61
Chapter No. 2 Literature Review
Chapter No. 2
Literature Review
INDEX
Sr. No. Contents Page
No.
Chapter 2 Literature Review 41
2.1 Career 41
2.2 Career Factor Theories 41
2.3 Career Changing 42
2.4 Career Assessment and Advancement 43
2.5 Career Development 46
2.6 Overview of Career Development Theories 54
2.7 Working conditions for Career Development and Retention 57
2.8 Retention 59
2.9 Job Security for Retention and Career Development 61
2.10 Human Resource Practices for Career Development and
Retention
62
2.11 Other programmes for retention 62
2.12 Reasons for quitting organizations 65
2.13 Does money play important role in retention? 68
2.14 Factors responsible for Retention 70
2.15 Effects of not having retention programmes 73
2.16 Importance of Training and Development programme 74
2.17 Recognition necessary for Retention 77
2.18 Flexible working hours 78
2.19 Job Satisfaction 78
2.20 Career, Career Development and Retention – overview
pertaining to research, research institutes and research
employees
79
2.21Science and Engineering Research Council 84
2.22 Career, Career Development and Retention of Research
Employees at various Research Institutes at International and
86
List of Figures
National level
2.22.1 Career, Career Development and Retention Policy and
Programmes at NRAO
86
2.22.2 Career, Career Development and Retention Programmes
at NASA
87
2.22.3 Careers, Career Development and Retention of
Researchers in Europe
88
2.23 Careers, Career Development and Retention of Research
Employees: Efforts in India
90
2.23.1 Department of Science and Technology 90
2.23.2 Department of Space, India 91
2.23.3 Department of Atomic Energy 93
2.23.4 Council of Scientific and Industrial Research 95
2.23.5 Indian Council of Medical Research 96
2.23.6 Indian Council of Agriculture Research 97
2.24 Conclusion 98
Figure No. Title of Figures Page
No.
2. 2.5.1 Career development process by Hirsh and Jackson 49
2.5.22.5 2.5.2 Greenhaus’s Career decision Model 53
2.7.1 2.7.1 Factors influencing for choosing careers 59
2.12.1 2.12.1 Reasons for employees to quit the jobs 67
2.14.1 2.14.1 Reasons for job searching 70
2.20.1 2.20.1 Numbers of research institutes in various sectors 80
2.20.2 2.20.2 Science and Technology Systems in India 82
2.20.2.20 2.20.3 Science and Technology Departments in India 83
2.21.1 2.21.1 Comparison of Scientist and Expenditure of different countries
with India
85
41
Chapter 2
Literature Review
2.1 Career:
Career is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as a person's "course or progress
through life (or a distinct portion of life)".1 In this definition career is understood to
relate to a range of aspects of an individual's life, learning and work.
Career can also be described as a profession or occupation or business of any
individual and can be considered as a person’s working life2. It can be simplified by
common language saying that I am an Engineer, I am a Doctor, I am a Lawyer, I am a
Stage Actor, etc. This indicates that career is a process in which an individual earn
some knowledge and skill. Because of such knowledge and skill, he/she is engaged in
some business and start earning money or name or fame or status etc. Key skills
include the ability to reflect on one's current career, research the labour market,
determine whether education is necessary, find openings, and make career changes.
2.2 Career Factor Theories:
Schruder (2006)3 mentioned three factor basis theories for career of an individual
which are reviewed to understand how factor theories help individual in career.
Objective factor theory: This theory assumes that the applicants are rational and the
choice is objective based and more depending on benefits the Job. These factors may
include the salary, other benefits, location, opportunities for career advancement,
promotion, etc.
Subjective factor theory: This theory talks about needs of an applicant and suggests
that decision making is dominated by social and psychological factors. The status of
1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Career
2 The Free Dictionary. 2013. Retrieved 2012-02-10.
3 Schreuder, A. M. G. (2006). Careers: An Organisational Perspective.
p. 187. ISBN 9780702171758
42
the job, reputation of the organization and other similar factors plays an important
role.
Critical contact theory: when the applicant is not able to make choice based on
objective or subjective he ends up with choosing a career based on observations. Like
how the recruiter keeps in touch with the candidate, the promptness of response and
similar factors are important. This theory is more valid with experienced
professionals.
It can be observed that the above theories take that applicants get open choice of
employers and careers. But on a practical ground when there is shortage of jobs and in
strong competition for expected job impacts the decision making procedure. On
many occasions individuals are forced to take whatever job is available to them. As
found by Ott-Holland (2013)4 and his colleagues that culture can have a major
influence on career choice, depending on the type of culture.
Due to this kind of situation, people do not stop at one place continue working and
they start looking for a career of their liking.
2.3 Career Changing
Right Management5 carried out a survey on the reasons why people change their jobs
and found the following reasons for career changing.
4 Ott-Holland, C. J.; Huang, J. L.; Ryan, A. M.; Elizondo, F.; Wadlington, P. L.
(October 2013). "Culture and Vocational Interests: The Moderating Role of
Collectivism and Gender Egalitarianism". Journal of Counseling
Psychology (American Psychological Association) 60 (4): 569–
581. doi:10.1037/a0033587. Retrieved 31 January 2014.
5 National Longitudinal Surveys".Bureau of Labor Statistics.Retrieved 2012-02-
10.
43
The downsizing or the restructuring of an organization (54%).
New challenges or opportunities that arise (30%).
Poor or ineffective leadership (25%).
Having a poor relationship with a manager(s) (22%).
For the improvement of work/life balance (21%).
Contributions are not being recognized (21%).
For better compensation and benefits (18%),
For better alignment with personal and organizational values (17%).
Personal strengths and capabilities are not a good fit with an organization
(16%).
The financial instability of an organization (13%).
An organization relocated (12%).
Article appeared on Time.com, it can be seen that one out of three people currently
employed (as of 2008) spends about an hour per day searching for another job of their
choice6. Sometimes the individuals need to assess their potential and strengths for
choosing a career. They have to test their knowledge and skills to make sure whether
it is suitable for the type of job they are looking for. This type of career assessments
can help individuals identify and better voice of their unique interests, personality,
values, and skills to determine how well they may match with a certain career. Some
skills that career assessments could help determine are job-specific skills, transferable
skills, and self-management skills.7.
2.4 Career Assessment and Advancement
The career assessment process necessitates individual to take a career education.
Career education means a procedure in which individuals learn about their strength,
weaknesses, qualities, skills, etc. their careers and the working area. Now days it is
found that there is a strong tradition of career education in schools,8 however career
6 Cullen, L. T. (28 May 2008) “Top reasons why we change jobs”. Time.
7 U.C. Davis Human Resources. 2010. Retrieved 2012-02-10.
8 Hooley, T., Marriott, J., Watts, A.G. and Coiffait, L. (2012). Careers 2020:
Options for Future Careers Work in English Schools. London: Pearson.
44
education can be taken in any other wider scope including further and higher
education and the organization they want to work. As advised by Law & Watt
(1977)9 common framework for careers education is DOTS which stands for decision
learning (D), opportunity awareness (O), transition learning (T), and self-awareness
(S). Grubb and Lazerson (2005)10
discussed that most of the times higher education is
thought of very narrow or too researched based and lacking of a deeper understanding
of the material to develop the skills necessary for a certain career.
Employees career advancement is a phenomenon which is formalized, organized and
it is planned effort to accomplish the balance between requirement of organization
workforce and individual career needs. The rapidly rising awareness makes it
evidence that employees can give leading edge to the organization in market place. It
is challenge for today HR Managers to identify the organization developmental
strategies which enthuses the employee commitment to the organization vision and
values to motivate the employees and help the organization to gain and sustain the
competitive advantage (Graddick, 1988)11
. Greller (2006)12
states that people always
work for a reason and the cause should be provided by work, organization, co-
9 Law, B. & Watts, A.G. (1977). Schools, Careers and Community: a Study of
Some Approaches to Careers Education in Schools. London: Church
Information Office. ISBN 0715190296.
10 Grubb, W.N., Lazerson, M. (2005). "Vocationalism in Higher Education: The
Triumph of the Education Gospel". The Journal of Higher Education 76:
1. doi:10.1353/jhe.2005.0007
11 Graddick, M.N. (1988), Corporate Philosophies of Employee Development,
Career Growth and Human Resource Strategies: The Role of the Human
Resource Professional in Employee Development, London, M. &Mone, E.M.
(Eds), Quorum Books, Westport, CT.
12 Martin M. Greller, 2006, Hours invested in professional development during
late career as a function of career motivation and satisfaction. Career
Development International, Vol. 11, 544 – 559.)
45
workers or from within. Findings show that when employees want to advance in their
careers, a motivational factor, it does not matter how old one is, a lot of stay in the
organization as a way to advance.
Generally people may encounter a common problem while trying to achieve an
education for a career is of the cost. The career that comes with the education
expected to pay well enough to be able to pay off the schooling. There are some
colleges provide their students more with just education to prepare for careers. It is a
normal practice for colleges to provide pathways and support straight into the
workforce the students may desire13
. This gives a rise of career decision making
process.
Bandura et al (2001)14
state that each individual undertaking the Career decision
making process is influenced by several factors including the context in which they
live in, their personal aptitudes, social contacts and educational attainment.
According to Kerka (2000),15
career choice is influenced by multiple factors including
personality, interests, self-concept, cultural identity, globalization, socialization, role
model, social support and available resources such as information and finance.
13 Brennan, Susan. (2013-02-13) How Colleges Should Prepare Students For The
Current Economy – Yahoo Finance. Finance.yahoo.com. Retrieved on 2014-01-
11.
14 Bandura, A. Barbaranelli, c., Caprara, G.,&Pastorelli, C. (2001). Self-efficacy
beliefs as aspirations and Carrier trajectories. Child Development, 72 187-206.
15 Middle School Career Education and Development, Practice Application Brief,
No. 9, by Sandra Kerka, 2000
46
Bartley (1998)16
examined the process of career exploration during late adolescence.
Factors associated with this process included career decision-making self-efficacy,
motivational processes, goal directedness, vocational decision making style, personal
growth initiative, ego identity, exploration beliefs and contextual anxiety. Findings
suggest that a few constructs predict career exploration as well as many constructs
and that men and women should be considered separately. Findings also suggest the
need for further investigation.
2.5 Career Development
In the annual review of 2002 of Practice and Research in Career Counselling and
Development17
, several variables were identified as relevant to career development.
Some of these salient variables were personality, interests, self-efficacy, social class,
family environment context and important role in life. Career counsellors should
explore these areas to determine their importance in the educational and career
decision making of their clients.
In the 1970s, the definitions of career and career development used by some writers
became broader and more encompassing. Jones and others (1972)18
defined career as
encompassing a variety of possible patterns of personal choice related to an
individual’s total lifestyle, including occupation, education, personal and social
behavior, learning how to learn, social responsibility, and leisure time activities.
Within the Career literature, researchers have studied the family influence on career
16 Bartley, D. F. (1998) - CAREER EXPLORATION: AN EXAMINATION OF
THE COMBINED EFFECTS OF MULTIPLE PREDICTORS, Ph d thesis
17 By reporter (2002) Practice and Research in Career Counselling and
Development retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Career
18 Wiley. Jones, E. E., D. E. Kannouse, H. H. Kelley, R. E. Nisbett, S. Valins, and
B. Weiner, Eds. (1972). Attribution: Perceiving the Causes of
Behavior.Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.
47
development related issues such as Career selection (Bratcher 1982)19
, Career
exploration (Blustein 1997)20
, development of vocational values (Lapan, Hinkleman,
Adams & Turner 1999)21
, Career expectations (Paa& Mc Whirter, 2000)22
, Career
Orientation (O’Brien, Fassinger 1993)23
.
Hirsh (2006)24
noted that career development helps employees understand how to
identify and access work roles which suit them well and opportunities for improving
their skills and developing their potential. Research Employees who are satisfied in
their decision of work and feel the Institute is developing them, are better motivated,
more concentrated and more able and willing to take on more challenging research
work. Even if not aiming for career progression in conventional terms, career
development helps employees to respond more positively to change within their job or
19 Bratcher, W. E. (1982). The influence of the family on career selection: A
family systems perspective. The Personnel & Guidance Journal, 61, 87-91.
20 Blustein, D. L. "A Context-Rich Perspective of Career Exploration across the
Life Roles." Career Development Quarterly 45, no. 3 (March 1997): 260-274
21 Lapan, R. T., Hinkelman, J. M., Adams, A., & Turner, S. (1999). Understanding
rural adolescents' interests, values, and efficacy expectations. Journal of Career
Development, 26, 107-124.
22 Paa, H. K., & McWhirter, E. H. (2000). Perceived influenc-es on high school
students’ current career expectations. The Career Development Quarterly,49,29-
44.
23 OíBrien, K. M., &Fassinger, R. E. (1993).A causal model of the career
orientation and career choice of adolescent women. Journal of Counseling
Psychology, 40, 456- 469
24 Hirsh, W. Career development for knowledge workers: facing the challenge.
Brighton: Institute for Employment Studies, 2006.
48
in the organisation structure. Receiving this kind of career support also encourages
employees to develop the skills and understanding to manage their own choices about
work and learning more effectively in future. (Decenzo, David A. & Robbinns,
Stephen A) mentioned that individuals should not be emotion in their first job. 25
.
Gysbers and Moore (1975)26
proposed the concept of life career development in an
effort to expand and extend career development from an occupational perspective to a
life perspective in which occupation (and work) has place and meaning. They defined
life career development as self-development over the life span through 81 the
integration of the roles, settings, and events of a person’s life.
Thomas J. Conlon (2004)27
Career development theories have focused on the human
lifespan, traits, vocational choice, assessment tools, values and self-understanding to
guide adults in their career decisions. However, many of these early theories have
questionable value in today’s diverse workforce and where business practices have
changed to reflect emerging economic competitiveness in a global economy. This
paper reviews literature on career development and contemporary business trends.
Career development implications and research questions for the 21st century
workplace are identified.
25 Decenzo, David A. &Robbinns, Stephen A. Human Resource Management, 6th
Edition, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Replica Press Pvt. Ltd.New Delhi
26 Gysbers, N. C., & Moore, E. J. (1975). Beyond career development— Life
career development. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 53, 647–652.
27 Thomas J. Conlon (2004) University of Minnesot “Career Development
Challenges for the 21st Century Workplace: A Review of the Literature”
retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED492367.pdf.
49
Figure 2.5.1: Career development process by Hirsh and Jackson
Hall (2002)28
describes three stages of career development: the early years of
becoming established, the middle years of maintenance and reexamination and the
late years of adjustment into retirement. He describes the middle career stage as
beginning somewhere around the age of 40, although it can vary. Because this age
corresponds to changes in the life cycle, it provides a breeding ground for potential
crisis. Hall (2002) describes nine physiological, attitudinal, occupational, and family
changes that an individual experiences at this time. They are -Awareness of advancing
age and death, awareness of physical ageing, knowledge of how many career goals
they will attain, a search for new life goals, a marked change in family relationships, a
28 Hall, D. T. (2002).Careers in and out of organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage
50
change in work relationships, a growing sense of obsolescence, a feeling of less
mobility and attractiveness in the job market with growing security concerns, changes
in the work environment.
Organization desire to strengthen their bond with employees must spend on the
development of employees (Hall & Moss, 199829
; Woodruffe, 199930
; Steel et al.,
200231
; Hsu, Jiang, Klein & Tang, 2003)32
. It creates promotion opportunities within
organization and provides training opportunities and skill development to improve
their employee’s employability on the external and / or external labour market (Butler
& Waldrop, 2001)33
.
Career development is vital for both the employees and employers (Hall, 2002).
Career development is mutual beneficial process because it gives imperative
29 Hall, D. T., & Moss, J. E. (1998). The new protean career contract: Helping
organizations and employees adapt. Organizational Dynamics, 26(3), 22-37.
30 Woodruffe, C. (1999). Winning the talent war: A strategic approach to
attracting, developing and retaining the best people. Chichester, UK: John
Wiley & Sons. www.cpscccsp.ca/PDFS/CPSC%20Final%20Report %20June28
%20 % 207%20case%20studis2%20oct %207%2004.pdf
31 Steel, R. P., Griffeth, R. W., &Hom, P. W. (2002).Practical retention policy for
the practical manager. Academy of Management Executive, 18(2), 149-169.
32 Hsu, M. K., Jiang, J. J., Klein, G., & Tang, Z. (2003).Perceived career
incentives and intent to leave. Information & Management, 40, 361-369.
33 Butler, T. enWaldroop, J. (2001). Job sculpting: The art of retaining your best
people. Harvard Business Review on finding and keeping the best people (pp.
179-203). Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
51
outcomes to employer and employees, (Hall, 1996)34
. Gilley, Eggland, and Gilley
(2002) suggest a collaborative effort, stating, “career development is a process
requiring individuals and organizations to create a partnership that enhances
employees’ knowledge, skills, competencies, and attitudes required for their current
and future job assignments”35
. To gain and maintain competitive advantage
organizations required talented & productive employees and these employees need
career development to enhance and cultivate their competencies (Prince, 2003)36
.
According to McDaniels and Gysbers (1992)37
, career development is the total
constellation of psychological, sociological, educational, physical, economic, and
chance factors that combine to shape the career of any given individual over the life
span. Forret and Sullivan (2002)38
describe three major shifts in the transition from
organization-based to boundaryless careers. One addresses rewards, noting the change
from interest in high salaries and job status to goals defined by personal interests and
work-life balance. The second notes a transition from development of organization-
specific skills to acquiring transferable skills that can move with the individual as she
or he transitions from one system to another. The third tracks a change from loyalty to
one’s organization to increased professional commitment that yields the potential for
34 Hall, D. T. (1996). Protean careers of the 21st century. The Academy of
Management Executive, 10 (4), 8-16.
35 Gilley, J. W., Eggland, S. A., & Gilley, A. M. (2002).Principles of human
resource development. Cambridge: Perseus Books. (P. 94)
36 Prince, J. B. (2003). Career opportunity and organizational attachment in a blue-
collar unionized environment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 63, 136-150.
37 McDaniels, C., &Gysbers, N. C. (1992). Counseling for careerdevelopment:
Theories, resources, and practice. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.
38 Forret, M. L., & Sullivan, S. E. (2002). A balanced scorecard approach to
networking: A guide to successfully navigating career changes. Organizational
Dynamics, 31 (3), 245-258
52
a broad based portable network
Greenhaus, Callanan and Godshalk (2000)39
suggests that career development is an
ongoing process by which individuals progress through a series of stages, each of
which is characterized by a relatively unique set of issues, themes, and tasks. They
have designed a model about career development. The Greenhaus et al. model focuses
on the individual as the one who needs to make a decision, a need that leads to a
career search and into a process of setting career goals, developing strategies and
tactics to fulfil them, making progress, and all these form a process that requires
career evaluation. The organization is only an external player in the system, according
to this model, along with environmental influences. The major criticism of this
framework is that it undermines the role organizations play in planning and managing
careers. Figure 2.5.2 showing Greenhaus’s Career decision Model is given on the next
page.
39 J.H. Greenhaus, G.A. Callanan and V.M. Godshalk (2000) Career Management,
3rd Edn, Fort Worth: Dryden Press, p. 24.
53
Figure 2.5.2: Greenhaus’s Career decision Model
Source: Career Management, 3rd Edn, Fort Worth: Dryden Press, p. 24.
Hall and Associates (1996)40
define career development as the outcomes emanating
from the interaction of individual career planning and institutional career management
processes. Career development as an HR intervention program is not about promoting
linear career progression upwards through a layered hierarchy of increasing
responsibilities, financial rewards and more time spent at work. It is about helping
employees to become change resilient, more secure in them and their future as the
organization adjusts to changing market situations. It is about increasing
40 Hall, D. T. (1996). Protean careers of the 21st century. The Academy of
Management Executive, 10 (4), 8-16.
54
employability that broadens the range of potential job roles open to the individual and
extends the value of their staying with this employer.
Wolfe and Kolb (1980)41
summed up the dynamic life-centered view of career that
has evolved over the past decades when they described career development as
involving one’s entire life: Career development involves one’s whole life, not just
occupation. As such, it concerns the whole person, needs and wants, capacities and
potentials, excitements and anxieties, insights and blind spots, warts and all. More
than that, it concerns him/her in the ever-changing contexts of his/ her life. The
environmental pressures and constraints, the bonds that tie him/her to significant
others, responsibilities to children and aging parents, the total structure of one’s
circumstances are also factors that must be understood and reckoned with. In these
terms, career development and personal development converge. Self and
circumstances— evolving, changing, unfolding in mutual interaction— constitute the
focus and the drama of career development
The Institutes` reputation depends on the quality of talented personnel they have in
the research Institute. The Research Institutes apply various strategies for providing
better working conditions, improving research facilities, providing other facilities like
housing, medical, welfare, updated library, electronic equipments, etc. required for
research activities; to retain the research employees in their own institute. Both the
research centres and the grant-in-aid institutions carry out research and development.
While the research centres focus more sharply on technology and product
development, the grant-in-aid institutions concentrate relatively more on basic
research.
2.6 Overview of Career Development Theories:
Various theories of career development have attempted to explain how and why
41 Wolfe, D. M., & Kolb, D. A. (1980).Career development, personal growth, and
experimental learning. In J. W. Springer (Ed.), Issues in career and human
resource development. Madison, WI: American Society for Training and
Development.
55
people make career choices and undertake career behaviours over their working lives.
This chapter describes two major theories: the developmental/self-concept/trait theory
of Donald E. Super, and the person-situation congruence theory of John Holland.
Other theories are also listed at the beginning of the chapter. Super applied constructs
and concepts from psychology, sociology and anthropology to the study of careers to
create the most comprehensive theory of career development. He developed 14
empirically testable propositions of career development and theorized that individuals
will choose occupations enabling them to function in roles consistent with their self-
concepts. Holland used a structural-interactive approach to develop a theory which
perceives personality type as the major influence on career choice and development,
and includes elements of differential psychology, mainly interest measurement. The
theory is based on nine assumptions and asserts that individuals choose educational
and occupational environments allowing them to express their personality styles. The
author concludes by answering the most commonly asked questions about career
development theory.42
In the past few decades, the theory by Holland (1985, 1997)43
,44
has guided career
interest assessment both in the USA and internationally. The theory by Holland offers
a simple and easy-to-understand typology framework on career interest and
environments that could be used in career counselling and guidance. Holland
postulated that vocational interest is an expression of one’s personality, and that
vocational interests could be conceptualized into six typologies, which are Realistic
42 Cramer, S, 1999, 'Overview of career development theory', pp.77-86. Ann
Arbor, Michigan: Prakken Publications, 1999
43 Holland, J. L. (1985). Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational
personalities and work environments (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-
Hall.
44 Holland, J. H. (1997). Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational
personalities and work environments (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-
Hall
56
(R), Investigative (I), Artistic (A), Social (S), Enterprising (E), and Conventional (C).
Mogi Kazuyuki and Wang Kuo-lin45
in their research paper titles “ Illusion of Career
Development Theories For the Departure of Developing a Demonstrative Career
Development Theory” in The Economic Journal of Takasaki City University of
Economics vol.49 No.2 2006 pp.17-30 overviews career theories. In the late 1930s,
Super started his studies as an employment counselor in Ohio. Thereafter, to realize
why do young people choose a particular job from many others, how do they
accommodate to the transition from school to work and maintain themselves in the
vocational position etc., Super (1957) and his associates conducted a study of career
patterns by using a prospective, longitudinal, case-study design to inquire the
interaction between personality and work. After observing vocational guidance from a
viewpoint of different psychology, he shifted his attention to career choice in a
developmental perspective. He suggested a concept of development on career (Super,
1957)46
that differed from precious studies regarding career as a selection of the initial
job, rather than as a developmental process in sequence of occupational positions
through the part or whole life (Super, 1980, p. 282)47
. Super (1990)48
later clarified
career decisions had been incorporated with mini-decisions in varied career stages,
45 Mogi Kazuyuki and Wang Kuo-lin “Illusion of Career Development Theories
For the Departure of Developing a Demonstrative Career Development Theory
” The Economic Journal of Takasaki City University of Economics vol.49 No.2
2006 pp.17-30
46 Super, Donald E. (1957). The psychology of careers: An introduction to
vocational development. New York: Harper & Row
47 Super, Donald E. (1980). A life-span, life-space approach to career
development. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 16, 282- 298
48 Super, Donald E. (1990). A life-span, life-space approach. In D. Brown, L.
Brooks et al. (Eds.), Career choice and development: Applying contemporary
theory to practice (pp. 197-261). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
57
not something that happened once in a lifetime as the traditional career counselor
widely perceived (p. 220).
Parson’s Trait and Factor Theory: This theory began with Parsons, who proposed that
choice of a vocation depended upon (1) an accurate knowledge of yourself, (2)
thorough knowledge of job specifications, and (3) the ability to make a proper match
between the two. He wrote: "In the wise choice of a vocation there are three broad
factors: (1) a clear understanding of yourself, your aptitudes, abilities, interests,
ambitions, resources, limitations; (2) a thorough knowledge of the requirements and
conditions of success, advantages and disadvantages, compensation, opportunities,
and prospects in different lines of work; (3) true reasoning on the relations of these
two groups of facts" (Parsons, 1909/1989, p. 5)49
. Williamson (1939)50
and others
expanded this theory through the use of tests and other assessment tools to measure
people's traits and the traits required in certain occupations. Two major assumptions
of trait and factor theory are: (1) individuals and job traits can be matched, and (2)
close matches are positively correlated with job success and satisfaction. These ideas
are still part of our career counseling approach today.
In addition to the above theories, there are Krumboltz’s Social learning Theory,
Gelatt’s Decision Making Theory, Cognitive Theory, and so on.
2.7 Working conditions for Career Development and Retention:
A numbers of studies have conduct to explain the work environment with different
aspects such as job satisfaction (laffaldano & Muchinsky, 1985)51
and employee
49 Parsons, Frank (1909). Choosing a vocation. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin
50 Williamson, E. G. (1939). How to counsel student: A manual of techniques for
clinical counselors. New York: McGrawHill
51 Iaffaldano, M. T., &Muchinsky, P. M. (1985). “Job satisfaction and job
performance: A metaanalysis”. Psychological Bulletin, 97(2), 251-273.
58
retention (Martin 1979), employee turnover, organizational commitment and job
involvement (Sjoberg & Sverke 2000)52
. Work environment is considered one of the
most important factors in employee’s retention (Zeytinoglu & Denton, 2005)53
.
According to Hytter (2008)54
work environment is generally discussed as industrial
perspective, focus on aspect i.e. noise, toxic substances exposure and heavy lifts etc.
The interesting part of work environment is; work environment characteristics in
services sector is differ from production sector, because services sector directly deal
with consumers / clients (Normann 1986)55
. According to Ramlall,(2003)56
, people
are strive to work and to stay in those corporation that provide good and positive work
environment, where employee feel that they are valued and making difference.
Proficient employees of such organizations are dragging together to push the
52 Sjöberg, A., & Sverke, M. (2000). “The interactive effect of job involvement
and organizational commitment on job turnover revisited: A note on the
mediating role of turnover intention”. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology,
41(3), 247-252.
53 Zeytinoglu, I.U. & Denton, M. (2005). Satisfied workers, Retained Workers:
Effects of work and work environment on Homecare workers‟ Job satisfaction,
Stress, Physical Health, and Retention. (CHSRF FCRSS: CandanianHealth
Services Research Foundation, Foundation canadienne de la recherché sur les
services de sante‟).
54 Hytter, A. (2008). Dark Side Leaders, Work Environment and Employee
Health. Retrieved from Växjö University, Studies in Leadership,
Entrepreneurship, and Organization. Website: hvxu.se/ehv/forskning/
hofreseminarier/2008/080514%20DarkSide%20Final%20version.pdf
55 Normann, R. (1986). Service Management.Strategy and Leadership in Service
Business.Chichester: Wiley.
56 Ramlall, S. (2003). Organizational Application Managing Employee Retention
as a Strategy for Increasing Organizational Competitiveness, Applied H.R.M.
Research, 8(2), 63-72.
59
organization forward.
Attracting and retaining talented researchers from anywhere in the world to a career in
Research Institute is one of the most crucial factors. Figure 2.7.1 shows various
factors influencing careers.
Figure 2.7.1: Factors influencing for choosing careers
Source: http://www.kent.ac.uk/careers/Choosing/choosingintro.htm - retrieved on
20/01/15
2.8 Retention
Retention of talented research employees is herculean task. Due to globalization every
country wants to focus on development of science and technology which necessitates
more numbers of researchers to join research organization and remain there so that
continuous development is sustained. Research in various fields is well thought and
ongoing process across the globe. The country’s development depends on the
technological and research development. Every country wants to design and develop a
research programme by involving expert people to contribute in the national or
60
international development with their novel ideas and innovations. The goal of every
Research Institute is to engage young students in the field of research and
development. These institutes implement the monetary and non-monetary aspects to
motivate and retain such talented employees. Research Institutes, in addition to the
routine office facilities, provide certain welfare facilities to research employees i.e.
housing, medical, book grant allowances, update allowance, Leave Travel
Concessions, Study leave, flexible hours, laptops, etc. This helps research employees
to concentrate on their research work. This is part of their retention programme.
Employee retention refers to policies and practices companies use to prevent valuable
employees from leaving their job. It involves taking measures to encourage
employees to remain in the organization for the maximum period of time. Hiring
knowledgeable people or the job is essential for an employer. But retention is even
more important than hiring. Retention is a critical element of an organization’s more
general approach to talent management, which is defined as “the implementation of
integrated strategies or systems designed to increase workplace productivity by
developing improved processes for attracting, developing, retaining, and utilizing
people with the required skills and aptitude to meet current and future business needs”
(Lockwood, 2006)57
.
This is true as many employers have underestimated costs associated with turnover of
key staffs (Ahlrichs, 2000)58
. Ahlrichs also addresses the management style and
cultures that encourage employee retention. Companies that have self-managed teams
or are not afraid to decentralize decisions, for example, will be more attractive to top
performers. The leadership qualities of supervisors at all levels are also important.
Finally, Ahlrichs explains the importance of the employee development plans and
57 Lockwood, N.R. (2006). Talent management: Driver for organizational success.
2006 SHRM
58 Ahlrichs, N.S. “ Competing for Talent: Key Recruitment and Retention
strategies for Becoming an Employer of Chocie” Daview-Black Publication,
2000.
61
alternative compensation and benefits strategies that reinforce employee loyalty in
EOCs. Turnover costs can incurred with issues such as reference checks, security
clearance, temporary worker costs, relocation costs, formal training costs and
induction expenses (Kotzé and Roodt, 2005)59
. Other invincible costs and hidden
costs such as missed deadlines, loss of organizational knowledge, lower morale, and
client’s negative perception of company image may also take place.
2.9 Job Security for Retention and Career Development
One of the important factors for career development and retention is Job Security.
Everyone wants to settle in the working life. If Job Security is provided or assured,
then employees try to devote more time on their work. The same is the case of
research employees. If job security is provided, the research employees work hard,
put extra efforts on their research activities. They do not have to find other institute
for better and secured job position. However, if job security is not given, the research
employees leave the research institutes. In addition, there are various other reasons for
research employees leaving the research institutes.
In India there are several Research Institutes in various research areas. Majority of
them are functioning under various departments. The Research Employees or
Researchers plays crucial part in the globalization and due to extreme demand for
talented researchers across the globe, every organization face a problem of retaining
talented researchers in their own institutes. These Institutes are in the field of basic
research. They are engaging research employees in the institute to carry out various
research activities. Research employees are selected after a structured and well-
designed recruitment process. They have well defined career path in such institutes.
These institutes have well organized career development programme. The human
resource development practices ensure that these research employees get motivation
from time to time. Since the fundamental research institutes function under the
59 Kotzé, K., &Roodt, G. (2005). Factors that affect the retention of managerial
and specialist staff: An exploratory study of an employee commitment
model. SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 3, 48-
55.http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/sajhrm.v3i2.65
62
government of India, their monetary aspects are more or less same. However, every
institute has an unique programme to retain such research employees. Though they try
every effort to retain such talented employees, there are some reasons for research
employees to leave the research organizations.
2.10 Human Resource Practices for Career Development and Retention:
The research Institutes organizes various types of lectures, training and motivational
programmes for research employees for his development. It is also true that in an
employee develops then the organization also develops. Seminars, conferences,
meetings, workshops, colloquiums, etc. help research employees to gain extra
knowledge required for him to develop. While many times these programmes are
arranged within the institutes or countries, some of them are organized at institutes
outside India. Research employee gets a chance to participate in such conference if
they are nominated by the institutes. Research Institutes pay contributions for such
employees to enable them to participate in an international conference. This kind of
non-monetary recognitions results in employee satisfaction. This study also have
objective to find out the factors responsible for research employees to leave research
organizations. (Muhammad Irshad)60
found that factors (categorized into
organizational factor i.e. supervisor support, organizational justice, organization
image and work environment) and Human resource factors i.e. employee value match,
training & development, remuneration & reward, job security and employees
promotion aspect do have an impact on retention programmes.
2.11 Other programmes for retention:
Research Institutes, in addition to the routine office facilities, provide certain welfare
facilities to research employees i.e. housing, medical, book grant allowances, update
allowance, Leave Travel Concessions, Study leave, flexible hours, laptops, etc. This
60 Muhammad Irshad - ‘Factors Affecting Employees Retentions’ Abasyn Journal
of Social Sciences; Vo. 4 No.1 available at http://64.17.184.140/wp-
content/uploads/2012/12/V4I1-7.pdf
63
helps research employees to concentrate on their research work.
Previous researches suggested several factors which play pivotal role in employee
retention Cappelli (2000)61
. The factors which are considered and have direct affect
are; career opportunities, work environment, work life balance, Organizational justice,
and existing leave policy and organization image. Employee are stay and loyal with
such organization where employee have value, sense of pride and work to their full
potential Cole (2000)62
.
The reasons to stay employee in organization are organization reward system, growth
and development, pay package and work life balance. This is why retaining top talent
has become a primary concern for many organizations today. Managers have to exert
a lot of effort in ensuring the employee’s turnover are always low, as they are gaining
increasing awareness of which, Meaghan et al. (2002)63
, employees are critical to
organization since their values to the organization are not easily replicated. Many
critical analysis are conducted to minimize the possible occurrence of shortage of
highly skilled employees who posses specific knowledge to perform at high levels, as
such event will lead to unfavorable condition to many organizations who failed to
retain these high performers. They would be left with an understaffed, less qualified
workforce that will directly reduce their competitiveness in that particular industry.
(Rappaport, Bancroft, & Okum,2003).64
Another important factor is flexible working
61 Cappelli, P. (2000) „A Market-Driven Approach to Retaining Talent‟, Harvard
Business Review, 78(1), 103–112.
62 Cole, C. L. (2000, August). Building loyalty. Workforce, 79, 42-47. Available
EBSCOhost full display
63 Meaghan Stovel, Nick Bontis (2002), Voluntary turnover: knowledge
management-friend or foe? J. intellect. Cap. 3 (3): 303-322
64 Rappaport, A., Bancroft, E., & Okum, L. (2003). The aging workforce raises
new talent management issues for employers. Journal of Organizational
Excellence, 23, 55-66.
64
hours which motivates research employees on a very high scale. The have to sit late
night to work. Research Employees are more concerned about their research work and
they get job satisfaction through their research work.
The Institutes` reputation depends on the quality of talented personnel they have in
the research Institute. The Research Institutes apply various strategies for providing
better working conditions, improving research facilities, providing other facilities like
housing, medical, welfare, updated library, electronic equipments, etc. required for
research activities; to retain the research employees in their own institute. Both the
research centres and the grant-in-aid institutions carry out research and development.
While the research centres focus more sharply on technology and product
development, the grant-in-aid institutions concentrate relatively more on basic
research.
Hertzberg (1968)65
believes that every worker has two sets of needs (motivational and
hygiene needs). He contends that employees in this respect, employees will stay in
their work place so long as their needs are satisfied and they are motivated. Failure to
meet their needs would automatically call for departure hence employee turnover.
People are satisfied at their work by factors related to content of that work. Those
factors are called intrinsic motivators and contain achievement, recognition,
interesting work, responsibility, advancement and growth. Factors that make people
unhappy with their work are called dissatisfies or hygiene factors. Herzberg found the
following dissatisfies: company policy, supervision, working conditions, interpersonal
relationships, salary, status, security.
65 Herzberg, F. 1968. One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees?
Harvard Business Review 46:53–62.
65
2.12 Reasons for quitting organization
Most researchers (Bluedorn, 198266
; Kalliath and Beck, 2001)67
have attempted to
answer the question of what determines people's intention to quit, unfortunately to
date, there has been little consistency in findings. Therefore, there are several reasons
why people quit their current job and switch for other organization. The extent of the
job stress, low commitment in the organization; and job dissatisfaction usually result
in resignation of employees. Abundant studies have also certified the relation
between satisfaction and behavioral intentions such as employee’s retention and
spread the word of mouth (Anderson and Sullivan, 1993)68
.
Having and retaining skilled employees play an important role in this process,
because employees’ knowledge and skills have become the key for companies to be
economically competitive (Hiltrop 1995)69
. Therefore, it is important that employers
give employees the opportunity to develop and learn (Arnold 200570
; Bernsen et al.
66 Bluedorn, A.C., 1982. A unified model of turnover from organizations. Human
Relations, 35: 135-53. DOI: 10.1177/001872678203500204
67 Kalliath, T.J. and A. Beck, 2001. Is the path to burnout and turnover paved by a
lack of supervisory support? A structural equations test. New Zealand J.
Psychol., 30: 72-78.
68 Anderson, Eugene W., and Mary W. Sullivan.(1993). "The Antecedents and
Consequences of Customer Satisfaction," Marketing Science 12 (Spring), 125-
143.
69 Hiltrop, J.M., Issues and Challenges in European Human Resource
Management',Campbell (ed.) The Learning Organisation, Gower, 1995
70 Arnold, E. (2005). Managing human resources to improve employee retention.
The Health Care Manager, 24(2), 132–140.
66
2009; Herman 2005)71
such that the workers maintain their capacities as effective
employees, resist redundancy, and are retained by their companies. As described by
Ashton and Moreton, (2005), Talent management is one of the primary tools of 21st
Century human asset management72
.
If employees feel they aren’t learning and growing, they feel they are not remaining
competitive with their industry peers for promotion opportunities and career
advancement. Once top employees feel they are no longer growing, they begin to look
externally for new job opportunities. Several studies have investigated the relationship
between job satisfaction and turnover and found a clear negative relationship (e.g.,
Cotton and Tuttle 198673
; Muchinsky and Morrow 198074
; Tett and Meyer 199375
;
71 Bernsen, P., Segers, M., &Tillema, H. (2009). Learning under pressure:
Learning strategies, workplace climate, and leadership style in the hospitality
industry. International Journal of Human Resource Development and
Management, 9(4), 358–373.
72 Aston, C., and Morton, L. (2005).Managing talent for competitive advantage.
Strategic HR Review, 4(5), 28–31.
73 Cotton, J. L., & Tuttle, J. M. (1986). Employee turnover: a meta-analysis and
review with implications for research. Academy of Management Review, 11(1),
55–70
74 Muchinsky, P. M., & Morrow, P. C. (1980).A multidisciplinary model of
voluntary employee turnover. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 17(3), 263–290
75 Tett, R. P., & Meyer, J. P. (1993). Job satisfaction, organizational commitment,
turnover intention, and turnover: path analysis based on meta-analytic findings.
Personnel Psychology, 46, 259–293.
67
Trevor 2001)76
, meaning that when employees do not feel satisfied in their job, the
turnover is high and they are likely to leave the company.
Figure 2.12.1 shows reasons for changing the job and quitting.
Figure 2.12.1: Reasons for employees to quit the jobs
Source: National Talent Management Survey Report 2012 – AIMA
Tett and Meyer’s meta-analysis also found that intention to leave was predicted more
strongly by job satisfaction than organizational commitment and that intention to
leave mediated the linkages between these attitudes and actual turnover. Hill and
Jones (2001)77
noted that employees today are different. As soon as they feel
dissatisfied with the current employer or the job, they switch over to look for another
job. It is the responsibility of employers to retain their best employees. A good
employer should know how to attract and retain its employees.
76 Trevor, C. (2001). Interactions among actual ease-of-movement determinants
and job satisfaction in the prediction of voluntary turnover. Academy of
Management Journal, 44(4), 621–639.
77 Hill, C.W.L. and Jones, G.R. (2001), Strategic Management Theory, Houghton-
Mifflin Company, Boston, MA
68
Henry Ongori (2007)78
stated that Employees are the backbone of any business
success and therefore, they need to be motivated and maintained in organization at all
cost to aid the organization to be globally competitive in terms of providing quality
products and services to the society. And in the long-run the returns on investments
on the employees would be achieved. Management should encourage job redesign-
task autonomy, task significance and task identity, open book management,
empowerment of employees, recruitment and selection must be done scientifically
with the objective of retaining employees
The Scientific Advisory Committee to the Government of India, submitted a detailed
report highlighting need of retaining research employees in the research institutes.
The Prime Minister of India also responded.” Today we in India are experiencing the
benefits of the reverse flow of income, investment and expertise from the global
Indian Diaspora. The problem of “brain drain” has been converted happily into the
opportunity of “brain gain.” –Manmohan Singh, Prime Minister of India.
2.13 Does Money play important role in retention?
Compensation is considered the most important factor for attracting and retaining the
talent (Willis, 2000)79
. A fair wages are the foundation element of the implied and
contractual bond between employers and employees, the underlying supposition being
that monetary can persuade behavior (Parker and Wright, 2001)80
.
78 Henri Ongori- “A review of the literature on employee turnover” African
Journal of Business Management pp. 049-054, June 2007 Available online
http://www.academicjournals.org/ajbm ISSN 1993-8233 © 2007 Academic
Journals.
79 Willis, C. (2000). Go for your goals. Working woman. pp. 6-7.
80 Parker, O. and Wright, L. (2001). Pay and employee commitment: the missing
link. In Ivey Business Journal.65 (3): 70-79.
69
According to Lawler (1990)81
company adopt the strategy of low wages if the work is
simple and requires little training and companies compete in high labor markets adopt
the high wages strategy. Some researchers argue that on the company side
competitive compensation package is the only strong commitment and also build
strong commitment on the workers side. However, the contribution of compensation
towards retention, help in retention of employee irrespective of their skill and
contribution to the company and it likely affect both turnovers desirable and
undesirable. The total amount of compensation offered by other companies also
affects the turnover. Organization offered high compensation package is compared to
others a large numbers of candidates applying for induction and have lower turnover
rate. Moreover high compensation package organizations also create culture of
excellence (Lawler 1990),
According to Smith (2001)82
money bring the workers in the organization but not
necessary to keep them. According to Ashby and Pell money satisfies the employee
but it is not sufficient to retain the employee means it is insufficient factor. Money is
not considered as primary retention factor (Brannick, 1999)83
. Many organization
implement very good employees retention strategy without offering high
compensation or pay based retention strategy (Pfeffer, 1998)84
. In such circumstances
a wide number of factors are seems for successful retention of employees. The
existence of other retention factors cannot be ignored.
81 Lawler, Edward E. (1990), Compensation management; Strategic planning;
Pay-for-knowledge systems, Jossey-Bass Publishers (San Francisco)
82 Smith, M. K. (2001) 'Young people, informal education and association', the
informal education homepage, www.infed.org/youthwork/ypandassoc.htm. Last
updated: December 2001
83 Brannick, Joan, (1999), Employees; Job satisfaction; Labor turnover;
Recruiting, AMACOM (New York).
84 Pfeffer, J., (1998). Six myths about pay. Harvard Business Review, May-June,
38-57.
70
2.14 Factors responsible for Retention:
National Talent Survey Report 2012 studies areas and put forth the following chart for
giving various reasons and percentage people searching other jobs. Figure 2.14.1
shows the trend and reasons for searching a job.
Figure 2.14.1: Reasons for job searching
Source: National Talent Management Survey Report 2012 – AIMA
Researcher observed that human resource management practices in compensation &
rewards, job security, training & developments, supervisor support culture, work
environment and organization justice can help to reduce absenteeism, employee
retention and better quality work (Meyer and Allen, 199185
; Solomon, 199286
; Snell
85 Meyer, J.P. and Allen, N.J. (1991).A three component conceptualization of
organizational commitment. In Human resource Management Review. 1:89-93.
86 Solomon, C.M. (1992). The loyalty factor. In Personnel Journal.52:32-37.
71
and Dean, 199287
; Arthur, 199488
; Snell and Youndt, 199589
; MacDuffie, 199590
;
Delaney and Huselid, 199691
; Ichniowski, Shaw and Prennushi, 199792
). According to
Accenture (2001)93
study on high performance issue find that organization strategy
regarding employee retention primarily start from US, Europe, Asia than Australia.
According to Osteraker (1999)94
, the employee satisfaction and retention are
considered the Cornerstone for success of organization. Past study divided it into
87 Snell, S. and Dean, J. (1992).Integrated manufacturing and human resource
management: a human capital perspective.In Academy of management Journal.
35: 467-504.
88 Arthur, J. (1994). Effects of human resource systems on manufacturing
performance and turnover.In the Academy of management Journal. 37:670-87.
89 Snell, S. and Youndt, M. (1995).Human resource management and firm
performance.In Journal of Management. 21 (71):1-738.
90 MacDuffie, J. (1995). Human resource bundles and manufacturing performance:
Organizational logic and flexible production system in the world auto industry.
In industrial and Labour Relations Review.48:197-221.
91 Delaney, J. and Huselid, M. (1996). The impact of HRM practices on perception
of organizational performance. In Academy of Management Journal. 39:949-69.
92 Ichniowski, C., Shaw, K. and Prennushi, G. (1997). The effect of human
resource management practices on productivity, in American Economic
Review. 87:291-313.
93 Accenture, (2001). The high performance work force: separating the digital
economy’s winners from losers. In the battle for retention Accenture’s
study.pp:1-5.
94 Osteraker, M.C. (1999), Measuring motivation in a learning organization,
Journal of Work Place Learning.
72
social, mental or physical Dimension. The grouping is based on social contacts at
works, characteristics of the work task or the physical and material circumstances
associated with work. The retention factors of the mental dimension are work
characteristics, employees are retaining by flexible tasks where they can use their
knowledge and see the results of their efforts. The social dimension refers to the
contact employees have with other people, both internal and external. The physical
dimension consists of working conditions and pay.
Muhammad Irshad95
finds s that Compensation, reward and recognition play a key
role in employee’s motivation which leads to employee’s retention in the
organization. In order to retain employees the organization need to gain information
about the dynamics that characterized the motivation to work. Van Knippenberg
(2000)96
suggested that employee become more loyal and stay in the organization
when they identify themselves within a group and contribute to the performance as a
group. This suggestion relies on work performed by Locke and the goal setting theory
he developed. The goal is team performance and the individual feeling part of the
group. The focus of Locke was on the goal, but in order to reach the goal one must
associate oneself with the group and task. Glen (2006), describes another framework
manager can use when communicating with its employees to know that the cause of
retention consist of nine different predictors; organizational processes, role challenge,
values, work, life balance, information, stake/leverage/recognition, management,
work environment and product or service. Fitz-enz (1990)97
recognized that only one
factor is not responsible in management of employee’s retention, but there is several
95 Muhammad Irshad - In Factors Affecting Employees Retentions Abasyn Journal
of Social Sciences; Vo. 4 No.1 available at http://64.17.184.140/wp-
content/uploads/2012/12/V4I1-7.pdf
96 Van Knippenberg, D. (2000), Work motivation and performance: a social
identity perspective, applied psychology; an international review
97 Fitz-enz, J. (1990).Getting and keeping good employees.In personnel. 67(8): 25-
29.
73
factors influenced in employee’s retention which need to manage congruently i.e.
compensation & rewards, job security, training & developments, supervisor support
culture, work environment and organization justice etc.
2.15 Effects of not having retention programmes
Failing to retain key employee’s especially new graduates is costly for any business.
Mendez and Stander (2011)98
further emphasizes that a company needs to invest in
employee retention in order to be successful. Competition and the lack of availability
of highly talented skilled employees make finding and retaining talented employees a
major priority for organizations. Flegley (2006)99
posit that in cultivating a high
performance workforce, both assessment of employees to ensure the best match to the
job and the company and assimilating them to ensure successful integration into the
workplace, the culture of the organization and specific roles and responsibilities are
equally important. Schuler and Jackson (2006)100
state that recruiting people to meet
the organization’s human resource needs is only half the battle in the war for talent,
rather the other half is keeping these people.
Amit Bijon Dutta & Sneha Banerjee (2014)101
have mentioned possible reasons why
98 Mendes, F. and Stander, M.W.(2011) Positive organization: The role of leader
behaviour in work engagement and retention, SA Journal of Industrial
Psychology; Vol 37, No 1 (2011), 13 pages. doi: 10.4102/sajip.v37i1.900
99 Flegley, S. (2006), 2006 Talent Management Survey Report, SHRM Research,
Alexandria, VA.
100 Schuler, R. S., & Jackson, S. E. 2007. Strategic human resource management: A
reader (2 ed.). London: Blackwel
101 Dutta, A. B. & Banerjee, S. (2014) ‘Study of Employee Retention’ International
Journal of BusinessManagement& Research (IJBMR)ISSN(P): 2249-6920;
ISSN(E): 2249-8036Vol. 4, Issue 1, Feb 2014, 83-88© TJPRC Pvt. Ltd.
74
employees leave organizations such as Salary, Lack of Challenge or Growth, lack of
recognition, loss of trust, loss of overall job satisfaction. Mathur A (2014)102
Offer a
competitive benefits package that fits your employees’ needs. Providing health
insurance, life insurance and a retirement-savings plan is essential in retaining
employees. But other perks, such as flextime and the option of telecommuting, go a
long way to show employees you are willing to accommodate their outside lives.
Promote from within whenever possible. And give employees a clear path of
advancement. Employees will become frustrated and may stop trying if they see no
clear future for themselves at your company
2.16 Importance of Training and Development programme:
According to Goldstein (1980)103
and Latham (1988)104
, training is defined as the
systematic acquisition and development of the knowledge, skills, and attitudes
required by employees to adequately perform an assigned job or task to boost
performance in the job environment.
Training and career development is considered most important factor in employee
career development and retention. Organization has the incentive to make investment
in form of training & development with an expectation to return and give output on its
investment (Messmer, 2000)105
.
102 Mathru A & Agarwal, P. K. (2014) ‘A Study on Impact of Employee Retention
in Private Sector Sugar Mill’ International Journal of Emerging Research in
Management &Technology ISSN: 2278-9359 P.43-45.
103 Goldstein, I. L. (1980).Training in work organizations. Annual Review of
Psychology, 31, 229–272.
104 Latham, G. P. (1988). Human resource training and development. Annual
Review of Psychology, 39, 545–582
105 Messmer, M. (2000). Orientations programs can be key to employee retention.
In Strategic Finance. 81 (8):12-15.
75
According to Clarke (2001)106
, organizations are intensification development for
talented employees, through proficiency analysis, input on employee interests, need
development and multisource appraisal of capabilities and formulate plans for action.
Improvement in performance such as productivity, quality, and services are the
training outcomes provided that the job is strategically aligned to the organization’s
needs. For individual, if the desired needs of employee were fulfilled through the
training programs provided, there is no doubt the desired outcome by the
organization, retention on employees, will be reached. Wetland (2003)107
suggest that
firms and individual made investment on human capital in the form of training.
Training enhances the skills of employees. When employees are hired to enhance the
skill, organization needs to start training program (Goldstein, 1991)108
. According to
Noe (1999)109
, employees have perception to acquire new knowledge & skills which
they apply on the job and also share with other employees. Research studies found
that organization often delay employee training program to determine that workers
personal value good matches with organization culture or otherwise, therefore to peter
out the employee turnover intention (Lauri, Benson & Cheney, 1996)110
.
106 Clarke, K.F. (2001). What businesses are doing to attract and retain employee-
becoming an employer of choice. In Employee Benefits Journal.pp. 34-37.
107 Wetland, D. (2003). The strategic training of employee‟s model: balancing
organizational constraints and training content. In S.A.M. Advanced
Management Journal, winter, Cincinnati. pp: 103-107.
108 Goldstein, I. (1991). Training in organizations.In Handbook of Industrial and
Organizational Psychology.Ed. M.D. Dunnette and L.M. Hough, (2nd edition).
2: 507-619.
109 Noe, R.A. (1999). Employee training and development. New York: Irwin
McGraw-Hill. pp: 212-218.
110 Lauri, B., Benson, G and Cheney, S. (1996). The top ten trends. In training and
development.11:28-42.
76
Training should impart new knowledge and skills if the training is relevant, meet
employee and organizational needs, efficiently and effectively designed and delivered
(Salas, 2003)111
. When the results of training reflected in improvements in relevant
knowledge and the acquisition of relevant skills, employee job performance should
improve provided that the skills learned in training transfer to the job (Baldwin &
ford, 1998).112
Garg & Rastogi (2006)113
explain that in today’s competitive environment feedback is
essential for organizations to give and receive from employees and the more
knowledge the employee learn the more he or she will perform and meet the global
challenges. Storey and Sisson
(1993)114
, recommend that training is sign of organization commitment to employees.
Leading firms of the industry recognize that comprehensive range of training, skill
and career development is the key factor of attraction and retention the form of
flexible, sophisticated and technological employees that firms strategy to succeed in
the computerized economy (Bassi and Van Buren, 1999; Accenture, 2001)115
.
111 Salas, E., & Kosarzycki, M. P. (2003). Why don’t organizations pay attention to
(and use) findings from the science of training? Human Resource Development
Quarterly, 14, 487–491.
112 Baldwin, T. T., & Ford, J. K. (1988). Transfer of training: A review and
directions for future research. Personnel Psychology, 41, 63–105
113 Garg, P. &Rastongi, R. (2006), new model of job design motivation employees
Performance, Journal of Management Development.
114 Storey, J. and Sisson, K. (1993). Managing Human Resources and industrial
Relations, Buckingham: Open University Press. pp: 22-31
115 Bassi, L.J. and Van Buren, M.E. (1999).Sharpening the leading edge.In
Training and Development. 53(l): 23-32.
77
Similarly Muhammad Irshad found that Training and career development was found
motivating factor which leads to retention and career development was also associated
with employee retention and was found important influencing factor in employee
retention in the organization.
Huselid (1995)116
suggested that perceptions of HR practices such as providing
training and job security by the company are important determinants of employee
retention. Moreover, some studies also state that HR practices such as benefit and
training are positively related to retention because the practices motivate employees
and “lock” them to their jobs (Lazear 1986117
; Madrian, 1994118
; Gruber &Madrian,
1994),119
which are so called employee retention.
2.17 Recognition necessary for Retention:
The annual survey of Watson Wyatt120
on worker attitudes toward employers and
116 Huselid, M. A. (1995) ‘The impact of human resource practices on Turnover
Productivity and Corporate Financial Performance’ Academy of Management
Journal, Vol. 38, Page 635-672.
117 Lazear, E. P. (1986). Retirement from the labor force.In Ashenfelter, O., and
Layard, R. (Eds.).Handbook of labor economics, volume 1. Amsterdam: North-
Holland.
118 Madrian, B. C. (1994). Employment-based health insurance and job mobility: Is
there evidence of job-lock? Quarterly Journal of Economics, 109, (February),
27–51.
119 Gruber, J., & Madrian, B. C. (1994). Health insurance and job mobility: The
effects of public policy on job-lock. Industrial and Labor Relations Review,
48(1), 86–102.
120 Watson, Wyatt. (1999). Work USA 2000: Employee commitment and the
bottom line. Bethesda, MD: Watson Wyatt. pp: 43-58.
78
workplace, work USA 2002, show the opinions of 12,750 employees at all levels of
job in all large companies, on different issues of workplace including rewards. The
Watson Wyatt study finds that recognition is important for workers and they want to
listen that their work are recognized and they are appreciated. Gordon and Meredith
(2001) further emphasizes that a company needs to invest in employee retention in
order to be successful.
2.18 Flexible working hours
Pasewark and Viator (2006)121
places flexible work arrangement as very important
part of wok family support that plays pivotal rule in the retention of employees.
Thompson and Prottas (2005)122
examined the relationship between employee
turnover intention and organization support such as supervisor support, flex time work
family culture and co-worker support etc, and they conclude that organization support
reduced the employee turnover intention. Therefore, it is essential to have flexible
working hours particularly in research institutes.
2.19 Job Satisfaction:
Job satisfaction is a result of employees’ perceptions of how well their jobs provide in
those qualities that they perceive as important (Luthans, 1998, p. 44)123
. A strong
correlation, and in fact a causal relationship between job satisfaction, employee
commitment and retention, has been established in several studies to date, as reported
121 Pasewark WR. Viator RE. (2006), Sources of Work- Family Conflict in the
Accounting Profession. Behavioral Research in Accounting.;18:147–165.
122 Thompson CA, Prottas DJ (2005). Relationships among Organizational Family
Support, Job Autonomy, Perceived Control, and Employee well-being.Journal
of Occupational Health Psychology. 11(1):100-118
123 Luthans, F. (1998).Organisational Behaviour (8th ed). Singapore: Irwin/
McGraw-Hill.
79
by Roland et al (1996)124
.
2.20 Career, Career Development and Retention – overview pertaining to
research, research institutes and research employees:
Background:
In particular it is relevant to quote the statement of Shri Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the then
Prime Minister of India. ‘…Office of PSA to the Govt. of India should “Tackle the
challenge of recruiting the best scientific talent into our research institutions and
retaining them there” ’– inaugural speech on 31.10.2002 at BARC Founder’s Day,
Mumbai. 125
. In the same report, extracts from Summary records of discussions of the
fifth meeting of the Scientific Advisory Committee to Cabinet Meeting held on 26th
of March, 2003 at Vigyan Bhavan Annexe, New Delhi. M5 A2 M2: Measures to
attract young persons to careers in science. While opening discussion on this issue,
Dr. Chidambaram mentioned that serious concerns have been expressed at highest
levels from time to time regarding decreasing interest of young talented people to take
up careers in basic sciences. He further stated that if this trend is not checked at this
stage, our country is going to face a serious shortage of talented researchers and
teachers in a few years and that the symptoms of this are already visible.
The following figure 2.20.1 (on the next page) shows the numbers of research
institutes in various sectors.
124 Roland, T., Rust, G.L., Stewart, H.M. & Pielack, D. (1996).The satisfaction and
retention of front-line employees. International Journal of Service Industry
Management, 7 (5), pp 62-80.
125 Attracting young people to careers in Science – Report by Office of the
Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government of India, July, 2005
80
Figure 2.20.1: Numbers of research institutes in various sectors
The flight of talent from science careers is not the only kind of internal brain drain. A
matter of equally significant concern is the flight of engineering students from
technical to non-technical careers (management, business, etc.). The reasons for this
are much the same as discussed earlier. With the growing consumerist culture in the
country, prestige attaches to careers fetching more money. Academic and research
careers in science or engineering, once highly regarded, are no longer valued greatly.
Government should provide an assured career to KVPY scholars who complete their
Ph.D in science. It involves mechanisms to be evolved by all the major science related
agencies of the country acting in a coordinated manner. It may offer some incentives
to those industries if they employ Ph.Ds and science postgraduates.
Issue bureaucratic intervention of the government bureaucrats has been always of
concerned of the head of research institutions. This point has been discussed and
communicated to the higher authorities by many. Even the Prime Minster of India
reiterated it again on 3rd
January 2005. He said “ I am concerned about the tyranny of
81
bureaucracy and the quality of output in many of our scientific research
establishments. The pursuit of research in science is an adventure, a creative
endeavor. Are we creating the required environment for innovation, for
experimentation, for risk and creativity in our institutions, be they universities or
national laboratories? Or have we allowed bureaucratic systems and patron-client
relationships to stifle creativity?”126
The Department of Science and Technology (DST), which was established in May,
1971, has the important objective of promoting new areas of science and technology
and to be the nodal department for coordinating those areas of science and technology
in which a number of institutions and departments have interest and capabilities.
Thus, the DST has a unique role in promoting basic research and technology
development in the country.127
.
126 Prime Minister’s Officer : Press Information Bureau of on 3rd January 2005
available at http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=6235
127 Chapter 28, ‘Fifty year of Science In India’ available at
http://www.iisc.ernet.in/insa/ch28.pdf
82
The Figure 2.20.2 shows the Science and Technology systems in India.
Figure 2.20.2: Science and Technology Systems in India
Source : http://www.iisc.ernet.in/insa/ch28.pdf
The following Figure 2.20.3 (on the next page) shows the Science and Technology
Departments involved in research and development areas for the country.
83
Figure 2.20.3: Science and Technology Departments in India
Source: http://www.iisc.ernet.in/insa/ch28.pdf
The Department of Science and Technology nurtures 24 autonomous institutions.
These include 15 research institutions, 5 professional bodies and 4 specialized
knowledge institutions and S&T service organizations. The 15 research institutions in
the DST family form a very special group from several points of view. Some of these
are among the oldest research institutions in the country (including the oldest), some
were started by eminent scientists and individuals like Mahendra Lal Sircar, CV
Raman, JC Bose, Birbal Sahni and DN Wadia, some are repositories of very old and
valuable scientific data, some lead the nation in niche areas like optical astronomy and
geomagnetism – and so on. Most research institutions in the DST family are basic
research institutions with the exception of ARCI-Hyderabad which has carved a very
special place for itself as a premier technology development and transfer organization.
84
These institutions have an impressive portfolio of research publications and awards
and honours earned by their scientists.128
2.21 SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING RESEARCH COUNCIL129
The Science and Engineering Research Council (SERC) of the Department has
emerged as the single largest support system engaged in promoting basic research in
all areas of science and engineering and has achieved significant success in furthering
the growth of research in frontier areas. It has been the main stay of open-ended basic
research in the academic sector; about 44% of the extramural research funding in
Universities/ Colleges was from SERC and the rest from 18 other Departments/
funding agencies. SERC continued its programmes to promote research and
development (R&D) in new and interdisciplinary areas of Science & Engineering.
Projects to be sponsored under SERC are carefully selected through the concept of
Programme Advisory Committees (PAC). It played a pro-active role in identifying
challenging areas of research and supported proposals with defined objectives in these
areas.
SERC has over the years created a chain of research centers of excellence in diverse
fields of S&T and contributed to augment R&D capabilities at academic institutions
and national laboratories. Many of these Centres have advanced research facilities to
attract young researchers.
Manpower Development is an integral part of the SERC Scheme. Innovative human
resource development programmes were initiated/ continued. It continued supporting
programmes like the Kishore Vaigyanik Prothsahan Yojana(KVPY), DST-JNC
Summer Student Fellowships, Integrated Science Olympiad Programme, etc besides
attracting Young Scientists to take up challenging R&D activities as a career.
128 Annual Report 2011-12 Department of Science and Technology, Government of
India, http://www.dst.gov.in/about_us/ar11-12/PDF/chapter10-292-358.pdf
129 Annual Report 2009-10, Department of Science and Technology, Government
of India, http://dst.gov.in/about_us/ar09-10/annual_report_2009-10.pdf
85
TRAINING130
Department of Science & Technology, in consultation with DOPT,
other Scientific Departments and various organizations initiated an ambitious project
of Human Resource Development namely “National Programme for Training of
Scientists and Technologists working in the Government sector” for scientific and
technical personnel during the X Plan to meet the challenges of national development
and international competitiveness in S&T area. Considering the efficacy of the
Scheme, the Department has decided to continue it in XI Plan.
The following Figure 2.21.1 shows the comparison of Scientists and Expenditure
among selected countries. From this one can observe that India is too behind and need
to do lot more.
Figure 2.21.1: Comparison of Scientist and Expenditure of different countries
with India
Source: Source: http://www.iisc.ernet.in/insa/ch28.pdf
130 Annual Report 2012-13, Department of Science and Technology, Government
of India, http://www.dst.gov.in/about_us/ar12-13/annual-report-2012-13.pdf
86
2.22 Careers, Career Development and Retention of Research Employees at
various Research Institutes at International and National level.
2.22.1 Career, Career Development and Retention Policy and Programmes at
NRAO131
:
As a national facility operating in the public interest, the National Radio Astronomy
Observatory (NRAO), USA has grown to be a premier astronomical observatory. It
provides uniquely powerful facilities for researchers from around the world. Vision
and Mission of the organization include development of scientific community, foster
user community, develope society through educational programmes, career
development of research and scientific staff of NRAO through high level of training
programmes. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) strongly believes
that a diverse staff is critical for our mission to enable world-class science with
cutting edge radio facilities for the scientific community, to train the next generation
of scientists and engineers and to foster a scientific literate society. We are
committed to a diverse and inclusive work place culture that accepts and appreciates
all individuals regardless of race, gender, age, ethnicity, ability, sexual orientation,
socioeconomic status, religious affiliation, or national origin and culture.
Recruitment of scientific staff is a recognition of an individual’s competence,
creativity, demonstrated accomplishment, and value to the mission of the Observatory
All appointments and promotions are based on qualifications and performance
without regard to race, color, religion, gender, ethnicity, age, disability, marital status,
veteran status, or any other characteristic protected by law132
.
Appointment to the Scientific Staff is recognition of action to attract members of
under-represented classes of individuals to the Observatory staff.
Members of the Scientific Staff will have diverse operational functions within the
Observatory, but will always have some fraction of their time available for
131 http://www.nrao.edu/admin/hr/
132 https://cw.na1.hgncloud.com/nrao/index.do retrieved on 23rd January 2015.
87
independent, self-directed research. This ensures that the NRAO reaps the full
benefits of its staff talent and guides the Observatory in the fulfillment of its mission.
The NRAO Scientific Staff is divided into two career tracks, Astronomer and
Scientist. They have separate promotion policy for scientific staff. Scientists and
engineers who maintain a primary affiliation with or who hold grants from other
institutions or foundations may be given temporary appointments at NRAO.
2.22.2 Career, Career Development and Retention Programmes at NASA:
To support the full utilization of the NASA workforce in achieving NASA's strategic
outcomes and managing its human capital, it is NASA's policy to make training and
developmental opportunities widely available to employees to enhance individual
capabilities and competencies; build and retain a skilled and effective workforce;
improve organizational performance; and maintain scientific, professional, technical,
and management proficiency. More specifically, it is NASA's policy to: Support
employee training, retraining, mentoring and coaching, and organizational
development activities leading to better ways of delivering services, improving work
performance, and increasing the value of employee contributions to current and future
Agency missions.
Staff development programmes133
include policy and vision. Foster infusion of new
ideas and innovation by expanding details, IPAs, rotations – particularly externally,
Expand rotations and details to, and with, academia and industry, Expand use of
rotations within NASA, Build skills across all levels of the workforce through
leadership development opportunities, Train and Re-train to provide skills to close
gaps, Improve communications – to drive engagement, motivation and sense of value
as NASA transforms, Implement Agency-wide orientation program, Implement
Executive Orientation Program. Require executive development plans, Expand
executive development curricula, Continue and expand executive summits.
In a knowledge-based agency like NASA, it is important to have effective retention
133 http://nasapeople.nasa.gov/hcm/subgoal1.htm#goal3
88
strategies that will encourage experienced employees to remain as needed to mentor
new talent and transfer knowledge or to ensure continuity on important programs and
projects. The retention bonus provision in the NASA Flexibility Act of 2004 enhances
the current retention allowance authority by (1) authorizing larger amounts to address
critical needs of the Agency, (2) providing more flexible payment options, and (3)
extending the circumstances under which a retention bonus may be offered.
NASA continuously uses survey results to gauge the attitudes and impressions of
employees in key areas of their work experience that drive satisfaction, commitment
and ultimately boost morale, productivity and our capacity for mission success. This
year, 9,985 NASA employees (58.2% of the workforce) responded to this survey,
providing a high degree of confidence in the results for senior leaders and managers134
2.22.3 Careers, Career Development and Retention of Researchers in Europe135
To make matters worse, in certain countries there seem to be significant cuts in
research funds and public spending, which clearly create negative trends that affect
career development for researchers. The problem is more enhanced in fundamental
research, where it is difficult to attract private funds, while in countries with low R&D
there are no complementary opportunities in industry either.
ERC grants are inspiring researchers all over Europe to establish ambitious projects
for frontier research and to shoot for the sky. They raise Europe’s research profile
worldwide and render it more attractive. Within this framework, the grant-holder
panelists will discuss their experiences, the added value of ERC funding and prestige,
the opportunities that this has generated for career development, and altogether how
134 NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION, 2013
Annual Employee Survey Results
135 Challenges and prospects for a researcher's career in the European Research
Area,’ Marie Curie Fellowship Association Science Policy Panel, Working
Document, July 2003
89
the awarding of an ERC grant has impacted their professional lives136
.
Retention plan and strategy: Prevent brain-drain towards the US; this requires an
answer to why top researchers leave Europe, and what can they get in the US that is
not available here. Is it money, better equipment, a different (organizational) culture
or all these together? These reasons should be clearly identified in order to offer
improved conditions in Europe as well.
In addition, researchers from non-EU countries ought to be attracted by establishing
appropriate immigration and administrative procedures. Provide better conditions for
researchers wishing to return to their home countries after years of mobility. Pay
particular attention to young researchers and enable them to develop their creative
ideas and an early autonomy. Encourage the businesses sector to invest in R&D, for
instance through fiscal benefits for demonstrated R&D expenditures. The 3% target is
heavily dependent on the funding from enterprises, and on achieving the aim for a 2/3
contribution towards research from the private sector. Create industry/academic joint
research centers. The governments could provide the infrastructures and equip such
centers, while business funding would contribute in running costs. A good practice
example in this direction is the European Institute of Molecular Biology in
Heidelberg. Strengthen entrepreneurship by financing critical phases of enterprises,
fostering academia-industry collaboration and favoring long-term foreign investment
in Europe linked to R&D. Undertake concrete and large-scale initiatives in order to
improve the quality standard of the R&D Process and Management (for instance,
organizations that apply for EU funds should be able to demonstrate a genuine effort
and ability to meet high standards of quality in this direction).
136 CONFERENCE on “Enhancing the Attractiveness of European Universities as a
Destination for World-Class Researchers” 5th Nov. 2012, Barcelona, European
Research Council
90
2.23 Careers, Career Development and Retention of Research Employees :
Efforts in India
2.23.1 Department of Science and Technology137:
HUMAN CAPACITY BUILDING THROUGH SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
RESEARCH: Department of Science & Technology is the largest support system for
promoting basic research in science and engineering in the country. Science and
Engineering Research Board (SERB), created through an Act of Parliament,
implements various programmes for strengthening the human resource engaged in
diverse fields of science and engineering. The Board has intensified its R&D activities
through multifaceted programmes. The Board had met four times in the reporting
period and has taken significant decisions on R&D management in the country.
Overall 681 scientists were supported under the Extra-mural Research (EMR) funding
scheme for individual investigators through the Programme Advisory Committee
mechanism. in addition, 1063 Young Scientists were supported under the Fast Track
Scheme for Young Scientists. Annual releases for more than 2100 projects were made
during the reporting period. 40 scientists received Ramanujan Fellowship and 22
received JC Bose Fellowship. Five projects were sanctioned under Intensification of
Research in High Priority Areas (IRPHA). More than 800 scientists were supported
under the International Travel Support (ITS) scheme which is designed to provide
financial assistance for presenting a research paper or chairing a session or delivering
a keynote address in an international scientific event
(conference/seminar/symposium/workshop etc.) held abroad. A total expenditure of
Rs. 550.16 crore was made by the Board for various R&D activities in 2013-14.
‘Women Scientist Scheme-A (WOS-A)’ has completed a decade of support and
encouragement through S&T to women having break in their career and provide them
opportunity to come back in main stream of science by pursuing research in Science
& Engineering. Approximately 40% women scientists achieved Ph.D. degree with
the help of WOS-A project which show the relevance and popularity of the scheme.
137 Annual Report 2013-14 Department of Science & Technology, India,
http://www.dst.gov.in/about_us/ar13-14/annual-report-2013-14.pdf
91
Training and Development: Department of Science & Technology, in consultation
with DOPT, other Scientific Departments and various organizations initiated an
ambitious project of Human Resource Development namely “National Programme for
Training of Scientists and Technologists working in the Government sector” for
scientific and technical personnel during the X Plan to meet the challenges of national
development and international competitiveness in S&T area. Considering the efficacy
of the Scheme, the Department has decided to continue it in XI and XIIth Plan also.
During the year 2013-14, 33 training programmes were conducted under “National
Programme for Training of Scientists and Technologists working in the government
Sector” and a total number of 720 scientists got benefited from these training
programmes. Under the Foreign Component of the Training Programme, 25 Junior
level Scientists were deputed for five day exposure visit to Germany and 14 Senior
and Middle Level Scientists were deputed for five day exposure visit to Australia
during the financial year 2013-14.
2.23.2 Department of Space, India138
Space activities in the country were initiated with the setting up of Indian National
Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) in 1962. In the same year, work on
Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) near Thiruvananthapuram
was also started. Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) was established in
August 1969. The Government of India constituted the Space Commission and
established the Department of Space (DOS) in June 1972 and brought ISRO under
DOS in September 1972.
The total approved sanctioned strength of the department as on 1.3.2013 is 18,561 out
of which 12,850 are in scientific and technical categories and 5,711 are in
administrative categories. Welfare measures like housing, medical, canteen and
schooling for children, are extended to the existing personnel under different
approved schemes. Life insurance coverage from accidents in the work place, namely
138 Annual Report 2013-14, Department of Space, India available at
http://dos.gov.in/rep2014/Humanresources.html
92
VISWAS and a special scheme for assistance to families in exigency, namely,
‘SAFE’, are also extended to employees at a relatively low premium through an
internal trust. The competency, commitment and dedication of ISRO/DOS personnel
have played a key role in various achievements of the Indian space Programme. DOS
attaches great importance to the quality in recruitment, training and development of
its human resources to meet the stringent requirements of the space programme and
realization of goals and objectives of the Department.
Centralized recruitment of scientists and engineers with degree in Engineering has
been continued during the year. The applications were received on ISRO website and
selection and induction of engineers have been completed through a process of written
test and interview on an all India basis. Centralized recruitment processes have been
continued for Officers in Administrative areas, Office Assistants and Jr Personal
Assistants during the year.
ISRO/DOS has been absorbing the bright graduates from the Indian Institute of Space
Science and Technology on successful completion of their B,Tech programme with
certain level of benchmark. The third batch of students, who were admitted to B.Tech
Programme during September 2009 at Indian Institute of Space Science and
Technology (IIST), Thiruvananthapuram, have graduated during June 2013. A total of
121 students who have passed out fulfilling the quality benchmark, have been
inducted in all DOS/ISRO Centres.
Training and Development: The scheme of induction training programme for newly
recruited scientists/engineers which was introduced in 2002, has been continued
during the year. The scheme is useful for youngsters to understand various systems in
the Indian Space Programme. Similar induction training programmes have been
continued for newly recruited administrative staff wherein they are introduced to
various rules, regulations, systems and processes that are in vogue in the organization.
Customized residential Management Development Programmes were also conducted
for Officers in Purchase and Stores area and the programme provided refresher course
on all matters pertaining to the subject.
As part of the strategy of identifying and developing futuristic leaders, a group of 51
93
senior executives were identified and a customized training programme in five
modules was designed. The first three modules covering scientific and technical
topics in Spacecraft Technologies, Space Transportation System and Space
Applications were designed and delivered to them. A specially designed management
module was also administered to these executives at the Indian institute of
Management, Ahmedabad. The last module on administrative systems is being
planned shortly.
Space Studies Programme (SSP) 2013 for young Scientists/Engineers organized by
International Space University at International Space University Central Campus,
Strasbourg, France was continued during the year and six Scientists/Engineers from
different Centres/units took part in it. Customized and exclusive training programmes
and Management Development Programmes for middle level scientific, technical and
administrative officers, under collaboration with reputed Institutions, were also
continued.
2.23.3 Department of Atomic Energy139
For induction to the constituent units of the Department, a well-defined human
resource development programme implemented through the BARC Training School
and its affiliate Training Schools at CAT, NFC and NPCIL is in place. The first batch
graduated from BARC Training School in 1958 and the programme has evolved
through feedback from senior staff, faculty and young trainees. The management
structure provides for continuous revision of syllabi including introduction of new
courses and streams depending on the requirements of the Department. As a part of
this process of evolution, new programmes have been introduced and the schemes in
operation at present provide for opportunities for employment in the DAE system to
young aspirants after B.Tech. or M.Sc. through Orientation Course for Engineering
Graduates and Science Post-graduates (OCES), after M.Tech. through DAE Graduate
Fellowship Scheme (DGFS) and after Ph.D. through K. S. Krishnan Research
Associateship (KSKRA).
139 Annual Report 2013-14, Department of Atomic Energy, India,
http://dae.nic.in/?q=node/789
94
All the grant-in-aid institutions have high quality programmes leading to degrees by
research. Graduates of these programmes have very high employment potential. As a
part of the process of evolution, the most recent initiative is the proposal to set-up an
Institute within DAE having the status of a university. This institute will be called
Homi Bhabha National Institute (HBNI) and an application has already been
submitted to Ministry of Human Resource Development for this purpose. A new
building for the BARC Training School is also being constructed in Anushakti Nagar.
Achievements of the Department over the past 50 years were acknowledged and it
was recognized that the DAE institutions are the beneficiary of long-term stable
enlightened support to fundamental research. As a result, DAE has in its fold the best
institutions in the country with the best brains the country has. Overall, it was felt that
while the Department has performed very well during the past 50 years, in the next 10
years it might have to do almost as much or even more. Though the vision is
something like a mature dream, one cannot lose sight of the fact that vision has to be
amenable to implementation. Long-term energy scenario calls for massive expansion
in nuclear power in the country and India has to develop new technologies that are
needed consistent with its objectives and resources. However, India has to choose an
independent path for technology development and this is because of two reasons - one
because of prevailing technology control regimes and two being a large country with
a high density of population, its problems are unique.
The Government of India in the Department of Personnel & Training in their Office
Memorandum dated 15th April, 1996 has notified a comprehensive strategy for
implementing the National Training Policy formulated and approved based on the
report of a Working Group on National Training Policy. DAE has set up a Training
Institute called Administrative Training Institute (ATI). The guidelines stipulate that
all categories of civil servants shall receive induction training at the time of entry in to
service and in service training at suitable intervals in their career. Attendance in
training programme shall be prescribed as a mandatory exercise with possible
linkages with career progression. It is also mentioned in the guidelines that each
department shall set apart 1.5% of its salary budget which shall be used solely for the
95
purpose of training and shall not be diverted for use elsewhere.140
DAE has good linkages with the university system as well as industry. There were
proposals to further strengthen these linkages. Technology transfer should be
encouraged and co-ordination at the DAE level in this area should be strengthened.
DAE institutions and professional societies, wherein DAE employees have a major
role are engaged in several activities, example being National Initiative on
Undergraduate Science and programmes for training students for participation in the
International Olympiads run by Homi Bhabha Centre for Science Education,
programmes for college teachers run by Indian Association of Nuclear Chemists and
Allied Scientists (IANCAS), essay competition run by Public Awareness Division of
DAE. All these programmes should be strengthened. Training provided to
undergraduate students during summer, facilities and guidance provided to under-
graduate and post-graduate students for projects should be continued.
2.23.4 Council of Scientific and Industrial Research141
The Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR), known for its cutting edge
R&D knowledgebase in diverse S&T areas, is a contemporary R&D organization.
Having pan-India presence, CSIR has a dynamic network of 38 national laboratories,
39 outreach centres, 3 Innovation Complexes and 5 units. CSIR’s R&D expertise and
experience is embodied in about 4600 active scientists supported by about 8000
scientific and technical personnel.
CSIR covers a wide spectrum of science and technology – from radio and space
physics, oceanography, geophysics, chemicals, drugs, genomics, biotechnology and
nanotechnology to mining, aeronautics, instrumentation, environmental engineering
and information technology. It provides significant technological intervention in
140 Administrative Training Institute of India, DAE,
http://ati.dae.gov.in/About%20ATI.htm
141 Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, India,
http://www.csir.res.in/Home.aspx?MenuId=2
96
many areas with regard to societal efforts which include environment, health, drinking
water, food, housing, energy, farm and non-farm sectors. Further, CSIR’s role in
S&T human resource development is noteworthy.
Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR), India, a premier national R&D
organization, is among the world's largest publicly funded R&D organization. CSIR's
pioneering sustained contribution to S&T human resource development is acclaimed
nationally. Human Resource Development Group (HRDG), a division of CSIR
realizes this objective through various grants, fellowship schemes etc.
Human Resource Development Group has been contributing significantly towards
producing an inquiring society and fast growing knowledge economy. These
numerous schemes cover a wide range of scientists (aging from 15 years to 65 years).
Human Resource Development Group of CSIR has been contributing significantly
towards producing an ‘inquiring society’. The various programmes and activities of
the Group relate to: Identifying budding talent having aptitude and aspirations to work
for the generation of new knowledge and technology; Funding of extra mural
research; Development of S&T manpower; Nurturing young talents; Promoting
excellence through awards and honors; and Encouraging interaction among
scientists.142
These programmes cover a wide range of S&T disciplines and age groups and are
undertaken through a true Team India partnership i.e., with active involvement and
participation of eminent scientists and experts from academia, industrial R&D units,
S&T departments, etc.
2.23.5 Indian Council of Medical Research143
The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), New Delhi, the apex body in India
for the formulation, coordination and promotion of biomedical research, is one of the
142 Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, HRD, India
http://www.csirhrdg.res.in/at_glance.htm
143 Indian Council of Medical Research, ICMR, India, http://www.icmr.nic.in/
97
oldest medical research bodies in the world.
As early as in 1911, the Government of India set up the Indian Research Fund
Association (IRFA) with the specific objective of sponsoring and coordinating
medical research in the country. After independence, several important changes were
made in the organization and the activities of the IRFA. It was re-designated in 1949
as the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) with considerably expanded scope
of functions.
The ICMR is funded by the Government of India through the Department of Health
Research, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare. The Governing Body of the Council
is presided over by the Union Health Minister. It is assisted in scientific and technical
matters by a Scientific Advisory Board comprising eminent experts in different
biomedical disciplines. The Board, in its turn, is assisted by a series of Scientific
Advisory Groups, Scientific Advisory Committees, Expert Groups, Task Forces,
Steering Committees etc. which evaluate and monitor different research activities of
the Council. The Council promotes biomedical research in the country through
intramural as well as extramural research. Over the decades, the base of extramural
research and also its strategies have been expanded by the Council.
2.23.6 Indian Council of Agriculture Research144
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is an autonomous body
responsible for coordinating agricultural education and research in India. It reports to
the Department of Agricultural Research and Education, Ministry of
Agriculture.[2]
The Union Minister of Agriculture serves as its president.
The Committee to Advise on Renovation and Rejuvenation of Higher Education
(Yashpal Committee, 2009) has recommended setting up of a constitutional body —
the National Commission for Higher Education and Research — which would be a
unified supreme body to regulate all branches of higher education including
144 Indian Council of Agricultural Research, India,
http://www.icar.org.in/en/node/1237
98
agricultural education. Presently, regulation of agricultural education is the mandate
of ICAR, Veterinary Council of India (Veterinary sub-discipline) and Indian Council
of Forestry Research and Education (Forestry sub-discipline).
2.24 Conclusion:
Literature Review has taken through the books, journals, research papers and internet
website for giving us full information about career, career development and retention
of research employees. There is lot of material on Career, Career Development and
Retention of employees other than Research Employees working in the autonomous
bodies of the government of India. The Government Departments have reviewed these
issues in their annual reports, which have been reviewed in this chapter. The
literature review clearly indicates a research gap for the topic selected for this
research study.
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