Chapter Six

The Roman Empirep. 192-223

From Republic to Empire

• After the assassination of Julius Caesar, three men competed for his power.– Octavian (Augustus) - Caesar's adopted son– Marc Antony– Lepidus

• Also, Sextus, Pompey, the son of Pompey the Great, was trying to gain power

From Republic to Empire Part II

• Octavian defeated Antony in a battle and then had himself appointed as consul. He then formed the Second Triumvirate with Antony and Lepidus to aveng the murder of Caesar.

• In 40 BCE, the Triumvirate met in Brundisium to divide the Roman world amongst themselves.– Octavian controlled the east– Antony controlled the west– Lepidus controlled Africa

From Republic To Empire Part III

• Also, Antony married Octavia, Octavian's sister, to seal the pact.

• Lepidus left the Triumvirate to become Pontifex Maximus.

Antony and Cleopatra

• In 36 BCE, Marcus Agrippa defeated Sexutus Pompey in a naval battle.

• In the same year, Antony met and married Cleopatra VII, the Queen of Egypt

• Antony and Cleopatra married for love, not political power

• By marrying Cleopatra, Antony rejected Octavia and Octavian. – Octavia never recognized the divorce from Antony.

Antony and Cleopatra Part II

• Cleopatra had previously been involved with Julius Caesar and had his son -- Ptolemy Caesar (Caesarion).

• Antony and Cleopatra had three children together and gave all of them their own kingdoms to rule.

Antony and Cleopatra Part III

• Antony and Cleopatra's idyllic life together ended on 23 September 31 BCE when Octavian and Agrippa defeated them at the Battle of Actium.

• In 30 BCE, Antony and Cleopatra both committed suicide.

Antony and Cleopatra Part IV

• Because of his dynastic threat, Caesarion was immediately killed. – Cleopatra's three other children were sent to live

with Octavia, who also looked after Antony's children from a previous marriage, as well as her children from a previous marriage and her marriage with Antony.

The Age of Augustus

• In January 27 BCE, Octavian formally returned the state to the Senate and the People. – For this act, he was given the name "Augustus"

(dignified or opposing)– Augustus personally kept control of all the

territories with large armies. – Provinces with small armies were given back to

the Senate. – Egypt was ruled as Augustus' private kingdom.

The Age of Augustus Part II

• In 23 BCE, Augustus became Tribune of the People and in 12 BCE, he became Pontifex Maximus, and thus had all the decision making power in Rome.

• Augustus had given birth to the Roman Empire with him as the first Roman Emperor.

The Principate

• Augustus tried very hard through his reign not to upset anyone.

• He was neither arrogant nor decadent, and ruled Rome skillfully as primus inter pares (first among equals) - Principate.

• Augustus championed the cause of peace, and the benefits of this peace were told in the fine arts and literature of the time.

• Augustus and his family were personally responsible for rebuilding 82 temples and public places, including the forum Romanum, and they built the new forum.

The Principate Part II

• August revamped the administration of the Roman Empire

• Made the career of official in provincial government of in the army desirable

• Created a professional civil service• Created the vigiles, a combination police force and

fire fighting brigade

• Augustus also linked the worship with Roma with the worship of himself, sometimes as New Zeus

The Principate Part III

• Augustus fostered the spread of "Romanity" and really did find a city of bricks and left it one of marble.

• Two factors contributed to the success of the Principate– People's desire for peace after years of civil war– Augustus lived a long time, and outlived many

potential heirs

The Administration of the Provinces

• The word provincia referred to an area of responsibility in which a magistrate had power (imperium)

• Provincia came to applied to a geographical area for which magistrates were responsible

• Provincial governor was usually an ex-consul or ex-praetor and he commanded the occupying army, led the bureaucracy of financial and other assistants, for whom taxation was a very important function

The Arts in the Age of Augustus

• Augustus used art as a tool for propaganda and used art and architecture throughout the Empire to show the power and legitimacy of the emperor

• During the Principate, visual arts – architecture, wall painting, mosaics, and sculpture – all flourished

The Arts Part II

• Augustus completed the Forum Romanum of Julius Caesar and built the Forum of Augustus

• Built the Alter of Augustan Peace on his wife Livia’s birthday in 9 BCE– Showed scenes that told viewers he could trace

his family back to the very beginning of Rome

The Arts Part III

• Wall painting developed• Moved from painting on plaster to imitate

masonry to representing scenes• Mosaics began as monochromatic

compositions, but then were made of thousands of tiny cubes of glass, usually with an intricate geometric border around a scene

The Arts Part IV

• Sculpture continued to favour the Greek classical style

• Relief sculpture developed a distinct Roman style, especially on triumphal arches, columns, and monuments

Literature

• Virgil (70-19 BCE) gave Rome its founding epic – The Aeneid– Describes how the hero Aeneas escaped after the

Trojan War and arrived in Italy– All members of the family of Julius Caesar are said

to be descended from Aeneas– Romulus and Remus also direct descendants

Literature Part II

• Horace (65-8 BCE) applauded the benefits of peace, Augustan rule, and Roman supremacy– wrote the Odes

• Ovid (43 BCE-19 CE) was a poet and wrote a well-crafted parody called The Art of Love– Ovid was banished from Rome for unspecified

crimes (probably involving Augustus’ daughter)– Wrote the Metamorphoses

Literature Part III• Tacitus and Suetonius wrote about the early

emperors. – Tacitus wrote Histories and Annals from a hostile

senatorial viewpoint. – Suetonius was Hadrian's one-time secretary, and he wrote

Lives of the Twelve Caesars.• Pliny the Elder (23-79 CE) wrote a 37 volume

Natural History. – He died trying to help people fleeing from Mt. Vesuvius'

eruption. – His adopted son, Pliny the Younger, (61-112 CE) recorded

his death.

The Successors of Augustus

• Tiberius (AD 14 - 37) was Augustus' stepson and his reign was increasingly hard.

• He ended his reign on the island of Capri.

The Successors of Augustus Part II

• Caligula (AD 37 - 41), Augustus' grandson, took his name from the little boots he wore when in his father's army camp as a tiny infant.

• Cruelty and debauchery marked his reign.• Because he didn't respect the Senate, he made his

favorite horse, Incitatus, a senator.• He had many affairs with married women and his

sisters. • The Praetorian Guard (his bodyguards) murdered

him

The Successors of Augustus Part III

• Claudius (AD 41 - 54) was Augustus' nephew and had long been considered to be a complete embarrassment to his family because he had a stutter and a limp.

• He was, however, a very good emperor.

• Under him, Britain became a lasting part of the Roman Empire.

The Successors Part IV• Claudius' nephew, Nero (AD 54 - 68) had been

groomed for the throne by his mother, whom he eventually had murdered.

• He became very unpopular, and many people blamed him for the great fire in Rome.

• He was also known for his cruelty towards Christians.

• He burned them alive and threw them to the lions. • Nero was murdered.

• After Nero, there were three emperors in one year, Galba, Otho, and Vitelius..

The Successors Part V• Vespasian (AD 69 - 79) was a wise

ruler and was succeeded by his son, Titus (AD 79 - 81), who was known for his generosity.

• Titus' brother, Domitian (AD 81 - 96) was an autocratic tyrant best known for his persecution of Christian and Jews.

• His wife helped plot his assassination with his successor Nerva (AD 96 - 98).

The Successors Part VI

• Trajan (AD 98 - 117) was born in Spain and had spent many years as a soldier and administrator.

• Trajan was responsible for making Rome more beautiful.

• He also expanded the borders of the empire in every direction.

• He is generally thought of as an able administrator.

The Successors Part VII

• Hadrian (AD 117 - 138) was Trajan's adopted son and is generally considered a truly great Roman emperor.

• He too was born in Spain and had been a soldier and administrator.

• He consolidated Roman rule through his travels around the Empire.

• He is probably best known for building Hadrian's Wall in northern England to prevent the Picts from invading England.

• Hadrian was also responsible for rebuilding the Pantheon.

Hadrian’s Masterpiece: The Pantheon

Hadrian’s Masterpiece: The Pantheon

• The Pantheon is a circular temple, built in 25 - 33 BC by Agrippa, and totally rebuilt in about AD 126 - 128.

• It is one of the most architecturally influential buildings in the western world.

• Its impressive dome was the inspiration for the Capitol building in Washington, DC.

The Pantheon Part II

• A person passes though huge antique bronze doors to enter into a space 43.2 m wide and tall.

• The ceiling has sunken panels. • A circular opening 8.3 m across illuminates the

Pantheon.• The Pantheon has survived because it was

converted into a church in the seventh century.

Buildings and Public Works in the Empire

• To be classified as a civilization, the majority of the society must speak the same language, be subject to the same laws and principles of government, and worship the same gods.

• Also, a society should be centred in a city or urban development

Thermae (Baths)

• During Roman times, bathing was a social activity.

• Large public bathhouses were built for relaxation by the rich and the poor.

Thermae Part II• Bathhouses were generally divided into men's and women's

sections. • For a small fee, a patron could enter a change room and strip naked.

• After that, the person could enter the frigidarium to take a cold

plunge. • Then the person would proceed to the tepidarium before entering

the caldarium (hot room). • A patron could also go the laconicum (sweat room) or the palestra

(exercise room). • Some baths also had shops. • Patrons could also mingle with the opposite sex in the piscina

(swimming pool) or exercise in the gymnasium. • The baths were heated from below by a fire called a hypocaust

Aqueducts and Water Supply

Aqueducts and Water Supply

• The Romans were the greatest inventors of technology until the Industrial Revolution.

• Aqueducts provided clean water to Roman settlements all over the Roman Empire from Rome to Britain.

• A water source was located on a hillside where the flow was fairly constant and its height was such that the water could be fed some distance by gravity alone.

Aqueducts Part II

• First, a source was normally pooled into a settling tank, where the flow of water could be regulated at the intake.

• Second, a channel lined with water proof mortar and covered to prevent contamination or a sudden increase due to a rain storm was directed from the source to the outlet around the contours of a hill.

• Romans had running water in their homes.

Theatres

• The first stone theatre in Rome was built in 55 BCE by Pompey the Great

• A typical theatre was semicircular with an orchestra in the front and a backdrop.

• Behind the backdrop would be changing rooms and property storage.

Amphitheatres

• The first amphitheatre was built in 29 BCE, and it was devoted to public entertainment.

• The Colosseum in Rome had 80 entrances, four seating areas, and could hold 50 000 spectators.

• Gladiator fighting and convicted criminals were killed in the arena.

Gladiators

• Pairs of gladiators fought each other for public amusement.

• There were formal rules for this fight to the death.

• The crowd of spectators decided if the gladiators lived or died.

Circus

• A circus was a long race-track with starting gates at one end, a central wall around which chariots raced, and turning-posts at either end of the wall.

• Chariot racing was popular because people of either sex could sit together. – Chariot racers were divided into four teams -

Greens, Whites, Blues, and Reds. – Charioteers also had to perform tricks while

racing.

Circus Part II

• The Circus Maximus at Rome was 6 by 2 football fields and could hold 200 000 spectators.

The Private House: Pompeii and Herculaneum

• The best preserved private Roman houses are in Pompeii

• On 24 August 79 CE, Vesuvius erupted• Herculaneum was covered by mud, but

Vesuvius was covered by volcanic ash• Pompeii was rediscovered in 1748 but

excavations began in 1861

The Private House Part II

• Vestibulum – long, deep entrance• Atrium – a rectangular area surrounded by a sloping

roof along the sides and open to the sky in the centre• Usually small rooms on the sides of the atrium –

bedrooms (cubicula)• End of the atrium was a reception area (tablinum)• Garden was open to the elements

The Private House Part III

• The poor and ordinary people lived in apartments called insula

• Could be up to 5 storeys high• No private bathroom and very little light at

night• Constant danger of fire because structure

made of wood• Running water only on the first floor

Beliefs

• By the middle of the second century CE, the Roman Empire had reached its greatest expanse

• There were many different religions and beliefs in the empire

The Cult of Isis

• This religion based on the worshipping of the Egyptian goddess, Isis was very popular, especially in Pompeii and Rome.

• Her worship was widespread, but it was overwhelmed after the official introduction of Christianity as the official religion of the Empire.

Mithraism

• The worship of the Iranian deity, Mithras, was especially popular with soldiers and merchants in the fourth century.

• There was a belief in personal immortality, and while many ceremonies were similar with Christianity, they did believe in ritual sacrifice

Christianity

• Christianity has its basis in Judaism. • Judaism's holy book - the Torah - was written

under supervision of Yahweh - God. • The basic law - Ten Commandments - are

believed to be have been written on two stone tablets by God and given to Moses.

Christianity Part II

• Around 30 CE, Jesus Christ began to teach that the prophecies of the Torah were to be fulfilled now.

• Jesus' followers believed him to be the Son of God - the Messiah - and that the Kingdom of God was happening then.

• Jesus performed many miracles and also forgave sins.

• Jesus would forgive your sins if you accepted him as God's sole agent.

Christianity Part III

• The leaders of the formal Jewish religion were not so accepting of Jesus because they believed only God could forgive sins.

• They also refused to believe that Jesus was the Messiah.

Christianity Part IV

• When Jesus and his 12 followers (apostles) arrived in Jerusalem, Jesus was arrested and tried by Pontius Pilate, the Roman financial officer.

• Jesus was crucified because he refused to deny that he was "King of the Jews," a direct challenge to Roman imperial power.

• Christians believe that Christ became alive again, three days after his death.

• After his resurrection, he ascended to heaven.

Christianity Part V

• The unexpected conversion of the main opponent of the dissidents, Paul, led eventually to the demise of the old pagan gods and the growth of the new faith. Paul converted in CE 36.

Christianity Part VI

• In the twenty years after Jesus' death, his teaching became a separate religion from Judaism.

• Former worshippers of pagan gods were allowed admission into the faith without the accompanying rituals.

• Everyone had an equal opportunity for salvation and a better life in heaven.

Christianity Part VII

• Most emperors had a tolerance for this new Christian religion, however, Nero was a huge exception.

• He burned Christians alive because he blamed them for the great fire in Rome

The Spread of Christianity

• Christianity was popular for a number of reasons, including the promise of life after death, the sense of equality all followers had, and the morality of converts.– Christian converts were intent on behaving morally

towards all people. – Christians also organized their religion into a defined

bureaucratic structure. – Thirdly, the Christian religion had all its religious writing

written down. – All other religions did not have all three of these

characteristics.

Biography: Tacitus: Roman Historian

• Was born around 55 CE and his father was the financial administrator for the province of Gallia Belgica

• Was elected Praetor for 88 CE and governed a province from 89-93 CE

• Was consul in 97 CE• Was governor of Asia 113 CE• Died 117 CE• Wrote the Histories and the Annals• Believed that a historian’s job was to get as close to

objective truth as possible

The Jewish Diaspora

• Began in 586 BCE when Nebuchadnezzar captured the inhabitants of Jerusalem and sent them into exile

• Most important city became Alexandria, though there were Jewish communities in most European and Mediterranean cities

• Rome had 11 synagogues• Spoke Greek but maintained the religious

practices of the Jews in Jerusalem

The Jewish Diaspora Part II

• Spoke Greek but maintained the religious practices of the Jews in Jerusalem– Observance of the Sabbath– Male circumcision– Avoidance of all non-kosher foods

The Jewish Diaspora Part III

• Until 70 CE all Jewish men also paid a tax to the Temple in Jerusalem– After the destruction of the Temple, the tax was

extended to all Jews, including women and children, and paid to the new resident of the Temple, Jupiter Capitolinus

– Was just 2 drachmas implicit recognition of the Jewish community by the Roman state

The Jewish Diaspora Part IV

• After the Roman conquest of Alexandria, the Jewish population was excluded

• When a grandson of Herod the Great visited Alexandria, synagogues were set on fire, shops were looted, and Jews were confined to a ghetto

The Empire at Its Height

Pax Romana

• In the ancient world there was no system of nation states

• A sense of community came from belonging to a certain culture

• The provinces were secure and interconnected by a network of well-maintained roads and trade routes

• Everywhere had a remarkably uniform air of Romanity

Daily Life: Education and Status

• For the elite citizen, the laws did not change much during the Empire

• Education of children remained firmly based on rhetoric and the study of earlier Greek and Latin scholars

• Had a distain for manual labour reason why architects and artists would remain anonymous

• The use of public bathing facilities increased

The Role of Women• Women’s major function was to produce

legitimate male heirs who could inherit the family estate

• Wealthy women built major buildings• A few became empresses like Julia Domna

who was the wife of Septimius Severus and supported her son Geta in his bid to become emperor– Was given the title “Mother of the Senate and of

the Fatherland”

The Role of Women Part II

• Roman society was never egalitarian• Poor people had no access to formal education• The honestiores (senators, magistrates, soldiers, and

veterans) were legally protected– If they suffered some crime or injustice, the degree of

outrage varied according to a person’s status– If was found guilty of a crime, punishment was more

lenient and designed not to humiliate– The ordinary people (humiliores) were subject to torture,

death, or enslavement

Roman and Native Law

• Mixture of Roman and native law and traditions

• Jews were still recognized as a discrete people with their own laws and traditions

• Greek justice system still continued• Spanish traditions still were upheld• Were still expected to know the basic

producers of Roman law

Citizenship

• Emperors used citizenship for:– Reward for loyalty in time of crisis– Services rendered– Demonstration of imperial favour

– Claudius gave Roman citizenship to the non-Roman soldiers in the auxiliary cohorts and to their wives and children

– Caracalla extended citizenship to all free Roman men– The emperor need not be of Roman birth

Slavery

• Slaves were used in the Roman Empire in almost every aspect of human activity.

• Slaves were trained as gladiators, and were also used in construction projects.

• Educated slaves were used in business, for teaching, or grooming.

• Public slaves were used as executioners or to clear out the dead from the Colosseum.

• Torture of slaves was a common method to find out information about their masters.

•

Slavery Part II

• Private slaves had a social order. • The lowest slave worked outside on estates

not in Rome. • The highest were inside slaves in Roman

homes.• With the spread of the Roman peace, there

were fewer new slaves, which lead to slaves becoming more expensive, and thus treated better.

Slavery Part III

• Slaves could never own property and were not legally considered people.

• A slave couple could form a legally recognized contubernium (shacking up) which their owner could not dissolve by selling one of the partners independently of the other.

Slavery Part IV

• Manumission occurred when a slave bought his/her freedom or was released by the terms of a deceased owner's will.

• Once freed, the slaves were tied to his or her former owner for the rest of that person's life as a libertus (freedman).

Trade and Commerce

• Trading and commerce came into its own during the peace of the Empire.

• Trading took place as far as China, India, and Britain.

• The most widely traded items were wine and olive oil.

• Amphorae, or clay containers, have been found in the Thames River in London, England.

Coinage

• Before 290 BC, bronze coins began to replace bartering.

• The stereotypical Republican coin had the head of Janus on one side and the prow of a ship on the other side.

• The worth of the coins was their face value.• At the time of the Punic Wars, the silver denarius

was introduced, valued at 10 asses (1 as being the worth of the previous bronze coins).

Coinage Part II

• Aurei were gold coins worth 20 - 60 asses. • Money was produced under the authority of

the Senate.• Augustus devalued coins -- a silver denarius

was not really worth a denarius of silver. • This practice was carried on until the end of

the Western Empire. • The Barbarian kings imitated this practice

The Beginning of the End

The Empire from Antoninus Pius to Diocletian

• From the later half of the second century CE and much of the early third century, the Roman world was secure and free from threat

• Antoninus Pius (138-161 CE) was a respected successor to Hadrian

• Marcus Aurelius (161-180 CE) was much admired

• Commodus (180-193 CE) saw himself as a new Hercules

The Empire from Antoninus Pius to Diocletian Part II

• Septimius Severus (193-211 CE) was the first emperor from Africa

• Caracalla (188-217 CE) gave citizenship to all free Roman males in 212 CE

• There were eleven more emperors before Diocletian who was promoted to Emperor by the Praetorian Guard in 284 CE

Diocletian’s Reforms of the Army and the Senate

• In 293 CE, Diocletian divided the empire in two.

• There would now be two senior emperors - Augusti - and two junior assistants - Caesares.

• Eventually, the Western Empire would die, but the Eastern Empire lasted until 1204 CE in the form of the Byzantium Empire.

Diocletian’s Reforms Part II

• Diocletian reformed the military– Standing armies would be spread along the

borders– Mobile armies would be distributed throughout

the provinces– Calvary (horse) units were important as infantry

(foot) units– An increase in the recruitment of Germanic

immigrants

Diocletian’s Reforms Part III

• Diocletian could not overcome inflation, even with his Edict in 301 CE establishing maximum prices and wages.

• Shortly after he first arrived in Rome in 303 CE, he had a stroke.

• He, along with his partner, Maximian, abdicated on 1 May 305 CE and lived out his days in Split, Yugoslavia.

• Diocletian remained loyal to the Roman gods and treated Christians harshly.

Diocletian’s Reforms Part IV

• The emperor Decius (249 – 251 CE) blamed all the bad things that were happening in Rome on the spread of Christianity and the rejection of old pagan gods.

• He demanded that all citizens make sacrifices to the Roman gods, and those who refused were executed.

Diocletian’s Reforms Part V

• During the reign of Diocletian, he had the holy writings (scriptures) burned and churches destroyed.

• If a person didn't sacrifice to Diocletian, he/she was executed.

• Many people preferred death to rejection their faith.

• These people were known as martyrs

Constantine the Great

• Constantine (306 – 337 CE) succeeded Diocletian.• After he beat his opponent Maxentius at the Battle of

the Milvian Bridge outside Rome in 312 CE, he attributed his victory to the Christian God, which paved the way for his conversion to Christianity.

• His Edict of 313 CE promoted toleration of Christianity.

• Constantine was confused about the nature of the Christian religion because prior to his conversion, he had worshipped the Unconquered Sun, which he blended with Judaism.

Constantinople

• Constantine favoured Christian communities everywhere.

• Constantine established Constantinople as the major seat of government.

• The idea of Rome was transformed subtly into a concept of nationhood under God. Constantinople was officially known as "New Rome" and was given equal constitutional authority as Rome in 359 CE.

The End of the West

• The Roman Empire came to an end when Barbarians from the north began to invade Rome.

• After Constantine died in 337 CE, the Empires were riddled with internal intrigue and plots.

• Beyond the borders of the Empire, there were great movements of peoples and a great disturbance among the nomadic and more settled tribes.

The End of the West Part II

• The Visigoths and Ostrogoths took over land that had previously been taken by the Romans - Dacia.

• Then the Huns from the Hungarian steppes swooped down on their horses and displaced the Alans and the Goths.

• Rome tried to defend the empire, but the military actions were grossly mismanaged.

• In 378 CE, the eastern Augustus Valens was killed at the Battle of Adrianople.

• Theodosius (379 – 395 CE) replaced him.

Theodosius the Great

• Theodosius ruled with restrain and wisdom, and was able to deal effectively with the Barbarian menace, even employing Visigoths as mercenary soldiers.

• Theodosius was a devout Christian and in 391 CE put a ban on all pagan worship and ordered the temples closed.

• In 393 CE, he abolished the Olympic Games as they were a pagan festival.

The Visigoths

• When Theodosius died in AD 395, his sons took over the empire– Arcadius (AD 395 - 408) in the east– Honorius (AD 395 - 423) in the west

• At the same time, Alaric was elected the new Visigoth leader.

• Alaric was persuaded to attack the western empire because Honorius was too young to rule on his own and was being advised by Stilicho, a Vandal by birth, but thoroughly Romanized

The Visigoths Part II

• With the help of the Alans, whom he let settle to the north of Italy, Stilicho defeated the Visigoths.

• However, he was forced to ask for help from the Visigoths when Rome was experiencing famine.

• Because of this, Stilicho was declared an enemy and was beheaded.

• Alaric agreed to help Rome for a huge sum of money.

• When Alaric realized the money was not coming, he attacked Rome and captured it in August 410 CE.

The Visigoths Part III

• After the sacking of Rome and the death of Alaric, the Visigoths settled in Spain, Portugal, and France.

• They shared power over the land with the Romans and used their own law system.

• Rome continued using it own justice system.

The Huns

• The Alans, defeated by the Visigoths, joined forced with the Vandals and settled around Carthage.

• At the same time, the Saxons and Franks had invaded the British provinces and the Alamanni had taken land south of the Rhine River.

• In 451 CE, the Huns, made their first advance into Roman territory at France. – In 452 CE, the Huns, under Attila, invaded Italy, and while

they did not capture Rome, they did leave great destruction.

The Final Years

• The Western Roman empire continued to survive for a while

• Ended in 476 CE when the general Odoacer deposed the ineffective Romulus Augustulus– Odoacer’s reign was only 17 years when he was

replaced at Ravenna in 493 BC by Theoderic the Great• Theoderic ruled as the first Gothic king of Italy until 526

CE

History Continues to Unfold

• Why did the Western Roman Empire collapse?– Overwhelming pressures placed on the frontiers

by the Germanic people– Crippling inflation (600%)– Diocletian’s edict on prices caused the economy to

go underground– Slavery led to technological stagnation– Abolition of the old Roman gods eroded the

people’s belief in the supremacy of Rome