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Part
The Goal of Social
Studies Education
(Source: Robb Mitchell, Lake Washington School District, Seattle.)
Part I describes the goals of social studies education in a post-industrial world society and sets
forth the essential components of an effective social studies curriculum. Chapter 1 describes
some of the characteristics of the postindustrial world and the kind of social studies
curriculum needed to help students acquire the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to
become effective citizen actors in our nation and world. It presents a rationale for a social
studies curriculum focused on decision-making and reflective citizen action. The essential
components of decision-making are discussed and illustrated. They include scientific,
interdisciplinary, and higher-level knowledge, value analysis and clarification, and the
synthesis of knowledge and values.
2 The Goal of. Social Studies Education
Sound decisions must be derived from scientific and interdisciplinary
knowledge. Knowledge from any one discipline is. too limited to enable the citizen
actor to fully understand the complexity of human behavior and to make reflective
decisions on personal and public issues. Because each of the social science disciplines
provides us with a unique lens with which to view the human drama. the
reflective citizen actor must be able to see human behavior from diverse
disciplinary perspectives. Chapter 2 illustrates ways in which teachers can
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conceptualize, plan, and teach.rerdisciplinary social studies units that are based
on higher-level concepts and generalizations and that focus on important topics and
social issues.
Refl ective ci tizen act ors must not only be able to use interdisciplinary-knowledge
derived from s everal disciplines, t hey must also.understand the nature of social
inquiry. be aware of its assumptions, and be able to use the method themselves when
it is necessary and appropriate. The first part of Chapter 3 describes the nature of social
inquiry and illustrates ways in which teachers can help students to develop social inquiry
skills. The second part of the chapter discusses the nature of social knowledgefacts, concepts,
generalizations, and theories and ways to help students derive this knowledge. Chapter 4
focuses on questioning strategies, which are an integral and important part of social inquiry
and the decision-making process.
THE SOCIAL STUDIES
IN A POST-INDUSTRIAL WORLD SOCIETY
The social studies is that part of the elementary and high school curriculum which has the
primary responsibility for helping students to develop the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and
values needed to participate in the civic life of their local communities, the nation, and the
world. While the other curriculum areas also help students to attain some skills needed to
participate in a democratic society, the social studies is the only area that has the development
of civic competencies and skills as its primary goal.
Helping students become effective citizens in today's world is a tremendous challenge
because of the enormous changes in our global society. Futurists agree that we are living in a
world society characterized by rapid and tumultuous changes. The unprecedented changes
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sweeping our world society are neither temporary nor fleeting, but are signs that we are
entering a new society and age in which many of our traditional values, assumptions, and
behaviors will be challenged. New value problems and issues will also arise, as problems related
to such developments as the eroding of the ozone layer of the atmosphere, biogenetic
engineering, the nuclear challenge. and the aging of the population in Western societies
become increasingly important.
Futurists use different words to describe the emerging world society. Alvin Toffler
calls it the "Third Wave" society. John Naisbitt refers to it as the "information society.-:..Daniel
Bell prefers the term "post-industrial society."' These writers agree that the emerging
world society will differ markedly from the industrial age that dominated Western
democratic societies during the nineteenth and the first half of the twentieth centuries. While
the indus-
tr ia l age was characterized by the production of 'goods. the pot -industrial society
will-
be increasingly characterized by services and the production of knowledge. Bell
believes that a knowledge or information class will emerge..
The post-industrial society will also be _characterized by global rather tha n
national economies. international problems that will require global rather than
national solutions, and diversity in life-styles, values, beliefs, cult in es. and political
sentiments. offler writes, ". . . begin to a new kind of social ordrno longer a
mass society, but a hi gh-cha nge, high -
,
de-massilied civilization."' 'Wrier believes that almost everyone
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be a member of some kind of minority group in the post-industrial society. whether
cultural, social, religious, or political.
The futurists also point out that participatory democracy will increasingly characterize
post-industrial societies. More peOple will want to participate in the decisions affecting
their livesnot only in polit ics, 'but on their jobs.' Much political activity will occur at
the local and regional rather than at the national level. Decentralization, or the
dispersal of power and decision-making, will be one of the characteristics of post-
industrial society.
A. social studies curriculum designed to help students develop the knowledge, skills, -
and values needed to effectively participate in a post-industrial world society must have
characteristics different from traditional social studies curricula. Traditional social
studies curricula emphasize the masterV of low-level facts, such as the names of rivers,
capital cities, and important dates. Traditional social studies is also characterized by a
focus on the Western world, the development of a tenacious and nonreflective
nationalism. textbook-centered teaching, and scant attention to citizen action.
A social studies curriculum consistent with the changing world society in which we
live must focus on higher levels of knowledge rather than on facts. teach about
developing as well as Westernized nations. use a variety of teaching materials, and help
students to develop clarified, reflective, and positive identifications with their local
cultures, nation-state, and the world.{
Helping students to develop a reflective identification with their nation, state is
necessary but not sufficient in today's world society. Solutions to many of the most pressing
world problems require cooperation by citizens in many different parts of the world. Citizens
who have a clarified and reflective identification with the world community are needed to
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help solve the most pressing problems that face humankind. A modernized social studies
curriculum should also help students to develop the knowledge, skills and commitment
needed to participate in action to shape public policy in their communities, nation,
and the world.
THE GOALS OF THE SOCIAL STUDIES
The major goal of t h'e social studies is to prepare citizens who can make reflective
decisions and participate successfully in the civic life of their communities, nation, and the
world. Goals in four categories contribute to this major goal: (1) knowledge, (2) skills, (3)
attitudes and values, and (4) citizen action.
PROFILE
Lester R. Brown
Analyzing Global Trends and Urging Action
Lester R. Brown is President and Senior Researcher with Worldwatch Institute, a nonprofit
Washington-based research institute devoted to the analysis of emerging global trends. In a
series of annually published books called State of the World. Brown and his colleagues at
the Worldwatch Institute describe the changing physical characteristics of the planet earth. A
recent edition indicates that the earth's forests are shrinking, its deserts expanding, and its
soils erodingall at record rates. Each year thousands of plants and animal species disappear,
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many before they are named or catalogued. The very temperature of the earth appears to be
rising, posing, a threat of unknown dimensions to virtually all the life-support systems on
which humanity depends."
Brown does not describe the deteriorating state of the earth to counsel despair. Rather,
he presents facts about the physical condition of the earth to urge world leaders and citi2.ens
to take decisive actions to save endangered earth and human life. Increasing public concern
about the eroding of the ozone layer of the atmosphere has given his work a growing
audience. He recommends specific actions to protect the earth. such as "reforesting the
earth, avoiding a mass extinction of species. redesigning farming and industry to curtail toxic
chemicals, and rene%%ing the global commitment to family planning." [Lester Brown et al..
State of the World 1988 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1988).]
- Knowledge
Students must master knowledge in order to make reflective decisions and to participate
effectively in their civic communities. Knowledge in the social studies curriculum is
usually drawn from the social. science disciplines and from history. However, it may
also be drawn from the humanities, as well as from other sources if it is needed by
the citizen actor to make decisions and to take actions. Philosophy is frequently
drawn upon iii the social studies help students identify and clarify their values.
To make reflective decisions. citizen actors must use higher levels of
knowledge, sack as concepts. generalizations, and theories. The social science
disciplines are discussed in Part III.
Skills
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Skill goals are very important in the social studies. They can he categorized as follows:
Thinking- Ski/t+: These skills include the ability to conceptualize, to interpret. to
analyze, to generalize, to apply knowledge, and to evaluate
k n o w l e d g e . ' -
Social Science Inquiry Skills: These skills include the ability to formulate scientific
questions and hypotheses, to collect pertinent data, and to use the data to test
hypotheses and to derive generalizations. Social science inquiry skills are discussed
in Chapter 3.
Academic or Study Skills: These skills include the ability to locate, organize, and
acquire information through reading, to acquire information through listening and
observing, to communicate orally and in writing. to interpret pictures, charts, graphs,
and tables, to construct time lines. to-take notes, to make charts, and to read and
interpret maps.6
Group Skills: These skills include the ability to perform effectively both as a leader
and as'a follower in solving group problems. to participate in group research
projects, t o help set group goals, t o use power effectively and fairly in group
situations, to make useful contributions to group projects, to communicate effectively
in a group, and to help resolVe controversy in groups.' Skills are discussed in Chapters
3, 4. 5. and 6.
Attitudes and Value Goals
Citizens must develop a commitment to democratic and humane values. such as human
dignity and equality, in order to make reflective decisions and to take action consistent with
the idealized values of the nation-state. However, it is inconsistent to try to develop
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commitments to democratic values by using
indoctrination approaches. Modern social studies curricula try to help students develop a
commitment to democratic values by teaching them a process for identifying the sources of
their values, analyzing and clarifying their values, and justifying their values. The.
social
studies should also help students to state the possible consequences of their value choices.
A value inquiry model is presented and discussed in Chapter 13.
Citizen Action Goals
The social studies curriculum should provide opportunities for students to participate in
projects and activities that will develop a greater sense of political efficacy and teach skills
useful in influencing social and civic institutions. The National Council for the Social
Studies Curriculum Guidelines emphasizes the importance of citizen action in the social
studies:
Extensive involvement by students of all ages in the activities of their community is
essential. Many of these activities may be in problem areas held, at least by some, to
be controversial. The involvement may take the form of observation or information-
seeking, attending meetings, and interviews. It may take the form of political
campaignihg. community service or improvement, or even responsible
demonstrations. The school should not only provide channels for such activities, but
build them into the design of its K-12 social studies program.8
The primary goal of citizen action projects undertaken in the social studies should be
to provide experiences whereby students can attain a sense of personal, social, and civic
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efficacy, and not simply serve the community However, the most effective projects contribute
to each of these goals. Citizen action is discussed in detail in Chapter 15.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A MODERN SOCIAL
STUDIES CURRICULUM
We stated that a modern social studies curriculum helps students develop the ability to make
reflective decisions and to successfully participate in the civic life of their communities. We
have also noted that it helps students develop mastery in four goal areas: (1) knowledge, (2)
skills, (3) attitudes and values, and (4) citizen action. The effective social studies curriculum
also has other characteristics.
It helps students develop the knowledge, attitudes, values, and skills needed to deal
reflectively with the major social issues and problems in our nation and world. The rights of
the handicapped, the problems of women, ethnic and racial problems, human rights, and the
problems of senior citizens are some of the salient and enduring unresolved social issues that
continue to evoke controversy within the United States and in other nations. Global and
The Goal of Social Studie's Education
The social studies curriculum should help students to develop the knowledge, skills,
and attitudes needed to participate in action to shape public policy in their
communities, nation, and world. (Source: Washington State Office of Public
instruction; Toledo Public Schools; Robb Mitchell. Lake Washington School District
(Seattle): Edna Kellman. Seattle Public Schools.)
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international topics, issues, and problems should also be an important part of the social
studies in all grades.
A major goal of the social studies should be to help develop citizens who have the
commitment and the skills needed to help close the gap between the democratic ideals of our
nation and societal realities. Throughout U.S. history, the rights of various groups have
continued to expand. However, there is still a wide gap between our democratic ideals and
societal realities. The social studies curriculum should provide a forum where students can
openly examine the conditions of various groups in society, analyze and clarify their values
related to these groups and issues. decide on courses of action, and take citizen action when
it is appropriate and feasible. Chapter 7 is devoted to teaching social issues.
A modern social studies curriculum is also characterized by unit teaching and the use of
a wide variety of resources. Wood defines a unit as:
The Social Studies: Nature and Goals
An organization of various activities, experiences, and types of learning around a
central problem, or purpose, developed cooperatively by a group of pupils under-
teacher leadership; involves planning, execution of plans, and evaluation of results.'
Units may or may not be developed cooperatively by the teacher and the students.
However, they do provide for both group and individual projects and activities and
consequently allow students to play an important role in determining the direction of their
own learning. A unit may be organized around a topic such as "Canada: Our Neighbor to
the North," around a concept such as culture, or around a decision-problem or issue such as
"What Actions Should We Take Regarding World Hunger and Poverty?"
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SCOPE AND SEQUENCE
IN THE SOCIAL STUDIES CURRICULUM
out the United States. In the earliest grades the social studies curriculum is usually characterized
by units and learning experiences fecusing on the most familiar institutions and social systems, such
as the home, the .family, the school, the neighborhood, and the community. State history is usually
studied in the. fourth .grade. United StateS history is usually studied in three grades: fifth, eighth, and
eleventh.
Within these broad topic categories, a wide variety of approaches are used to teach the social
studies in U.S. schools. At the high school level, many schools offer a variety of elective coursessuch
as sociology, psychology, and problems of democracy. Primary grade teachers use many different
approaches to teach about the school, the family, and the community.
Teachers can implement many of the characteristics of a modern social studies curriculum within
the traditional scope and sequence pattern that dominates U.S. schools. Primary grade teachers can
teach about the family and the community by requiring students to -Memorize isolated facts. Too
often this is done. However, topics such as the family and the community can also be taught by using
key concepts from the social science disciplineS to organize lessons and units, and to teach students
how to conceptualize, to generalize, and to analyze their values.j Chapter 2 illustrates how a unit
on the family can be organized around key social science concepts. A unit on "Women in
Amefican History-Textbooks" in Chapter 3 illustrates how topics in U.S. history can be taught
while teaching students social science inquiry skills. Throughout this book, we suggest ways in
which teachers can teach higher-level concepts and skills, value analySis, decision-making, and
citizen action within the context of the dominant social studies curriculum pattern in U.S. schools.
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THE EXPANDING COMMUNITIES. OF HUMANS
Thescope (what is taught and in what depth) andsequence (when it is taught) pattern' that
dominates the social studies curriculum in' the United States was heavily influenced by Paul R.
Hanna. Hanna believed students should study smaller communities first and then increasingly larger
ones. Hanna called this sequence the "Expanding Communities of Men." This pattern had dominated
the social studies curriculum for many years when Hanna restated it in an important article
published in 1963.' Hanna emphasized that students should study the various human
communities in the sequence described below. He noted that the specific grade placement of each
of these communities was less important than thesequence suggested.
The child's fanfily community The child's school
The child's neighborhood
The child's local communities: city, county, metropolis, country The child's state
community
The child's region-of-states community
The U.S. national community
U.S. and Inter-American community
U.S. ,and Atlantic community
U.S. and Pacific community
U.S. and world community
Hanna's expanding communities of humans concept was severely criticized by some
social studies educators during the 1960s and 1970s. They criticized it for a variety of
reasons. They questioned the assumption that students should only study those communities in
which they functioned most intimately and argued that television often brings distant
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communities within reach of today's youth. They also argued that the expanding
communities concept often leads to an overemphasis on the Western world and to the
neglect of non-Western nations, women's history and culture, and the experiences of ethnic
groups in the United States. However, despite the strong criticisms it received during the
1960s and 1970s, the expanding communities of humans pattern is the most common social
studies scope and sequence plan in the Lnited States. However, counties, states, and school
districts often implement the plan in diverse and creative ways. California departed from it
significantly in the framework it adopted in 1987 (see pages 15-16).
When Superka and his colleagues studied social studies topics in the United States. they
found that the following topics were the most frequently taught at the grade levels indicated."
Notice how similar this sequence is to Hanna's expanding communities of humans pattern.
Grade Topic
Kindergarten Self, school, community, home
1. Families2. Neighborhoods3. Communities4. State history, geographic regions5. United States history6. World cultures, Western hemisphere
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7. World geography or history8. American history
9. Civics or world cultures10.World history11.American history12.American government
The Goal of Social Studies Education
Examples of Topics and Units
for Grades Kindergarten Through Eight
Below is a list of social studies topics and units that are usually studied in the elementary and junior
high school grades. What is taught in each grade varies widely according to school district.
However, our intent bett. is to describe what might be a typical sequence of topics and units
foi-
level.
KINDERGARTEN
Social studies units in kindergarten usually help children to develop a better understanding of
themselves and other people. The school, the home, and holidays and celebrations are typical
topics.
How we are alike and different Rules at honk and
at school Holidays and celebrations
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Our wants and needs
FIRST GRADE
Units in the first grade often deal with relationships in the home and school. A range of social
science concepts can be used in the first grade to help students gain new perspectives on
family and school life.
What is a family:
Kinds of families
How we help our families
How families change
How schools and families are alike and different What people do in
schools
Conflict and cooperation at home and at school
SECOND GRADE
Units in the second grade often focus on the neighborhood, people in groups, and
groups and neighborhoods in other communities and nations.
What is a group?
Groups we belong to
What is a neighborhood?
Why do groups Change:
Why do neighborhoods change?
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Cooperation and- conflict in groups and neighborhoods
How groups and neighborhoods help us satisfy our needs and wants A neighborhood in
Japan
THIRD GRADE
Units in the third grade often focus on local communities, the city, and communities' and
cities in other nations.
What is a city?
What is a community?
How people meet their needs in communities
How people meet their needs in cities
A comparison of three cities: Washington, D.C., Tokyo, and Rome How cities are
governed
The economic life of cities
FOURTH GRADE
Common topics in the fourth grade are the state, the world as the home of humans. and
regions of the United States and the world.
The first peoples of our state
The government and economy of our state The history of our
sUnits in the sixth grSde often focus on the geography of the earth and thepeoples who live in various parts of the world.
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tate
Regions of South America
Regions of the United States
The peoples and cultures of Africa
FIFTH GRADE
The geography, history, and culture of the United States are the most common fifth-grade
topics. The early periods of United States history are usually emphasized. The rest of North
America and nations in South America are also sometimes studied.
The First Americans
European explorations in America
The growth of the European colonies in America
The quest for independence The birth of a new
nation
The people_s and cultures of the United States
Women in United States history
The cultures and peoples of Latin America
Canada: our northern neighbor
SIXTH GRADE
The geographic and cultural regions of the world The peoples and
cultures of Africa
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The peoples and cultures of Australia
The peoples and cultures of Asia
The peoples and cultures of Eastern Europe The peoples and
cultures of Western Europe The peoples and cultures of the
Middle East
SEVENTH GRADE
In the seventh grade, students frequently continue the study of world cultures and
regions begun in the sixth grade.
Greek and Roman civilizations
The spread of Islam
Medieval days and ways in Europe
The development of nations
Science. reason, and the Enlightenment The nature of the
non-Western world Conflict and challenge in the Middle
East
EIGHTH GRADE
The history and development of the United States is studied in the fifth, eighth, and
eleventh grades. The intent in the eighth grade is to give students a more in-depth
understanding of the nature of United States history and culture than was gained in
fifth grade.
The cultures of North America before the coming of the Europeans The Europeans
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explore the Americas
The European colonies in America The American
Revolution
A new nation
The westward movement
Ethnic groups in American history Women who left
their marks on history Slaves and the slave community
A divided nation
The long, sad war
The United States as a world power
THE SCOPE AND SEQUENCE DEBATE
The "Expanding Communities of Humans-
scope and sequence plan is the
dominant one in U.S. schools. It has, however, stimulated much controversy and
debate within the last decade. Few social studies educators are completely
satisfied with it. However, it has remained prevalent in part be cause there is little
agreement- about what should replace it. The National Council for the Social Studies
(NCSS) has been active in efforts to develop a new scope and sequence plan. It has
sponsored a number of debates and hearings at its national meetings about what
should be an appropriate social studies scope and sequence for the twenty-first
century. In 1982, the Council appointed a Task Force on Scope and Sequence to
develop a plan for the profession to consider, debate, and possibly endorse.
The plan developed by the Task Force, which was issued as a preliminary position
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statement by the Council, stimulated much discussion and debate.'`' However, it brought
social studies educators no closer to consensus about what should be an appropriate
scope and sequence plan for students in the twenty-first century. Many social studies
educators observed that obtaining national consensus about an appropriate social
studies scope and sequence plan for the United States was neither possible nor
desirable. However, other educators and many publishers believe that a nationally
accepted scope and sequence plan is both possible and essential. Publishers would like
such a plan to help them to develop and publish marketable textbooks. Some social
studies educators believe that all U.S. students should experience a common social
studies curriculum that will enable them to acquire essential knowledge, insights, and
values about their nation and the world.
The NCSS Task Force on Scope and Sequence did not embrace a particular scope
and sequence plan. However, it did develop an illustrative scope and sequence plan
(see Table 1.1) that can be used to develop the knowledge, values and beliefs, and
skills the Task Force identified. The NCSS continues its effort to identify the
knowledge and skills in the social studies needed for effective citizenship in the
nation and world. It has appointed a National Commission on the Social Studies to
identify the components of an effective social studies curriculum for U.S. citizens. The
Commission consists of distinguished scholars and social studies educators as well as
prominent citizens.
A HISTORY-BASED SOCIAL STUDIES CURRICULUM
In 1987, the California State Board of Education adopted a social studies curriculum
framework that differs in several significant ways from the expanding communities
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of humans framework described earlier in this chapter." It is centered in the
chronological study of history, emphasizes history as a story or narrative,
incorporates the study of literature to deepen historical understanding, and
introduces a new curricular approach for grades kindergarten through three (see
Table 1.2). Biographies, myths, fairy tales, and historical tales are used extensively
in these grades to evoke interest in history and to enhance historical understanding.
The California framework also emphasizes studying selected historical events in
depth rather than covering many events superficially, incorporates a multicultural
perspective throughout, and requires the study of world history in three
different
The Goal of Sqcial Studies Education
KindergartenAwareness of Self in a Social Setting
Grade 1The Individual in Primary Social Groups: Understanding School and
Family Life
Grade 2Meeting Basic Needs in Nearby Social Groups: The Neighborhood
Grade 3Sharing Earth-Space with Others: The Community
Grade 4Human Life in Varied Environments: The Region
Grade 5People of the Americas: The United States and Its Neighbors
Grade 6 People and Cultures: The Eastern Hemisphere .
Grade 7A Changing World of Many Nations: A Global View
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Grade 8Building a Strong and Free Nation: The United States
Grade 9Systems That Make a Democratic Society Work: Law, Justice, and
Economics
Grade 10Origins of Major Cultures: A World History
Grade 11The Maturing of America: United States History
Grade 12One-year course or courses requiredselection(s) to be made from
the following:
Isues and Problems of Modern Society
Introduction to the Social Sciences
The Arts in Human Societies
International Area Studies-
Social Science Elective Courses: Anthropology, Economics, Government,
Psychology, Sociology
SOURCE: Reprinted with permission of the National Council for the Social
Studies from "In Search of a Scope and Sequence for Social Studies," Social
Education, Vol. 48 (April 1984), pp. 254-255.
grades: six, seven, and ten. The framework also provides for students participate in
school and community service programs and activities. The California framework is
also unique because the study of U.S. history and geography is limited to the
twentieth century in the eleventh grade.
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THE PUSH FOR FACTS AND HISTORY
The debate about what should constitute the social studies curriculum was not
confined to social studies educators during the 1980s. Some of the harshest criticisms
of the social studies and the schools in general were penned by specialists in the
academic disciplines who argued that students were graduating from high school who
were culturally illiterate. These students, argued the critics, do not know basic facts
about U.S. history. such as when the Constitution was ratified or when the Civil War
occurred. E. D. Hirsch, Jr., made this argument in his highly successful and widely
reviewed book, Cultural Literacy: What Every American Needs to Know."This
book was on The New YorkTimesbest-seller list for almost six months. Its popularity
indicated that it articulated important concerns among U.S. citizens about what students
were
Learning and Working Now and Long Ago
A Child's Place in Time and Space
People Who Make a Difference
Continuity and Change
California: A Changing State
United States History and Geography: Making a New Nation World History
and Geography: Ancient Civilizations
World History and Geography: Medieval and Early Modern Times United States
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History and Geography: Growth and Conflict Elective Courses in History-Social
Science
World History and Geography: The Modern World
United States History and Geography: Continuity and Change in the Twentieth Century
Principles of American Democracy (One Semester) and Economics (One Semester)
SOURCE: Reprinted with permission fromHistory-Social Science Frameworkfor California
Public Schools Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve (Sacramento: California State Department
of Education, 1988), p. 29.
learning in school. An argument similar to Hirsch's was presented by Lynne V. Cheney,
Chair of the National Endowment for the Humanities, in The Anierican 1.1emory: A
Report on the flumanities in the Nation' s Public Schools.'' Cheney argued that students
were not literate in U.S. history and literature because the schools emphasized process rather
than content.
Ravitch and Finn extended the argument developed by Hirsch and Cheney. They
attempted to document how little U.S. students know about history-and literature in their book,
What Do Our 17-Year-Olds Know?16
The authors described how students gave many
incorrect answers to multiple-choice test items that assessed their recall of factual knowledge in
history and literature. Ravitch has argued that the replacement of "history" teaching with the
teaching of the "social studies" is the primary cause of what she considers the cultural and
historical illiteracy of the nation's elementary and high school students.17
She believes that the
problem can be solved by teaching students larger doses of history throughout the elementary
and high school grades. She has called the teaching of the other social sciences in the schools
"tot sociology.-Is
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The push for more history in the schools was supported by a number of organizations
and institutions during the late 1980s, including the National Endowment for the
Humanities. In 1988, it funded a Center on History at the University of California
at Los Angeles.'9 The Center examined how history is taught in elementary and
secondary schools. The Bradley Commission on History in Schools developed
recommendations to improve the teaching of history in the nation's schools. The
Commission, foundation-funded, was made up of teachers and prominent historians. In
its rept rt, the Com-mission recommends the study of substantially more history in the
schools."
The tense debate between those who argue that history should be the focus of the
social studies and those who maintain that the social studies should be interdisciplinary, with
an important component of history, has existed for decades. This debate intensifies from
time to time, particularly when the schools are being attacked by reformers, especially by
those outside the formal educational establishment. The Ravitch and Finn book is similar i o
the report published by The New YorkTimes in 1943, which was based on the results of a-
U.S. history test given to college freshmen. It concluded that these students had a "deplorable
lack of knowledge about the United States' past."21
Social studies educators, such as Erling M.
Hunt, argued that the test was "of questionable validity, amateurishly graded, poorly administered,
and concerned exclusively with the ability to remember information.
We will present our interpretation of the new movement for more history and factual
information in the social studies curriculum in Chapter 9, which focuses on the nature and
teaching of history.History is viewedin this bookas animportant butnot dominant part
of the social studies curriculum. An interdisciplinary social studies curriculum, which
draws heavily upon history and geography, as well as upon the behavioral sciencesand
which focuses upon higher levels of knowledge and thinking skillsis essential to helping
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students develop the skills and values needed to make decisions on complex social, political,
and economic issues in our global world society.
DECISION-MAKING: THE HEART OF THE
SOCIAL STUDIES
In an important and influential article published in 1960, Shirley Engle stated that
decision-making should be a major goal of social studies instruction. More recently, Engle
and Ochoa have developed a curriculum framework for a decision-making focused social
studies curriculum.23
The urriculum proposed by Engle and Ochoa has these strands:
Environmental Studies
Institutional Studies
Cultural Studies
Social Problems
Problems in Decision-Making Internship in
Citizenship
Electives
A Democratic School Environment
We also believe that the social studies should help students attain the skills needed to
recognize and solve human problems, analyze and clarify values, and make sound,
reflective decisions that will contribute to the per-
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petuation and improvement of their communities, nation, and world. Our perception of
the proper goal for the social studies resulted largely from a realization that citizensstudents,
homemakers, factory workers, businesspersons, labor leaders, politicans, welfare recipients, and all
othersmust each day make personal and public decisions that will affect their lives and their
community, nation, and vorld. These are the kinds of nagging decision-problems with
which citizens must often deal:
Should I take the job at Tony's or at Bell's?
Should we buy a house, a condominium, or continue to rent? Should we stop
fertilizing our lawn so-
that more fertilizer will be available for crops?
Would Taylor be a better member of Congress than Kitano? Should I vote for or against the
school bond issue?
Should I become active in the Anti-Nuclear Weapons League?
Individuals are not born with the capacity to make reflective decisions. Decision-
making is a skill that must be developed and practiced. When indiViduals develop-
theability to make reflective decisions, they can act intelli-.gently. We believe that the most
important goal of the social studies should be to develop reflective citizen actors. We are
using citizento mean a member of a democratic state or nation. Citizen actorrefers to an
individual who makes a deliberate effort to influence his or her political environment,
including its laws, public policies, values, and the distribution of wealth. The activities in
which he or she participates are citizen ciction.Citizen action may, ofcourse. be effective or
ineffective.
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We are assuming that decision-making skills can be developed, that humans can be
trained to reflect before acting on problems, and that individuals can learn to act on their
freely made decisions. We cannot expect individuals to act on decisions they have been
forced to make. In the decision-making model introduced later in this chapter, the
individual must be able to choose freely from many alternative courses of action,
consistent with human dignity, before we can characterize his or her behavior as decision-
making. This model is discussed in detail in Chapter 15.
Essential Components of the Decision-Making Process
KNOWLEDGE
Reflective decisions cannot be made in a vacuum. Social knowledge is one necessary
component for sound decision-making. If two people (a couple) try to decide whether to join
and be active in the Anti-Nuclear Weapons League. they can make a better decision if they
know the extent of the nuclear buildup in each nation, how successful past negotiations
among the leading powers have been in reducing nuclear proliferation, and what steps
other
Social science inquiry produces the knowledge that students need to make
reflective decisions. This photograph shows a class visiting a community museum to
gather information about the history of their community. (Source: Tern Malinowski,
Northshore School District, Seattle.)
than a nuclear buildup might be successful in preventing conflict and war. By studying
historical and political information on the nuclear arms race, the couple would be able to
make some informed predictions about the possible consequences of an escalating nuclear race
among nations. They could consequently make a more reflective decision about whether to
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join and become active in the Anti-Nuclear Weapons League.
Methods and Ways of AttainingKnowledge Knowledge is needed to make reflective
decisions. There are many ways of knowing or attaining knowledge. Kerlinger has
summarized four methods of knowing described by Charles Peirce, a philosopher.24
When
people use the method of tenacity, they hold firmly to what they know to be trueit is true
because they hold firmly to it and have always believed it. Individuals seek out established
belief when they use the method of authority. When individuals argue that they know
something to be true because it is "agreeable to reason" and self-evident they are using the
a priori method. Peirce argues that we need a method to attain knowledge "by which our
beliefs may be determined by nothing human.. . . The method must be such that the
ultimate conclusion of every man shall be the same. Such is the method of science."25
A further discussion of the hypothetical couple ment_oned a'boy6, will clarify the four
methods of knowing. When trying to decide whether. They should join the Anti-Nuclear
Weapons League, the couple may derive knowl- edge related to their decision-problem by the
method of tenacityThe couple may conclude that an escalating nuclear race will help to prevent war
and maintain peace among nations. The couple reaches this conclusion because they have
always believed that nations tend to be aggressive and that only the threat of force can maintain
peace.
The couple may have no firm beliefs about the nuclear buildup and little information. They
may seek out an authority to get information about nuclear weapons and the nuclear buildup. The
couple may hear a professor of sociology talk about nuclear weapons on a television talk show.
The professor, who is a strong advocate of a nuclear buildup by his own nation, argues that this is
the only way to maintain peace. He also argues that the Western nations have experienced their
longest period of peace since nuclear weapons were invented and produced.
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The couple may use still a different method for obtaining knowledge about nuclear weapons
and the nuclear buildup. They may, without seeking
"As if worrying about a nuclear disaster isn't bad enough, now they tell us our
school is a fall-out shelter!" (Source: Ford Button. Reprinted with permission). an
authority, or sources of information about nuclear weapons, discuss them and conclude that it is self-
evident that nuclear weapons are needed to keep peace in the world.
Limitations of Ways ofKnowing. Itis not difficult to state the limitations of the ways of knowing
just discussed and illustrated. Some of the methods have more serious limitations than others. The
method of tenacity is not an effective way of gaining knowledge because humans are capable of
believing and holding firmly to almost anything imaginable. A brief study of history and
anthropology will reveal that humans, throughout history, have held beliefs that they later
considered outdated and bizarre. Beliefs in ancestor gods, shamans, witch doctors, and water
witching indicate. the tremendous range of human beliefs that have existed in many times and places.
People's capacity to create beliefs today is .as great as in any previoUs time in history. Some people
refuse to live on the thirteenth floor of an apartment building. Others carry charms, such as a rabbit's
foot, for good luck. Humankind's ability to create. and imagine is one of the most important
characteristics which distinguish h u m a n s f r o m o t h e r p r i m a t e s .
The _method of authority is perhaps the most valuable of the three methods discussed above.
We could not live organized and productive lives without relying a great deal on authorities because
we live in a highly specialized world. When a doctor prescribes medicine, we assume that it will
help heal our illness. We depend on authority when we plan trips using a road map, look up
words in a dictionary, have our income tax completed by an expert, or act on the advice of a
counselor.
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While authorities are necessary in our highly specialized world society, a reliance on authority is
unwise under certain conditions and in some situations. A sociology professor may state
publicly that nuclear arms are needed to keep peace in the world when he does not know
the key facts about nuclear weapons. The professor may be a specialist in small
organizations, and may base his opinions about nuclear war primarily on his. personal
values. Indi% iduals are often perceived as authorities when they lack specific training in a given
area. or they may be assumed to have conclusive information about problems when the
knowledge in the field is scant and sparse. Citizens tend to put too much faith in and to
expect too much from "experts." Persons with complicated medical or learning problems
often expect doctors or educational experts to give them rapid cures or quick solutions. They
are often disappointed-and angry when they discover that experts frequently disagree about
cures and solutions. In our discussion of the nature and teaching of history in Chapter 9, we note how
historians often present conflicting interpretations of the same past events.
As Kerlinger points out. the a priori method of knowing is very limited in deriving
knowledge, because what is self-evident to one person may not be self-evident to another.-
People can hold opposite beliefs about the same things. Each will argue that his or her
knowledge is self-evident. One person may argue that it is self-evident that rapid nuclear
buildups by the major
nations are needed to keep them at peace. Another may :Irgue just as strongly that it is obvious
that the rapid growth of nuclear buildup will lead to a nuclear holocaust.
The Scientific Method: a Way of AttainingKnowledge The limitations of the tenacity, authority,
and a priori methods suggest that we need a more reliable way of attaining valid knowledge.
We should not be bound either by traditional belief systems or the opinions of authorities. A
person should be able to repeat the procedures of the method and derive similar conclusions.
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Different people who use the method should derive similar, if not identical, conclusions. In other
words, the method should be public rather than private. It should be largely independent of the
values and biases of the individual using the method. The method that comes closest to meeting
these requirements is the scientific method. This is the method used by social scientists to derive
knowledge--facts, concepts, generalizations, and theories. We will refer to this method as social
science inquiry orsocialinquiry The steps in social science inquiry are discussed in detail in
Chapter 3.
If our hypothetical couple (trying to decide whether or not to join the Anti-Nuclear Weapons
League) were to use the scientific method to gain the knowledge needed to make a reflective
decision, they would do several specific things. First, they would state clear and researchable
questions related to the decision-problem, such as:
How many nuclear weapons are held by the major powers?
How successful have nuclear weapons been in deterring wars?
How successful have treaties designed to limit nuclear weapons been? What ways can be
used to maintain peace among nations other than a nuclear buildup?
What are the possibilities of a nuclear war starting accidentally?
What are the possibilities for the survival of humans after a nuclear war and a nuclear
winter?
After stating the major questions related to their decision-problem, the couple would then
try to define the major concepts in their questions, such as nuclear weapons, nuclear war,
treaties, andpeace.
Our hypothetical couple would then state some of their own hunches about nuclear weapons
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and their consequences. They would gather data to answer questions and to test hypotheses
from a wide variety of sources, including books, magazines, and primary documents. The
couple would then evaluate, compare, and analyze the data they had gathered. Even though the
couple would use the knowledge in making their decision, they would realize that the
knowledge is tentative and Must be constantly compared with new findings and discoveries.
Our preference for the scientific method is by now clear. While it is not a perfect method,
we believe that it is the most effective and efficient means of obtaining knowledge. Peirce
overstates the value of the scientific method
when he suggests that "our beliefs are determined by nothing
we will point out in our 'discussion of values, the scientific method is based on human values and
assumptions. Bernice Goldmark has insightfully pointed out some of the assumptions on which
this method is based:
The scientific method is based on the assumption that truth is neither absolute nor
unchanging. Rather, truth is a judgment that, by the agreement of an informed community,.
produces desirable results... .
It is on this assumption that we argue that all judgments should be held as hypotheses to be
tested, evaluated, and reconstructed
The scientific method also assumes that people can obtain consensus regarding generalizations
and statements by using a method that is public, systematic, and repeatable. Persons who accept this
method and reject the others value public over private and idiosyncratic knowledge. Thea priori
method, unlike the scientific method, is a private or "internal" method of knowing. An individual
using this method derives conclusions on the basis of what is self-evident to him or her. What's self-
evident to one person may not be self-evident to another. The scientific method attempts to derive
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knowledge that can be independently obtained by persons using the method at different times and
places. However, personal values and assumptions .do affect the products of this method. The
problems we select and the questions we formulate are determined by our values, purposes, and
social environment. These . factors influence the outcome of scientific inquiry. However, these
factors .are less important in social inquiry than they are in other methods of attaining knowledge.
As we indicated above, knowledge is one essential component of the decision-making
process. We prefer the scientific method for attainingknowledge because itis systematic, self-
correctin g, open-ended, and public. Knowledge used to make reflective decisions must be
derived by an inquiry process. Decisions made on the basis of knowledge derived by intuition or
tradition will not satisfy ourreflective criteria. Before students can make reflective decisions,
they must learn to use methods of social science inquiry to derive knowledge in the form of facts,
concepts, generalizations, and theories.
Reflective citizen actors need not independently derive every bit of knowledge they use in
making decisions and solving problems. This would be impractical. Not much human progress
would be made; few reflective decisions would be possible. However, citizen actors cannot
intelligently apply or judge knowledge unless they are aware of the processes used to derive it and
are able to use the methods of the social scientists to derive knowledge when it is necessary and
appropriate (for example, when authorities conflict). In a democratic nation, the scientific method
should not be the exclusive property of a scientific elite. It should be shared by all members of
the society who make decisions that affect the governing of the community, nation, and world.
INQUIRY AND DECISION-MAKING
Social knowledge, derived by a scientific process, is only one Of the essential components of the
decision-making process. Before we discuss other elements , of the process, it is appropriate (1) to
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indicate howsocial science inquiry differs from decision-making and (2) to point out why
social science inquiry is necessary but not sufficient for making reflective decisions. In this
discussion we will also suggest how the ends of social science inquiry and .decision-making
differ.
The basic aim of social science inquiry is to derive knowledge in the form of facts,
concepts, generalizations, and theories. The goal is to accumulate as much knowledge as possible.
While the social scientist is primarily interested in producing knowledge, the decision-maker or
citizen actor is mainly interested in how the knowledge derived by the social scientist can be used to
help him or her solve problems and make decisions.
Social science inquiry produces knowledge; in decision-making, knowledge i s selected,
synthesized, and applied.
However, as we have previously stated, the reflective consumer of knowledge must be familiar with
the methods used by the professional social scientist to derive knowledge and must be able to use
the method.
Knowledge in social science inquiry tends to be specialized. Each group of social
scientists studies only those aspects of reality they feel are the appropriate concerns of
their disciplines. They may ignore many important social problems and issues or study
them from a limited perspective. The social scientist fragments reality in order to study it
from a unique perspective. Reflective decision-makers and citizen actors must use the
knowledge from all the various social science disciplines to solve personal and public
problems. In decision makin g we select, synthesize, and apply knowledge from diverse
sources. No one discipline can adequately help citizen actors to make decisions about the
complex problems that confront humankind.
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Knowledge alone is insufficient for reflective decision-making.
Reflective citizen actors must learn how to synthesize the information they obtain
from many sources and apply it to complex social problems. Figure 1.1 and Tables 1.3 and
1.4 indicate how a citizen actor may attempt to decide what actions he or she should take
regarding global hunger and poverty. Figure 1.1 illustrates how various social scientists
may view the problem. Note how each of the social scientists views the problem from a
very restricted perspective, while the citizen actor attempts to synthesize knowledge
from various disciplines and sources (including his or her own inquiries) and use it in
making a decision that can guide his or her action regarding the problem of global
hunger and poverty. Table 1.3 shows how the decision-maker tries to clarify his or
her conflicting values about global hunger and