Social Perception
Social perception is defined as the study of
how we form impressions of and make
inferences about other people.
–Necessary for social survival
–Fun and entertainment
Nonverbal Behavior
Nonverbal communication is defined as
the way in which people communicate,
intentionally or unintentionally, without
words.
Sarı mutluluğun rengi• İnsanın ruh sağlığı ile renkler arasındaki ilişkiyi araştıran bilim adamları,
duyguların da rengi olduğunu ortaya koydular.
Depresyondaki insanların donuk, kendini iyi hissedenlerin ise sıcak renkleri tercih ettiğine işaret eden bilim adamları, bunun, çocukların ve iletişim sorunu yaşayanların hastalıklarının teşhisine yardımcı olabileceğini belirttiler.
İtalyan La Repubblica gazetesinde yayımlanan habere göre, İngiltere'deki Manchester Üniversitesinden bir grup bilim adamı, sağlıklı 105 ve depresyondaki 108 yetişkinin her birinden, kırmızı, turuncu, sarı, yeşil, mavi, lacivert, mor, kahverengi, siyah, beyaz ve grinin 38 tonunun bulunduğu renk tablosundan ruhsal durumlarına en uygun olan rengi seçmelerini istediler. Araştırmacılar, depresyondakilerin grinin, sağlıklı katılımcıların ise sarının tonlarını tercih ettiklerini gözlemlediler.
Araştırmanın ikinci bölümünde ise sağlıklı 204 gönüllüden renkleri pozitif, negatif ve nötr olarak ayırmalarını ve en sevdikleri renkleri seçmelerini isteyen bilim adamları, katılımcıların sadece yüzde 10'unun, ruhsal durumlarını temsil etmesi için griye yöneldiklerini belirttiler.
Araştırma sonuçlarının, beynin, insanın ruh haliyle renkleri hemen eşleştirdiğini ve bu şekilde dış dünyayla iletişim kurduğunu gösterdiğini kaydeden bilim adamları, bu ilişkinin sürekli dile getirildiğini, ancak şimdiye kadar bu konuda yapılmış tam ve gerçek bir araştırmanın mevcut olmadığını vurguladılar.
Araştırma ekibinin başındaki Peter Whorwell, şu anda asabi bağırsak sendromu görülen ve dolayısıyla da oldukça sıkıntılı olan hastalar üzerinde çalışmakta olduğunu belirterek, "Renk çarkının, bu hastaların psikolojik tedavilere verdikleri yanıtı görmemize yardımcı olmasını umuyorum" dedi. Kelimelerin yetersiz kaldığı ve sözsüz ifade yöntemlerinin daha etkili olduğu durumların olduğunu ifade eden Whorwell, bu gibi durumlarda renklerden faydalanılabileceğini söyledi.
Nonverbal Behavior
Nonverbal behavior is used to express
emotion, convey attitudes,
communicate personality traits, and to
facilitate or modify verbal
communication.
Nonverbal Behavior
• Facial Expressions
Charles Darwin believed that human
emotional expressions are universal -- that
all humans encode and decode expressions
in the same way.
Nonverbal Behavior
• Facial Expressions
Modern research suggests that Darwin was
right for the six major emotional
expressions: anger, happiness, surprise,
fear, disgust, and sadness.
Nonverbal Behavior
• Facial Expressions
Affective blend is a facial expression in
which one part of the face registers one
emotion while another part registers a
different emotion.
Nonverbal Behavior
• Facial Expressions
Current research examines whether other
emotions have distinct and universal facial
expressions associated with them.
Facial expressions 'not global'
• A new study suggests that people from different cultures read facial expressions differently.
• East Asian participants in the study focused mostly on the eyes, but those from the West scanned the whole face.
• In the research carried out by a team from Glasgow University, East Asian observers found it more difficult to distinguish some facial expressions.
• The work published in Current Biology journal challenges the idea facial expressions are universally understood.
• In the study, East Asians were more likely than Westerners to read the expression for "fear" as "surprise", and "disgust" as "anger".
• The researchers say the confusion arises because people from different cultural groups observe different parts of the face when interpreting expression.
•
Nonverbal Behavior
• Culture and Channels of Nonverbal Communications
Culture also influences emotional
expression; display rules that are unique to
each culture dictate when different
nonverbal behaviors are appropriate to
display.
Erkekler ne zaman ağlar?
• Bir yakını öldüğünde 74
Bir film, televizyon programı ya da kitapta acıklı bir hikayeye rastladığında 44
Yaşadığı romantik bir ilişki sona erdiğinde 39
Sevdiği biri zarar gördüğünde 25
Sevdiği biriyle kavga ettiğinde 24
Yalnızlık hissettiğinde 22
Duygusal bir müzik dinlediğinde 18
Kendine acıdığında 17
Fiziksel bir acı hissettiğinde 16
Duyguları incindiğinde 13
Düğünlerde 9
Nonverbal Behavior
• Culture and Channels of Nonverbal Communications
Emblems are nonverbal gestures that have
well understood definitions within a given
culture.
Nonverbal Behavior
• Multichannel Nonverbal
Communication
In everyday life, we usually receive
information from multiple channels
simultaneously.
Nonverbal Behavior
• Gender Differences in Nonverbal
Communication
Women are better than men at both
decoding and encoding nonverbal behavior
if people are telling the truth. Men, however,
are better at detecting lies.
Nonverbal Behavior
• Gender Differences in Nonverbal
Communication
This finding can be explained by social-role
theory, which claims that sex differences in
social behavior are due to society’s division
of labor between the sexes.
Implicit Personality Theories
An implicit personality theory is a type
of schema people use to group various
kinds of personality traits together.
Using these theories helps us form
well-developed impressions of other
people quickly.
TWO TOUGH QUESTIONS
Question 1: If you knew a woman who was pregnant, who had 8 kids
already, three who were deaf, two who were blind, one mentally retarded,
and she had syphilis, would you recommend that she have an abortion?
Question 2: It is time to elect a new world leader, and only your vote counts.
Here are the facts about the three candidates.
Candidate A -- Associates with crooked politicians, and consults with
astrologists. He's had two mistresses. He also chain smokes and drinks 8 to
10 martinis a day.
Candidate B -- He was kicked out of office twice, sleeps until noon, used
opium in college, and drinks a quart of whiskey every evening.
Candidate C -- He is a decorated war hero. He's a vegetarian, doesn't
smoke, drinks an occasional beer and never cheated on his wife.
Which of these candidates would be your choice?
Candidate A is Franklin D. Roosevelt.
Candidate B is Winston Churchill.
Candidate C is Adolph Hitler.
And, by the way, on your answer to
the abortion question:
If you said, "YES!" . ..you just killed
Beethoven.
Implicit Personality Theories
• Culture in Implicit Personality Theories
Hoffman and colleagues (1986) found that
cultural implicit personality theories affect
how people form impressions of others.
Causal Attribution
Although nonverbal behavior may be
relatively easy to decode, there is still
substantial ambiguity about why
people act the way they do.
Causal Attribution
• The Nature of the Attribution Process
Attribution theory is a description of
the way in which people explain the
causes of their own and other people’s
behavior.
Atıf, atfetmek
Causal Attribution
• The Nature of the Attribution Process
Fritz Heider is considered the father of
attribution theory. He believed that people
are like amateur scientists, trying to
understand other people’s behavior by
piecing together information until they
arrive at a reasonable cause.
Beggar= Poor, lazy or drug addicted…or?
Causal Attribution
• The Nature of the Attribution Process
He proposed a simple dichotomy for
people’s explanations: internal attributions
and external attributions.
Causal Attribution
• The Covariation Model: Internal Versus
External Attributions
The covariation model states that in order to form
an attribution about what caused a person’s
behavior, we systematically note the pattern
between the presence (or absence) of possible
causal factors and focus on the consensus
information, distinctiveness information, and
consistency information we gather from the
situation.
Causal Attribution
• The Covariation Model: Internal Versus
External Attributions
According to the covariation model,
consensus* information is the information
regarding how other people besides the
actor treat the target.
*Fikir birliği
Causal Attribution
• The Covariation Model: Internal Versus
External Attributions
Distinctiveness* information is the
information about how the actor treats other
people besides the target, and consistency**
information is the information about how the
actor treats the target across time and
different situations.
*Ayırdedicilik
** Tutarlılık
Causal Attribution
• The Covariation Model: Internal Versus
External Attributions
People are most likely to make an internal attribution
(attribute the behavior to the actor) when consensus
and distinctiveness are low but consistency is high;
they are most likely to make an external attribution
(attribute the behavior to the target and/or situation)
when consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency
are all high.
Causal Attribution
• The Covariation Model: Internal Versus
External Attributions
The covariation model assumes that
people make causal attributions in a
rational, logical fashion.
Causal Attribution
• The Correspondence Bias: People as
Personality Psychologists
The correspondence bias is the tendency to
infer that people’s behavior corresponds to
(matches) their disposition (personality).
=Fundamental attribution error
Causal Attribution
• The Correspondence Bias: People as
Personality Psychologists
The fundamental attribution error is the
tendency to overestimate the extent to
which a person’s behavior is due to
internal, dispositional factors and to
underestimate the role of situational
factors.
Causal Attribution
• The Correspondence Bias: People as
Personality Psychologists
One reason people make the fundamental
attribution error is that observers focus
their attention on actors, while the
situational causes of the actor’s behavior
are less salient and may be unknown.
Causal Attribution
• The Correspondence Bias: People as
Personality Psychologists
Perceptual salience*, or the information
that is the focus of people’s attention,
helps explain why the fundamental
attribution error is prevalent.
*Algıda belirgin olma durumu
Causal Attribution• The Correspondence Bias: People as
Personality Psychologists
Who had taken the lead in the conversation?
Who had chosen the topics to be discussed?
Causal Attribution
• The Correspondence Bias: People as
Personality Psychologists
The Two-Step Process of Attribution occurs
when people analyze another person’s
behavior by first making an automatic
internal attribution, and only then thinking
about possible situational reasons for the
behavior, after which one may adjust original
internal attribution.
Causal Attribution
• The Correspondence Bias: People as
Personality Psychologists
The spotlight* effect is the tendency to
overestimate the extent to which our
actions and appearance are salient to
others.
* Projektör ışığı, sahne ışığı
Causal Attribution
• The Actor/Observer Difference
The actor/observer difference is the
tendency to see other people’s behavior
as dispositionally caused, but focusing
more on the role of situational factors
when explaining one’s own behavior.
Causal Attribution
• The Actor/Observer Difference
One reason for the actor/observer
difference is perceptual salience: actors
notice the situations around them that
influence them to act, while observers
notice the actors.
Causal Attribution
• The Actor/Observer Difference
The actor/observer difference also occurs
because actors have more information
about themselves than do observers.
Causal Attribution
• Self-Serving Attributions
Self-serving attributions are explanations
for one’s successes that credit internal,
dispositional factors and explanations for
one’s failures that blame external,
situational factors.
Example: Sports
Causal Attribution
• Self-Serving Attributions
Defensive attributions are explanations
for behavior or outcomes that avoid
feelings of vulnerability and mortality.
Example: Explaining a bad grade in a test
Self-Serving Attributions
Unrealistic optimism is a form of
defensive attribution wherein people
think that good things are more likely
to happen to them than to their peers
and that negative events are less likely
to happen to them than to their peers.
Causal Attribution
• Self-Serving Attributions
One way we deal with tragic information
about others is to make it seem like it could
never happen to us. We do it through the
belief in a just world, a form of defensive
attribution wherein people assume that bad
things happen to bad people, and that good
things happen to good people.
Examples: Candid, My name is Earl
Culture and Attributions
• Culture and the Correspondence Bias
The correspondence bias is the inclination to
conclude that people’s behaviors match their
personalities. Although the correspondence
bias is prevalent across cultures, people
from collectivist cultures are more likely than
Westerners are to notice situational
information and to use it to form situational
attributions.
Culture and Attributions
• Culture and Other Attribution Biases
Westerners are more prone to the self-
serving bias than Easterners are.
Defensive attributions, like the belief in a just
world, are more prevalent in societies where
extremes in wealth and poverty exist.
And, the spotlight effect is more common
among people in individualist cultures
compared to those from collectivist cultures.