 2 10 26 4 42
(2.00)
Total 19
(9.4)
48
(23.6)
125
(61.6)
11
(5.4)
203
(100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total
Page 32
225
It is evident from Table 3.18 that about 84 per cent of labourers have
any one or two types of live stocks. Out of the respondents, total, 9.4 per
cent labourers rear cow, 23.6 per cent have sheep and 61.6 per cent have
poultry. About 5.4 per cent labourers rear sheep, cow and poultry. It is
interesting to note that the number of labourers rearing poultry is more than
(61.6 per cent) that who rear cow (9.4 per cent) and (23.6 per cent) sheep.
This is because, taking care of poultry and feeding them is easier and
cheaper than other livestocks.
3.7.13 Household Income
Income is one of the direct and important measurable indicators of the
economic well being of the individual. Generally, a household in any society
tries to get income from different sources in order to meet their family
expenses. In the study area, most of the households get income from the
family heads. It indicates the economic well being of the cashew labourers.
The accompanying table depicts the details pertaining to the house hold
income of cashew labourers. The monthly incomewise distribution of
sample respondents is revealed in Table 3.19.
Page 33
226
TABLE 3.19
Income wise Distribution of Sample Respondents
Sl. No Monthly Income
in Rs. No. of Respondents Percentage
1.
2.
3.
Upto 10,000
10000-15000
Above 15000
162
79
9
64.8
31.6
3.6
Total 250 100.00
Source: Survey data
As revealed from Table 3.19, a majority of 162 respondents have
income below Rs. 10000, followed by 79 respondents between Rs. 10000
and Rs. 15000 and only 9 respondents have income above Rs. 15000. It
shows the fact that most of the labourers working in cashew industry are
economically poor.
3.7.14 Consumption Expenditure
Consumption expenditure of cashew labourers depends on their
monthly income. It refers to the expenditure incurred on food, clothes,
medicine, education, energy, transport, communication, entertainment,
social and religious festival and celebration of house warming and
matrimony functions and miscellaneous items. It shows that not only the
standard of living of the cashew labourers but also their pattern of
Page 34
227
expenditure. Though the house hold income of the cashew labourer is either
low or high, it is sufficient to meet their basic necessities. However, their
consumption expenditure increases proportionate to their family size. Ever
increasing prices of goods and services and habits of celebrating all festivals
and nuptials in a grand manner determines their consumption expenditure.
Consumption expenditure of cashew labourers increases with increase
in their income, due to their family size and rise in the prices of goods and
services. Generally they have the habit of celebrating housewarming and
matrimony etc in a grand scale. The average annual consumption
expenditure of the sample respondents is displayed in Table 3.20.
TABLE 3.20
Annual Average Consumption Expenditure of Respondents
Sl. No Items of expenditure Amount in Rs. Percentage
1. Food 28,250 44.00
2. Clothing and cosmetic 16,670 25.97
3. Education 3,450 5.37
4. Fuel 1,500 2.34
5. Health 3,700 5.76
6. Social of Religion 4,850 7.56
7. Others 5,780 9.00
Total 64,200 100.00
Source: Survey data
Page 35
228
Table 3.20 reveals that among the various items of consumption
expenditure, 44 per cent is spent on food, 25.97 per cent on clothing and
cosmetic items, 5.37 per cent on education, 2.34 per cent on fuel, 5.76 per
cent on health, 7.56 per cent on social and religious festivals and 9.00 per
cent on transport, phone and entertainments. This expenditure pattern
indicates that the status of cashew labourer has improved to some extent in
this study area.
3.7.15 Facilities Available
Facilities including television, radio, refrigerator and vehicles are
available in the respondents’ families. The availability of such facilities
determine the standard of living of cashew labourers in the study area. So,
an attempt is made here to know the facilities available in the respondents
house. The different types of assets of sample respondents is shown in
Table 3.21.
TABLE 3.21
Assets wise Distribution of Respondents
Sl.
No Assets
No. of
Sample
Percentage to
Total Sample
1 TV, Radio, Refrigerator
Bike
31 12.4
2 TV, Refrigerator Bike 58 23.2
3 TV, Refrigerator 29 11.6
4 TV 237 94.8
5 TV, Bike 43 17.2
6 TV, Radio 14 5.6
Source: Survey data
Page 36
229
As revealed by Table 3.21, the assets include television, refrigerator,
radio and vehicle. Out of the total respondents, 12.4 per cent have four types
of assets namely, television, radio, refrigerator and motorbike, 23.2 per cent
have television, radio and motor bike, 11.6 per cent have both television and
the refrigerator, 17.2 per cent have television and motor bike and 5.6 per
cent possess television and radio. It is important to note that 94.8 per cent of
the respondent have television only in the home. This is so because the
Government of Tamil Nadu has provided free television to most of the
economically backward families.
3.7.16 Type of Educational Institution
Generally, most of cashew labourers in Kanyakumari District depend
on government schools for their children’s education. They are not
interested in sending their children to English medium schools due to the
high cost of education and English language phobia. They admit their
children either in government schools or aided schools. Only a few cashew
labourers send their children to English medium schools. The respondents’
preference of sending their children to school for their education is given in
Table 3.22.
Page 37
230
TABLE 3.22
School-wise Children of the Sample Respondents
Sl. No Category
Types of School
Total Government
Aided
private
English
matriculation
1 Shelling 47 49 4 100
2 Peeling 46 51 3 100
3 Grading 23 22 5 50
Total 116
(46.4)
122
(48.8)
12
(4.8)
250
(100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total
Table 3.22 displays that out of the total sample respondents, 48.8 per
cent respondents admit their children in aided private management schools
and 46.40 per cent send their children to government schools. It is observed
that only 12 per cent labourers send the children to English medium
matriculation schools. It shows that most of the cashew labourers could not
provide English education to their children. It reflects the poor socio-
economic conditions of the cashew labourers in the study area.
3.7.17 Medical Assitance
It is needless to say that the cashew labourers mainly depend on
government hospitals for their health care. This is to due to their economic
constraints. They are used to stand in the que for a long time to get
Page 38
231
medicine. This is the critical condition of cashew labourers. The
respondents’ preference of hospital is shown in Table 3.23.
TABLE 3.23
Preference of Hospitals by Respondents
Sl.
No Category
Types of Hospital Total
Government Private
1 Shelling 88 12 100
2 Peeling 83 17 100
3 Grading 41 9 50
Total 212
(84.8)
38
(15.2)
250
(100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total
It is evident from Table 3.23, that a majority of 84.8 per cent of the
respondents go to government hospital for medical treatment. While only
15.2 percent depend on private hospitals for health care. It also shows the
poor economic condition of cashew labourers in the study area.
3.7.18 Saving
Saving has become one of the important characteristics of the people
nowadays. Cashew labourers also have the habit of saving. They mainly
depend on chit funds, post offices, banks and insurance agencies. As saving
contributes to the house hold income, its role is important in determining the
economic condition of cashew labourers. The sources of saving of the
sample respondents is given in Table 3.24.
Page 39
232
TABLE 3.24
Saving wise Distribution of Respondents
Sl.
No Category
Types of Saving
Total Chit
Fund
Post
Office Bank
Insurance
Agencies
1 Shelling 29 18 21 32 100
2 Peeling 33 20 17 30 100
3 Grading 14 11 10 15 50
Total 76
(30.4)
49
(19.6)
48
(19.2)
77
(30.8)
250
(100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total
It is clear from Table 3.24 that labourers prefer chit funds and
insurance companies, to post offices and banks. Out of the total respondents,
31.4 and 30.8 per cent are saving in chit funds and insurance companies and
only 19.6 and 19.2 per cent save in post officers and commercial banks. This
is due to the fact that the insurance agencies approach the cashew labourers
in person. Illiteracy and poor educational background is another reason for
the cashew labourers not depositing in banks. It is found that they prefer chit
funds as they can get back the money from it in the beginning by auction. It
shows that labourers are saving in any one of the above financial institutions
to meet their future expenditure on education, marriage and house
construction.
Page 40
233
3.7.19 Indebtedness
Cashew labourers borrow money from money lenders, pawn brokers,
friends and relatives to meet their matrimonial, educational, and medical
expenditure. The factors which turn the cashew labourers into debtors are
large family size, educational expenditure, matrimonial expenditure for the
family and relatives, seasonal employment of household heads, medical
expenditure, house maintenance and consumption expenditure.
TABLE 3.25
Indebtedness wise Distribution of Respondents
Sl. No Category Indebtedness Un
Indebtedness Total
1 Shelling 43 57 100
2 Peeling 49 51 100
3 Grading 21 29 50
Total 113
(45.2)
137
(54.8)
250
(100)
Source: Survey data
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total
Table 3.25 indicates that out of the total respondents, 45.2 per cent
have borrowed money and 54.8 per cent do not have debt in any form in the
study area.
3.7.20 Source of Borrowing
Generally, cashew labourers borrow money from co-operative banks,
money lenders, pawn brokers, friends and relatives. Hence, an attempt is
Page 41
234
also made in the study to identify the main source of borrowing in this
district. The different sources of borrowing and sample respondents is
displayed in Table 3.26.
TABLE 3.26
Number of Respondents and Source of Borrowing
Sl. No Sources No. of Respondents Per cent
1. Co-operative Bank 19 16.81
2. Money Lenders 33 29.20
3. Pawn Brokers 30 26.55
4. Relatives 15 13.28
5. Friends 16 14.16
Total 113 100.00
Source: Survey data
It is evident from Table 3.26 that 29.2 per cent respondents have
borrowed from money lenders and 26.55 per cent depend on pawn brokers
for financial needs. Only 13.28 and 14.16 per cent labourers rely on the
relatives and friends respectively for financial support.
Thus, the socio- economic background of cashew labourers reflect
their standard of life. It is observed that labourers belong to all religion,
caste and community are engaged in cashew processing. Most of them have
very poor education, but they are used to all types of cashew processing
activities based on their experience. It is also seen that their economic
condition is poor. It is observed that child labour is not found in the cashew
Page 42
235
industry. Above all, the socio- economic condition of cashew labourer has
been on the increase in Kanyakumari District.
3.8 NATURE OF CASHEW WORKERS IN KANYAKUMARI
DISTRICT
Occupation of other Household Members
In the study area, besides agriculture, toddy tapping was one of the
major occupations in the olden days. Women were then making Palmyra
products from palm leaves, palm sugar, etc. However now, among the
sample respondents we find only one agricultural labourer and one toddy
tapper. Construction industry appears to be giving more employment to male
workers. Forty five per cent of the total male workers are employed in it.
Many workers said that they take up unspecified coolie work and 26 per cent
of the male workers are employed in it. Nearly 70 per cent of working
women are absorbed in cashew nut industries, the alternative occupation
being domestic work. Cashew nut-processing industry gives employment to
46 per cent of workers while nineteen percent of workers depend on
construction work and those involved in unspecified coolie work amountes
to 12 percent.
Land Holdings and Ownership of House
Out of 250 households, only 48 own arable land. The land owned
range from two to 250 cents, but only one household has 250 cents of land
Page 43
236
and rest of them 2 to 30 cents. If we exclude the 250 cents landholder, the
average land holding comes to 10 cents only as an average. Only 45
respondents have homestead land.
Migration
At least one member out of 28 households has gone out of the district
for work. Among them, 23 belonged to the Nadar caste. Within the Nadar
caste, those who owned lands have greater probability of sending their
family members outside. Among the migrants, more than 84 per cent have
gone to the neighboring state – Kerala. Other places where they have gone
for employment is in Bombay, Mysore and Madras. The jobs available to
them mostly is in construction. This is particularly so in Kerala where the
wages for local labourers is higher than that given to construction workers
from Tamil Nadu. Due to this, migrant workers are preferred to local
workers.
Working hours and holidays
Despite the fact that almost all the cashew nut factories are registered
under the Factories Act, they are not complying with the eight-hour work
norms. Generally, women workers start working at 7 or 8 o’clock in the
morning and continue till 5.30 p.m. in the evening. The lunch break is also
very short, in most of the cases lasting from 15-50 minutes only. Those who
get one-hour break go home for lunch. Otherwise, workers bring tiffin to the
Page 44
237
factory. There is no retiring facility in the factory. The piece rate system of
wages indirectly force the workers to take very short lunch breaks, which is
affecting their digestive system. On an average, a worker works 9.21 hours a
day. In a week, if Sunday is excluded as a holiday, they work for 56 hours a
week. This may vary from section to section within a factory.
Labourer Market : Motivational issues
The factors behind the workers taking up jobs in these factories are
too varied to standardize, however an attempt has been made to highlight the
most significant ones. The first and foremost is poverty induced by
insufficient income to the family. One worker Meena says that she has been
working in a cashew nut factory for seven years. Prior to her marriage, her
family was in utter poverty. Income was not sufficient to look after all the
members. Since she being the eldest in her family, she started working at the
age of eight. Another worker, Kamala says, “We were three sisters. Our
parents said that if we work, we could save for our marriages. Since we did
not go to school, we started working. I started at the age of 10.”
From these responses, it is clear that poverty induced by insufficient
income, need to save for marriage, illiteracy, or inability to attend school
forced them to work in the cashew nut factories. There is another factor that
also emerges from the family but for a different reason. According to
Sulochana, ‘Kashtam (difficulty) in house. Father cannot do any job. Mother
Page 45
238
was just staying at home. We have to marry off elder sister. So my elder
sister and I started going 10’
. So these girls took initiative and entered the
labourer market.
According to Rosemary, “Kashtam and pattini in house. Husband is
not getting regular employment. Even if it is available, he could earn some
money but spent it on alcohol and would bring no money home. Hence I
started working in the factories 10”. These responses clearly convey that this
industry thrives on poverty stricken female workers and in order to contain
the labourer cost, the management does not give the jobs to men.
Employers use different strategies and control the labourer market. If
a man wished to enter the cashew nut industry and get information about a
vacancy or opening up of a new factory, he had to mobilize 10 women
workers and meet the employer. Only then is he given a job in the roasting
section. Sometimes he took his wife and daughters to get them recruited.
Poverty-induced entry of the workers at childhood is recorded in our
schedule more than 30 times.
Job Access
If a woman wants a job in a factory, she would first approach her
neighbour who is already employed there. The neighbour would introduce
her to the factory manager. Forty-five of the 94 women workers accessed the
job in this way. If not neighbour, relatives play this role to a considerable
Page 46
239
extent. Fifteen workers got recruited on their own. Organized recruitment
agencies both government and private play no role in cashew nut-processing
industry.
Skill Acquisition
There is no concept of apprenticeship or specific training for the
newly recruited workers in the industry. Generally, the workers on the job
acquire the required skill. The time taken to acquire it varies from operation
to operation. On an average, it takes them five weeks to learn the skills.
Wages
As the cashew nut industry comes under the Minimum Wages Act
1948, the workers should be paid wages as per regular revisions. In the case
of the cashew nut industry in Kanyakumari District, every year the trade
unions recognized by the management negotiate and revise the wages,
dearness allowance, workload and bonus. The survey has shown that both
the trade unionists functioning in the district and the concerned government
officials are unconcerned about the Minimum Wages situation in the district.
Majority of workers are paid on piece rate wages. In roasting locally
known as ‘varappu’, workers are paid on daily basis. Apart from roasting, if
they are engaged in loading and unloading of raw Cashew, they are paid
separately and the workers themselves fix the rates with the management.
Page 47
240
The payment is made once in a week. In ‘thallu’ and Shelling process,
workers are paid per kilo gram basis. They are also paid once in a week.
Apart from benefits common to all the workers in the industry, workers in
this section are allowed to take for themselves one day broken outer shell.
This gets them around Rs. 15 on that day. Broken kernels are not paid for.
Since broken kernels are considered of low quality, the workers have to lose
their earnings for the broken kernels.
Workers in bormah (roasting) section are daily wagers and are paid
weekly. In Peeling, the workers are paid a bit higher than in Shelling
because it requires some intricate skills and experience. They are also paid
wage per kilo gram every week, similar to workers in Shelling. In pass or
Grading and Packing, workers are paid on a daily basis. Apart from daily
wages, similar to workers in other sections, they are entitled to dearness
allowances. ‘Macauds’ of all the respective sections are paid wages fixed for
their respective sections. In addition to their work-based wages, they are
given extra payment equal to wages for two kilos of shelled / peeled kernels.
Other employee’s viz., supervisors or mesthiris, watch men and managers
are paid monthly wages.
The workers are given as per the yearly wage settlement. Since the
wages revised by the unions are effective from Onam, the revised wage
should also be paid from that month onwards. However, awareness about the
Page 48
241
new rates was very low among the workers. In most of the cases, it was
sheer guess work on the part of the workers. Hence, the average piece rate
wages as calculated from the response of workers’ (Rs. 2.57 for Shelling)
and the settlement rate (Rs. 2.60) did show some difference.
In roasting, the average wage is Rs.59.03, inclusive of dearness
allowances whereas in wage settlement, the basic wage is Rs.55 and Rs. 5.37
is given as dearness allowance calculated on the basis of increase in district
consumer price index. Adding both the total comes to Rs. 60.37, which is
more than the prevailing wage by Rs. 1.34. Similarly in Shelling, the actual
wages paid per kilo is Rs. 2.58 and settlement wage differs from this amount
by two paise. In Peeling, there is no difference between settlement and
actual wages. In Grading, actual wage is less than the settlement wage by
Rs. 2.
Even if all the employers are paying as per the settlement, this does
not mean that the workers are better paid in the study area. There are some
other factors that prompt employers exploit and pay the unemployment-
induced low wage rates for women in the district. The wages for other non-
agricultural employment is higher than the wage in this industry by more
than two times. For processes work where men are involved, the
Kanyakumari cashew nut workers are earning just 50 per cent of the
earnings of a male cashew nut worker in Kerala and in the case of women, it
Page 49
242
is 25 per cent less. It is argued by employees that the cost of living in Kerala,
particularly in Kollam is very high and hence the wages in Kerala cannot be
compared with Kanyakumari. An analysis of the retail prices of some of the
essential food items in Kerala and Marthandam show only a marginal raise
of less than 10 per cent only in Kerala.
Loans
At the time of Onam, a major annual festival in the region, workers
can get some loan as advance and it will be deducted from their salary in
installments. In case of emergency, they get some advance but the amount
does not exceed Rs.100. It appears that male workers are able to get higher
amount of loan or advances from factories. In firms managed by commission
processors, the concept of giving higher advance to get women workers
from other factories is prevalent. Office bearers of trade unions disapprove
of this trend and say that this trend is certainly true and is on the increase. As
a result, women workers lose their seniority and have to for go some of the
benefits a worker is supposed to get at the time of retirement. It is also
difficult to organize them under the trade union.
Mobility in Cashew nut Industry
In the case of our study area, the women workers in the industry have
little chance to move to other sectors or industries because there is no other
industry on a larger scale and that too not locally accessible. As said earlier,
Page 50
243
they have only two options, either to become housewives or work in the
cashew nut industry.
In this study, out of 104 workers, 46 workers have said that they have
changed their workplaces at least once in their working life. Fourteen
workers said that they have changed their employers twice and two workers
changed thrice. The main reason for changing their job is the long distance
to the factory and also due to their marriage. From this, one can presume that
during the initial stages of employment, factories have been located at
distant places, so workers went to those factories and as more and more
factories got established in the accessible regions, they stopped going to
distant places and joined the nearest firm.
Besides these factors, strategies adopted by employers also play
major role in increased turnover in the industry. By paying hefty advance,
the new firms and commission processors get trained workers from other
factories so that it can increase production and get a surplus out of it. The
big companies which are trendsetters due to huge operating surplus, will not
lose as long as they get sufficient supply of docile labourer. In recent times,
they follow a strategy by which they withdraw themselves from the
responsibility of providing social security to workers. They give raw nuts to
independent entrepreneurs who are ready to process on commission basis.
The commission processors are merely interested in the commission. They
Page 51
244
recruit workers who are skilled and working in some other factories by
giving higher amount of advances. Only with optimal efficiency and
unlawful means, are the commission processors able to run the firm. When
workers come for higher advance, they are also ready to forgo certain
provisions and benefits, which they were getting in the previous firm.
Page 52
245
REFERENCES
1. Kanyakumari District Website: http://www.kanyakumari.tn.nic.in.
2. Census of India 2011, http://www.censusindia .gov.in.2011.
3. District Statistical Hand book, Kanyakumari, Nagercoil (2011), p.4.
4. Tamil Nadu Season and Crop Report. Government of Tamil Nadu,
2011, p. 106-108.
5. Document Issued by the Inspector of Factories, Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu,
2011, p. 48.
6. John, Op.cit., p. 39-41.
7. Deeja, Cashew Production and Marketing: Comparative Study of Kerala
and Tamil Nadu, M.Phil Dissertation, Manonmaniam Sundaranar
University, Tirunelveli.
8. Singarayan, Op.cit., p. 17-21.
9. Ibid, pp. 23-24.
10. Shanthi, Vanaja (1996), Cashew Industry and Cashew Workers in
Thiruvattar, Kanyakumari District, M.Phil Dissertation, Centre for
Development Studies, Tirvandram.
11. Deepa, Op.cit., p. 28-29.
12. Kannan, Op.cit., p. 11-13.
13. Lindaberg, Op.cit., p. 217.
