CHAPTER THREE

STRUCTURE IN CHEKHOV'S PLAYS

The principles governing the structure of Chekhov's plays prove absorbing to

scholars. Chekhov's plays reveal his great facility for characterization. The plot is secon-

dary to him. Chekhov's technique is subtle, varied, powerful and innovative. It is made

possible by his brilliant use of realism, his keen observation, his analytical mind, sug-

gestion of large effects through small details, irony, the chorus, the arrival and departure

elements of the characters, music, pauses, stage directions, literary allusions and Ian-

guage. The present chapter deals with these aspects of Chekhov's plays. Chekhov, it

may be noted, concentrated on depicting the most ordinary features of everyday life.

Chekhov moves events to the periphery as if they were details. All that is ordi-

nary, constant, recurring and habitual constitutes the main mass, the basic ground for

his play. Events that take place in Chekhov's plays do not fracture the general atmos-

phere of everyday conditions. Chekhov's interest in everyday life is based on the general

feeling of life, that state of pervasive inner tonicity in which man lives from day to

day. His choice of prosaic details was determined not by their ethical and thematic

meaning, but by their significance in the general emotional context of life.

Chekhov's dramatic conflicts consist not in the opposition of strong wills, hut

in conditions inherent in the objective condition of life, contradictions before which

individual will is powerless. In Chekhov's plays, life passes inconspicuously giving out

what people do not need. Each play answers the question, who is to blame? Individuals

cannot be blamed. Chekhov's characters suffer because of the entire make up of their

lives. They are to be blamed only in that they are weak.

The private longings of Chekhov's characters have an extended meaning. They

are the vehicles for the inner desire for another, bright existence in which vague, lofty

and secret dreams can be realized. The double emotional chord at the end of Chekhov's

plays, sadness about the present and the bright promises of the future, is the synthesis

of that judgement on reality which is realized in the movement of the plays.

Chekhov was greatly influenced by Ibsen in many ways. Like the plays of the

Norwegian genius, Chekhov's plays are divided into four Acts. The structure of a play

by Chekhov has no "beginning" and "end", it is all "middle". In the words of E.Dipple,

"Aristotle was not scruffy but quite right when he claimed that, of the six constituent

aspects of tragedy - plot, character, diction, thought, spectacle and song - plot is the

most important because happiness or unhappiness depends on action and life" (3).

Chekhov's plays do have plot, though it is so different from those in the tradi-

tional plays. As H. Muller points out,

His (Chekhov's) seemingly plotless actions contribute more subtly, by their form

they deepen the sense of fluidity of life, the endless coming, mingling and going,

the final inconclusiveness. The 'recognition' in his dramas is not a surprising

discovery, as in Ibsen and the Greeks - it is a realization that "the thing hath

been is that which shall be". (286)

Anlong the three classical unities, the Unity of Action received the utmost care

from Chekhov. Chekhov's plot admirably aids him to develop characterization rather

than action. Chekhov disagreed with Aristotle and gave prime importance to charac-

terization, following the Russian tradition. According to R-Corrigan, "Chekhov was not

interested in presenting an action in any Aristotelian sense, but rather he was dramatiz-

ing a condition", (79).

Chekhov is more concerned with the depiction 01. the inner li\les of his charac-

ters, and hence, he i s not interested in presenting an action. His plays seem lifeless and

static, because most of his characters talk and plan a great deal but they do not seem

to act according to their plans. As he grew into a rnature dramatist. Chekhov seemed

to doubt the possibility of meaningful action, even negative, at all. As R. Corrigan

points out,

All of the traditional ingredients of dramatic action, love, murder, suicide,

revenge are present in the Chekhovian drama, but they are used differently, used

to serve different ends. They are not ends in themselves or plot devices to further

the action but are used as indirect means of focilssi~~g our attention on the inner

lives of the character themselves. (80)

Chekhov needed a dramatic form which progressed through an increasingly in-

tense and revealing series of emotional states. In the words of R. Corrigan:

There are many dramatic situations in a plot; here a single situation has been

stretched to take the place of the plot. This inflation of the situation into the

source of dramatic action so that it replaces the plot is the vital secret of Chek-

hovian dramaturgy (84).

The texture and density of a Chekhovian play defy the use of any one of the

usual procedures of criticism like narrating the plot line, describing the characters and

thematic analysis. Chekhov chooses a situation and then develops it concentrically like

a series of tangential circles.

The plot of - I V ~ ~ O V is basically a simple one. It concentrates on the mentally

depressed estate-owner called Ivanov. In the words of R. Hingley.

Running an estate, coping with peasants, farming scientifically, falling into debt,

marrying a doomed wife of alien faith - it had all been too much for Ivanov.

whom we observe collapsing under the strain throughout the play's four acts.

("Introduction". Five Major plays of Anton Chekhov, xiii)

Act One takes place in the garden on Ivanov's estate. The opening scene indi-

cates the nature of things to come as one finds Ivanov to be an incompetent, depressed

and unimaginative landowner. His Jewish wife, Anna is suffering from tuberculosis and

is under the treatment of Dr. Lvov. His behaviour to her is inexplicably rude. He is

unwilling to take her to the Crimea and give her some hope of recovery. He remembers

the sacrifices made by Anna in marrying him, but his love for her has faded. He is

busy visiting Sasha, the daughter of Lebedev. Dr. Lvov is horrified to note the callous

attitude of Ivanov towards his dying wife. Anna cannot imagine her life without Ivanov

and she hopes that Ivanov's behaviour towards her will change for the better.

The background of Act Two is Lebedev's house. At the birthday party of Sasha,

men and women merely waste their time on trivialities. According to Lebedev, Ivanov

is the only decent man and a bit off his head. Sasha takes Ivanov's side when her

mother and the other guests attack him. Her pet aversion is Dr. Lvov, and Shabelsky

considers the doctor terribly trying but he likes him for his sincerity. Ivanov is in a

depressed mood at the party and wants to leave. He can stand depression, neurosis,

ruin, loss of his wife, premature old age and loneliness, but he cmnot stand despising

himself. Sasha is crazy about Ivanov and life for her has no meaning without him. She

is prepared to follow him to the ends of the earth. Ivanov is excited to hear her words

of love and he kisses her. Anna, who is at the party swoons when she sees Ivanov and

Sasha in that amorous posture.

Act Three takes place in Ivanov's study. Lebedev urges lvanov to pay the in-

terest to Zinaida and get out of her clutches. He is ready to give Ivanov eleven hundred

roubles to Pay the interest. Ivanov does not want money from Lebedev and makes a

gesture of despair. He analyses his own life and feels sorry for his failures, weaknesses

and unbecoming behaviour. He has started loving Sasha but his conscience pricks him

as he cannot forget Anna. He even plans to commit suicide to attain peace from all his

miseries. Dr. Lvov wants Ivanov to mend his ways and save Anna's life. Sasha's arrival

intempts the conversation between Dr. Lvov and Ivanov. Ivanov feels that the indiscreet

visit of Sasha will have a very bad effect on Anna. Dr. Lvov informs Anna about

Sasha's visit and Anna in her rage calls Ivanov a liar and swindler. Ivanov loses his

mental equilibrium and calls his wife a Jewish bitch. He tactlessly informs her that her

days are numbered and Anna is shocked to hear about her impending death. Ivanov

realises what he has done and he can only consider himself a brute for his rude be-

haviour.

The background of Act Four is the drawing-room in Lebedev's house. About a

year passes between Act Three and Act Four. Ivanov agrees to marry Sasha a year after

Anna's death and Dr. Lvov is very keen to expose the real character of Ivanov. Sasha,

like her father, is worried about the inscrutable behaviour of Ivanov and is need of help

from him. She does not want to call off the marriage as she is determined to make a

new man of Ivanov. Ivanov's mental depression touches its peak as Sasha wants their

marriage to be solemnized. Lebedev begs Ivanov to take a simple view of things like

everyone else. He is prepared to give Ivanov ten thousand roubles but Ivanov wants to

follow the dictates of his conscience. Dr. Lvov enters at this crucial juncture and calls

Ivanov "the most unmitigated swine". This indecent behaviour of the doctor provokes

Sasha and she vehemently criticises him. She wants lvanov to accompany her to the

church but Ivanov, unable to withstand the severe mental strain anymore, fatally shoots

himself.

The plot of Ivanov centres round the hero and his relationship with Anna, his

wife, and Sasha, the other woman. He is not able to relate himself with either of them.

It is basically a static situation that gets enlarged as the play proceeds. and Ivanov's

character is revealed in all its ramifications, ending in his suicide.

Chekhov's second play, The Seagull is the most complicated play. I t has intri-

cately plotted series of amorous triangles. It has also the variations on the Oedipal im-

plications of Shakespeare's Hamlet. It has as its essential element, Chekhov's topology

of the varieties of creative personality. Trigorin and Irina, the successful artists are con-

trasted with Treplev and Nina, the two innovative artists. Trigorin and lrina exploit what

is safe and accepted and win laurels in their respective fields. The attempts of Treplev

and Nina to achieve artistic integrity, originality and innovation result only in personal

tragedy.

Act One takes place in the park on Sorin's estate. Medvedenko, the school-

master, and Masha are in conversation.. Medvedenko is in love with Masha and always

talks about money and poverty. Sorin is unhappy in the countryside and longs to live

in town. To impress his actress-mother, Treplev has arranged for a play in which Nina

is to play the leading role. He wants to create a new kind of theatre. His "mother

fixation" is revealed in this Act even though he is in love with Nina. He has to suffer

agonies of humiliation when others consider him as a nonentity. He is jealous of

Trigorin's fame. Nina i s nervous because Trigorin will be watching her performance

but she is very eager to impress him and know him. Both b n a and Treplev quote lines

from Shakespeare's Hamlet. kina is not interested in Treplev's symbolic play and her

uncharitable comments bring the play to an abrupt end. She considers Treplev as a

selfish, spoilt little boy. She complimenk Nina's sincere acting and advises her to leave

the countryside and go to the town. She introduces her to Trigorin, and the young writer

is attracted to her. She wants Trigorin to know that Nina is poor and cannot be a source

of assistance to him. Treplev hates Masha's amorous advances as he considers her

a ghastly creature. Dr. Dorn is the only person who appreciates Treplev's talent. After

Treplev's exit, Masha confesses her love for Treplev to Dr. Dorn.

The background of Act Two is thc croquet lawn. Irina is proud of her beautiful

appearance and she reveals that she is head over heels in love with Trigorin. No one

takes Masha's praise of Treplev's play and his voice seriously. Sorin confesses with

feeling that he has not lived a normal life and Dr. Dorn is amazed to hear that. Irina

considers her stay in the countryside as very dull and Sorin also expresses his desire

to leave it. Nina cannot understand the behaviour of the two celebrities, Irina and

Trigorin. When Treplev presents her a dead seagull, she fails to understand his feelings

too. Trigorin cleverly traps Nina to satisfy his lust for her. Nina is willing to do anything

to achieve fame as an actress.

Act Three takes place in the dining-room in Sorin's house. Irina is very keen to

take away Trigorin from both Treplev and Nina. She does not want to spend money

on her only son in order to make his life meaningful. Treplev asks his mother why she

has given in to a worthless man like Trigorin. In the heated conversation both Irina and

Treplev exchange indecent expressions. Treplev calls his mother a miser, and Irina in

turn calls him a tramp and nonentity. Treplev's "mother fixation" reconciles him to Irina,

and she tells him that Nina will love him after Trigorin's departure from the estate.

Nina indirectly hints that she is ready to sacrifice anything for Trigorin. Irina goes to

the extent of embracing his knees in order to keep him under her control. The weak

Trigorin yields to her overwhelming passion and is ready to accomapny her to MOSCOW.

Nina has decided to throw everything up to start a new life in Moscow as an actress.

Trigorin's passion for Nina continues and he asks her to stay at the Slav Fair in Moscow

and promises to meet her there.

There is an interval of two years between Acts Three and Four. The background

of Act Four is the drawing-room in Sorin's study. The stage erected by the lake two

years ago is still there and Medvedenko could hear someone crying near it. Masha is

unable to forget Treplev and stays with her mother. She does not bother about her

husband and her child. Polina begs Treplev to be nice to her daughter but Treplev con-

tinues to be indiffernt to Masha. Sorin is unhappy about his wasted life in the

countryside. Dr. Dorn learns from Treplev that Nina has been left in the lurch by

Trigorin. Nina continues her acting on the stage and Treplev follows her wherever she

goes. She avoids meeting him and Treplev does not insist on a meeting with her know-

ing her sentiments. Treplev receives interesting and affectionate letters signed "Seagull"

from Nina. Irina returns to the estate with Trigorin and there is no change in her. When

Nina meets him, Treplev tells her that he is lonely and he has not known the warmth

of anyone's devotion. Nina has conquered her failures and disappointments with the

help of her stamina. She is not afraid of life because she has faith, industry and con-

fidence. Trcplev confesses to her that he does not know what his vocation is. Nina

continues to love the treacherous Trigorin. She embraces Treplev and runs out, and even

at this juncture Treplev thinks only about his mother. He tears up all his manuscripts

and goes out. Soon after a shot is heard off stage. Dr. Dorn informs Trigorin that

Treplev has shot himself dead and asks him to get Irina out of that place at once.

Che~hov's next play Uncle Vanya, so different from, yet so extensively based

on his earlier paly, The Wood Demon, is a dramatic masterpiece. In writing a new play

out of an old one. Chekhov reduced the length of his earlier paly by about a third and

also removed four major characters completely. He retained major sections of his

original dialogue and converted a play of action into a play of mood.

The action of Act One takes place in the garden of Professor Serebryakov's

estate. The play begins with a conversation between Dr. Astrov and the old nurse,

Marina. The doctor begins to show his age because of overwork, and the countryside

has turned him into a freak. The amval of Serebryakov and Helen to the estate has

turned everything upside down. Vanya has become very lazy and his niece Sonya has

to do all the work without any assistance. He has fallen in love with Helen and he

envies the tremendous luck of Serebryakov with women. Dr. Astrov finds fault with

Serebryakov for having wasted his time for nothing.

The backgroundof Act Two is the drawing-room of Serebryakov's house.

Serebryakov tortures Helen by talking about his old age and compares himself to Tur-

genev. He demands a little consideration from others for his scholarship and old age.

He shows scant respect to Dr. Astrov since he considers the doctor as a complete fool.

Sonya cannot stand the unbecoming behaviour of her father when she gives him the

wrong bottle of pills. Vanya's words of love are disgusting to Helen and she wants to

avoid his company. Sonya is shocked to see Vanya drunk in Dr. Astrov's company. Dr.

Astrov criticises the lazy and irresponsible life led by Helen. He hates both the peasants

and the educated people. The only thing that troubles Dr. Astrov is physical beauty.

Sonya's indirect reference to her love for Dr. Astrov proves futile. and she is aware

that she is not beautiful, Sonya and Helen become friends and both of them are very

The scene of action of Act Three is the same as that of Act Two. Serebryakov

has called for a meeting to discuss some important issue. Sonya confides to Helen that

she is in love with Dr.Astrov. Helen promises Sonya that she will find out whether

the doctor loves her or not. She knows that Dr. Astrov is in love with her and she is

also attracted to the doctor. Helen would have yielded to the overwhelming passion of

Dr. Astrov but for the entry of Vanya with a bunch of roses for her. Sonya learns from

Helen that Dr. Astrov is not in love with her. The selfish professor proposes to sell the

estate and buy a cottage near St. Petersburg and he pretends to sell it only in Sonya's

own best interests. Vanya is unable to control his anger and frustration and Sonya pleads

with her father to show sympathy to Vanya. Vanya fails to shoot down the professor

twice and bangs the revolver on the floor in utter desperation. Helen urges Sel-ebryakov

to calm down the agitated Vanya.

Act Four takes place in Vanya's bedroom. Serebryakov and Helen are leaving

for Kharkov. Vanya has taken a bottle of morphia from Dr. Astrov's case with the idea

of putting an end to his miserable life. Sonya begs her uncle to return the bottle to Dr.

Astrov. She tells her uncle that though she is unhappy she does not give way to despair.

Vanya returns the bottle to Dr. Astrov and wants to forget his miseries in industry.

Serebryakov accepts Vanya's apologies and Vanya promises to send the professor a

regular amount as in the past. Before Serebryakov leaves, he exhorts the others to work

hard. Vanya does not want to see the professor and Helen off as he wants to get down

to work quickly. Sonya consoles her depressed uncle. She believes in the mercy of God,

Shq is optimistic that she and Vanya will find peace in the end.

Chekhov's masterpiece, Three Sisters is an organic whole and is perfect in its

conception. The play has a unity between the plot line, the developing characterization

and the overall time structure.

Act One takes place in the Prozorovs' house. ~t is Irina's twentieth birthday.

Olga and kina express their intense desire to return to Moscow. They are confident that

their brother Andrew will definitely become a professor at the Moscow University. lrina

is in a good n~ood on her birthday. Irina's speech on the significance of industry inspires

Tuzenbakh and he decides to work hard. Masha is down in the dumps and wants to

leave as she finds the birthday party of Irina like a graveyard. Protopopov sends a large

cake to Irina. Vershinin, the commander in army, arrives and the three sisters are

delighted to hear that he is from Moscow. Masha is the first to recognize Vershinin as

"The lovesick major" as he was called then. Vershinin and Tuzenbakh love to

philosophize on life. Vershinin is positive that life will become beautiful in two or three

hundred years. Olga introduces Andrew to Vershinin, and Masha finding Vershinin's

talk very interesting decides to stay to lunch. Masha's married life is an unhappy one.

Tuzenbakh expresses his love for Irina. Natasha enters wearing a green sash which docs

not go with her dress. Andrew asks Natasha not to be upset over the remarks of others.

He loves her and wants her to be his wife.

The scene of action of Act Two is the same as Act One. Andrew has married

Natasha and has become the father of a son. He is now working as the secretary of

the county council and the chairman is Protopopov, his wife's lover. His wife does not

understand him and he is afraid of his sisters. Masha reveals her unhappiness to Ver-

shinin and he in turn describes his miserable life with his wife. Vershinin reveals his

love for Masha and Masha also yearns for true love. Irina does not like her work at

the post office. Tuzenbakh is deeply in love with her. Tuzenbakh and Vershinin imagine

life after their deafi, Tuzenbakh believes that life will be the same and peole will be

afraid of death as they are now. Vershinin is of the view that life is bound to change

for the better, He leaves quietly on receiving information from his daughter that his

wife has taken ~ o i s o n ~ Tuzenbakh wants to make it up with Solyony and be friends.

Solyony loves kina and is prepared to kill his rival in love for her. Natasha disappoints

the others by cancelling the carnival party. Irina is alone and once again she gives

expression to her intense desire to return to Moscow.

Act Three takes place in the bedroom shared by Olga and Irina. A fire breaks

out in the town and Olga is generous in helping the victims of the accident. Vershinin

and Masha exchange musical notes to express their love On the other hand, Tuzenbakh

has made up his mind to leave the army and work in a brickyard. Masha and lrina are

worried about Andrew's degeneration into a miserable and callous person. While Olga

consoles her and advises Irina to marry '~uzenbakh, Masha confesses to her sisters that

she is in love with Vershinin. Andrew lies to his sisters that Natasha is a decent and

honourable woman and adds that his work at the county council is as honourable as

any academic job. Irina decides to marry Tuzenbakh but her desire to go to Moscow

persists.

The scene of action of Act Four is the old garden belonging to the Prozorovs'

house. There is a round of leave-taking as the battery is leaving the town. Solyony has

challengedTbzenbakh to a duel. Irina wants to take up the teaching profession like Olga,

who has become the headmistress of the school. Irina fears that something awful i s

going to happen to her. Andrew's degeneration is complete as he is forced to push the

pram for his wife. He thinks about his past ambitions to succeed in life and his present

predicament. Vershinin leaves his wife and daughters temporarily undcr the care of

Olga, and Natasha succeeds in driving the three sisters out of the house. When the news

of Tuzenbakh's death in the duel is brought, Olga consoles her two unhappy sisters and

says that they still have their lives ahead of them. The three sisters remain as helpless

and aimless as at the beginning of the play*

Chekhov's last pal)', The Cherry Orchard, is a play beautifully balanced be-

tween pathos and humour. The plot hinges on the tragic loss of a family estate to an

upstart businessman. The personal crisis cannot provoke a profound reaction in Lyuba

and Gayev, the evicted owners of the estate. Though Chekhov ridicules them, he does

not withhold his sympathies for them. Act One takes place in the nursery of Lyuba

Ranevsky's estate. Lyuba and her daughter, Anya, are returning to their estate after stay-

ing in Paris for five years. This Act is fraught with poetry of varying kinds. Almost

everyone becomes excited and lyrical about the homecoming of Lyuba and Anya.

Lopakhin is as nervous as a little boy. He remembers with gratitude Lyuba's kindness

towards him when he was a lad of fifteen. He wants Dunyasha to remember her place

as a servant, and Dunyasha informs him that Yepikhodov has proposed to her. Lyuba

and Anya amive, and Lyuba is delighted to be in the nursery. Anya is tired and is not

interested in Dunyasha's love affair. She is elated to know that Peter Trofimov is in the

house. She expresses her anxiety to Varya with regard to her mother's reckless attitude

in squandering money. She learns from Varya that her ancestral estate is up for sale

very soon. Varya tells Anya that Lopakhin does not even notice her but everyone is

talking about their wedding. Lopakhin gives a practical suggestion to Lyuba and Gayev

to save their ancestral property: building summer cottages, and it is not even considered

by them. Gayev takes pride in saying that their orchard is even mentioned in the En-

cylopedia. He makes a speech to the bookcase and generally rhapsodizes about the dif-

ficulty of living. Nevertheless the homecoming of Lyuba and Anya is a bustle of happy

possibilities.

The background of Act Two is the open country. Charlotte is longing for some-

one to talk to as she feels that she is alone in the world. Yepikhodov playing a guitar

calls the musical instrument a mandolin as he is crazed with love. He always carries a

revolver in he needs i t for committing suicide. Dunyasha expresses her love for

Yasha. Lyuba, Gayev and Lopakhin have been to town, eaten too much, talked too

much, drunk too much, and each is out of sorts. Gayev hates Yasha and they insult

each other. Lyuba gives money to a passer-by and Varya is shocked to see her callous

attitude. Trofimov talks on about a new lifc to come. Lopakhin warns them all that the

cherry orchard is to be sold at an auction. Anya's platonic affair with Trofimov becomes

serious. Varya jealously tries to spy on them at every opportunity.

Act Three takes place in the drawing-room and it represents the awaited, climac-

tic scene. Lyuba anxiously waits for the result of the auction. It is the wrong night for

inviting guests and the famous Jewish orchestra. Charlotte performs magic tricks to

amuse the guests. Pishchck, as usual. tries hard to borrow money from the guests. The

party is not an elegant one and it is really a mockery of the old days. Even the post

office clerk grumbles when he is invited. Trofimov takes pride in saying that he is

above love and Lyuba derives pleasure in teasing him. He falls down a flight of steps

and Lyuba placates him by dancing with him. As Lopakhin has become the new owner

of the cherry orchard and the estate, Lyuba cries. Lopakhin pities her but he can no

longer help her. The end of the Act is heartbreaking, and yet full of comic poetic justice.

Gayev remembers that he has not eaten since morning.

The background of Act Four is the same as that of Act Three. It is a slow-leave-

taking, lugubrious and full of lulls. It is replete with deft comic situations. Dunyasha

pleads with Yasha to be nice to her as she is a tender woman. Lvuba d and Gayev talk

too much and bid farewell to inanimate things. Valuable clay has been found on

Pishchi'k's land and he arrives with money for everyone. He does not notice that

everyone is leaving. Varya provides the 1 s t oppofl~nity for Lopakhin to propose to her,

but he is infinitely relieved to be able to leave without proposing. The last ~ c t is a

comedy of errors. Nothing happens in The Cherry Orchard except the estate is sold and

the former owners leave in a vale of tears. As R. Corrigan points out,

For example, in The cherry Orchard the situation at the beginning of the play

is simply that Lyuba has arrived home because the cherry orchard is to be sold;

at the end of the play the orchard has been sold and everyone leaves. Nothing

happens really, the situation is single and static; but in the four acts in which

the situation takes one - and the only one - forward step, Chekhov has revealed

a great deal about the way life is for twelve people as they are related to that

situation (84-85).

Chekhov has made a brilliant use of the technique of realism . In Chekhov, the

various forms of realism like criti.cal realism, psychological realism, existential realism.

visionary realism and socialist realism admirably fuse. The French naturalists and the

Russian realists immensely helped Chekhov in finding his moorings as a playwright.

Chekhov, aided by his keen observation, and reflection, concentrated on the ordinary

rootless members of society. His art is a true one and it speaks plainly.

Critical realism started in Russia with Gogol, and his successors- Turgenev,

Ostrovsky and Chekhov- made use of it to show to people their faults and unbecoming

behaviour. In the words of G.J.Becker, "Critical realism is to be found in Balzac, in

Flaubert, in Turgenev and Tolstoy, infact everywhere that there has been an effort to

depict the workings of bourgeios society and to show its ugly and repressive aspects"

(21). Chekhov with his admirable ob-iectivity depicts the unplea$ant aspects of the bour-

geois society with the sole aim of creating a beautiful and peaceful world in which all

people Can coexist. Chekhov was immensely influenced by Gogol's critical realism. He

is not satisfied with portraying stark realities. AS his dramatic genius matured, he started

portraying life as it ought to be.

Psychological realism is a vigorous exploration of what Dostoyevsky called the

"underground man". According to G.J. Becker, "This might be termed a vertical exten-

sion of realism as distinguished from the horizontal extension which first characterized

the n ~ ~ ~ m i e n t " (26). Dostoyevsky first started it and later on Freud brought clinical

verifications. There was initial resistance to psychological realism but later on readers

became very eager and added their own verifications through introspection. Dos-

toyevsky has depicted the depths of the soul, and that clearly indicates his automatic

recoil from external realism. Turgenev and Chekhov came under the powerful spell of

Dostoyevsky's psychological realism. The mental goings-on play a vital role in human

relationships and in the decisions taken by men and women at various stages of their

lives.

From time immemorial, the art of living has been one of intense and painful

struggle for survival. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, and his firm conviction that

only the fittest could think of survival will hold good for all times to come. Albert

Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre have emphasized existential realism in their works. How

a person overcomes the various obstacles in order to survive in this strife-tom world

and how he makes his life meaningful forms inevitably the story of his life. Anton

Chekhov knew fully well the very essence of existentialism as he had to struggle very

hard to make both ends meet. He never gave up hope and aided by his industry rose

to great heights. He lived and helped others to pursue a peaceful and purposeful life.

Eminent literary writers who had positive visions about life and the betterment

of mankind are remembered today with gratitude and reverence. Shakespeare,

Wordsworth, Shelley and T.S. Eliot live forever in their works because of their positive

and unerring visions of life. Positive visions enhance a writer's greatness and secure

immortality for him. Chekhov's visionary realism proves to be very absorbing. He had

positive visions about the future happiness of mankind. According to him, patience,

humanism and industry are essential to create a better world for mankind. He has used

his positive characters as his mouthpiece to give expression to his visions. His visions

proved true with the passage of time.

In The Seagull, critical realism, psychological realism and existential realism ad-

mirably fuse. Chekhov is highly critical of Irina and Sorin, the ignorant and unimagina-

tive estate ~ w ~ ~ e r s . When the manager, Shamrayev, expresses his inability to give Irina

horses to go to the town, she irritates him with her unbecoming behaviour. The angry

manager says in Act Two,

You've no idea what running a farm means, dear lady. (TSG -- ,94)

Both Irina and Sorin know nothing about managing the estate, and hence, they have to

rely on the tyrant, Shamrayev. They are unable to check the the indecent behaviour of

their manager since they are the embodiment of ignorance, laziness and carelessness.

Chekhov was critical of the theatre of his time. He was not satisfied with the

theatre and wanted to bring in reforms. He makes use of Treplev to express his views:

What we need's a new kind of theatre. New forms are what we need, and if we

haven't got them we'd be a sight better off with nothing at all. (TSG, 76).

Chekhov wanted the theatre to stage serious plays containing new ideas. He makes a

clever use of Dr. Dorn to give expression to his view on the theatre. Committing on

Treplev's symbolic play, Dr. Darn tells him,

You took your plot from the realism of abstract ideas, and quite right too, he-

cause a work of art simply must express some great idea. Nothing can be beauti-

ful unless it's also serious. (TSG - , 87)

Chekhov has an interest in the workings of human psyche. His characters'reac-

tions to situations are realistic and true to life, Psychological realism is best expressed

in the characters of Treplev, Nina, Masha, and Polina. Treplev, though obsessed with

"mother fixation" is deeply in love with Nina. The sounds of her footsteps create

heavenly dreams in the budding artist. The sole aim of Treplev's symbolic play is to

create an impression on his actress-mother. Nina's inexperience and immaturity make

her a willing victim of Trigorin, the renowned writer. Trigorin leaves Nina in the lurch

after satisfying his lust in Moscow. The child by Trigorin dies but Nina does not allow

the tragedy in her life gain the upperhand. With immense self-control, ambition to suc-

ceed in her chosen field and admirable patience, Nina develops for herself a positive

outlook on life.

Treplev lacks inspiration, confidence and the will-power to succeed in his voca-

tion as his excessive love for his undeserving mother continues to haunt him. He has

failed to achieve recognition as a creative writer. Nina meets him for the last time before

his suicide and she is fully aware that she has mined Treplev's life. She advises him

to look at his problems in the proper perspective and to be patient if he wants to make

a mark in creative writing. Even at this juncture, Treplev's unnatural love for his mother

comes the forefront and he does not want her to know about Nina's visit. Unable to

control his feelings and overcome by failures, Treplev commits suicide.

Masha cannot love the schoolmaster Medvedenko who talks endlessly about

money and poverty. Her love for Treplev is not reciprocated as Treplev finds her roman-

tic advances disgusting. She decides to marry Medvedenko as her love for Treplev

proves to be hopeless. Even after her marriage to the school master, her love for Treplev

painfully persists. She does not care for her only chid. She is willing to , be a mistress

to Treplev, and even her mother, Polina, begs Treplev to look at her daughter with

loving eyes. Treplev's suicide solves the problems of his mother and Masha.

Polina, the wife of Shamrayev, finds life with her husband unbearable. She and

the romantic Dr. Darn have developed close intimacy over a number of years. The rude

t~haviour of Shamrayev is mainly responsible for her illicit relationship. Even at the

age of fifty-five, she finds the doctor attractive. She pleads with him in Act One:

I can't stand his rudeness. (Imploringly.) Eugene dear, let me come and live with

you darling. Our time's passing, we're not so young as we were. Can't we give

up all the lying and pretence now we're getting on in life? (Paus@ (TSG,95) - Nina offers Dr. Dorn a bunch of flowers, and the jealous Polina, as she and Dr. Dom

go towards the house takes the flowers and tears them up and throws them away. Polina

is a possessive woman and her aim is to have Dr. Dom.

In this play, existential realism can be discerned in the character of Treplev. He

suffers from "Hamlet Complex" and is jealous of Trigorin because his mother is in-

curably in love with him. He wants to impress his mother and prove to her that he has

real talent as a writer by staging a symbolic play. He is eager to receive words of

appreciation from his mother but he fails to impress her with his play. He loves only

Nina's physical beauty but he fails to understand her soul. Nina does not reciprocate

Treplev's love as she is attracted to Trigorin. Treplev goes on watching Nina's steady

growth as an actress. It is painful for him to note that he has failed in his vocation as

a creative writer and has become a nonentity. His love for his undeserving mother pain-

fully persists. He agrees with Nina when she tells him that intelligence alone is not

enough to come up in life. He lacks faith and patience to win fame as a writer. He

confesses to Nina in the last Act,

(sadly). You've found your road and know where you're going, while I still drift

about in a maze of dreams and images, not knowing who needs my stuff or

why. I've no faith and I don't know what my vocation is. (TSG, 128) -- His highly endangered psyche takes him in the wrong direction and his suicide is not

a shocking one as he is a victim of existential loneliness.

In The Three Sisters, one cannot fail to observe the synthesis of critical,

psycological, existential and visionary realism.

In the character of Andrew, one can observe the fusion of critical and existential

realism. Chekhov is highly critical of the intelligentsia wasting their time on trivialities.

Andrew can be cited as an example. He strives hard to become a professor at the Mos-

cow University. His marriage with Natasha ruins his life beyond redemption. He loses

interest in his scholarly pursuits and becomes a mindless slave to the tyrant wife.

The three sisters have great faith in Andrew's scholarship and untiring industry,

and they hope to realize their dreams of returning to Moscow. Andrew becomes a victim

of existential loneliness soon after his maniage to Natasha. To drown his miseries, he

drinks, gambles away an enormous amount of money. He mortgages the house without

getting the consent of his sisters. Irina believes that living with that wretched woman,

Natasha, has put years on Andrew's life.

Andrew has become insensitive to human suffering. When everyone rushes off

to the fire in the town to help people, he sits in his room not taking the slightest notice

and goes on playing the violin. He lies to his sisters that he loves his wife and respects

her. He describes his wife as a decent and honourable woman. He considers his job at

the county council every bit as honourable and worthwhile as any academic job. He

has become a stranger to himself and to others. He is known to everyone in the town,

and yet, he feels like an alien. His home is hell to him as he is terribly afraid of his

wife. He has completely lost interest in life and has to look after his child like a baby-

sitter. Masha's words in the final Act aptly sum up the pathetic predicament of Andrew:

There goes brother, Andrew. All our hopes have come to nothing. Imagine

thousands of people hoisting up a huge bell. Then after all the efforts and money

spent on it, it suddenly falls and is smashed to pieces. Suddenly for no reason

at all. That's how it's been with Andrew. (TS, 253) -

Andrew has become one among the unthinking people who eat, drink and sleep till

they drop down dead. He is condemned to lead a life of loneliness and misery bossed

over by his merciless wife.

In this play, psychological realism can be discerned in the characters of Olga,

Masha, and Irina. Olga, as a teacher, strains herself too much in and out of school

hours. She is a gentle woman who hates indecent behaviour, harsh words and un-

charitable remarks. She firmly believes in the sanctity of love. Her psyche guides her

in the right direction and enables her to show the right path to her unhappy sisters at

the end of the play. She tells them in the last Act,

We still have our lives ahead of us, so let's make the most of them. The band's

playing such a cheerful, happy music, it feels as if we might find out before

long what our lives and sufferings are for. (TS, - 265)

Masha married the schoolmaster, Kulygin, and initially she was overawed by his

scholarship. Her conjugal life is one of misery as she has realized the slavish and

unimaginative character of her husband. The frustrated Masha meets Vershinin at the

birthday pmy of her sister, Irina. Vershinin's married life like that of Masha is very

painful. His second wife with suicidal tendencies derives immense pleasure from tor-

turing him, Vershinin's talk compels Masha t~ stay t~ dinner. The similar plight of both

Vershinin and Masha brings them together. They do have perfect understanding, and

hence, they do not need words to express their love. Vershinin has to leave the town

with his battery and Masha's happiness comes to an end. Olga has to console her in

order to regain composure.

finds her life in the provincial town extremely dull, and like her elder

sisters, longs to return to Moscow. She finds her job at the Telegraph office and later

at the county council unbearably disgusting. She is unable to get a job to her utmost

satisfaction. She consents to marry Tuzenbakh though she does not love him. After the

death of Tuzenbakh in the duel with Solyony, she decides to continue teaching and she

says in the last Act,

I'll go off alone tomorrow to teach at a school and spend my whole life serving

those who may need me. It's autumn now and it will soon be winter, with every-

thing buried in snow, and I shall work, work, work. (TS, - 264)

The beautiful expression of visionary realism may be seen in the characters of

Vershinin, Tuzenbakh and Olga. Vershinin and Tuzenbakh have a positive vision regard-

ing the future of mankind. When Masha says that knowing three languages is a useless

luxury in her town, something that resembles an unwanted appendage like having a

sixth finger, Vershinin disagrees with her. He concedes that intelligent people like Masha

cannot hope to prevail against the forces of ignorance around them. But he firmly

believes that in due course intelligent and industrious people will become the majority.

He tells Masha with conviction, in two or three hundred years life on this earth will

be beautiful and marvellous. To ~ a l i z e this dream, man must have more visions and

more knowledge than his forefathers. Tuzenbakh shares Vershinin's vision about the

future and believes that a wonderful world can be realized only through untiring in-

dustry.

In Act -0, Vershinin and Tbzenbakh have a discussion. Vershinin wants to im-

agine life after he and Tuzenbakh are dead and buried. Tuzenbakh says that in the near

future people will fly around in balloons. Even though the lifestyle of people may be

different, life itself will not change. According to him, life will continue to be difficult

and mysterious. People will be scared of death as they are now and will be keen on

avoiding it. Vershinin replies that everything on earth is bound to change gradually.

Before his departure from the town with his battery, he returns once again to his

favourite theme and says that things are certainly getting brighter all the time.

Olga too has visions about the future happiness of mankind. She tells her sisters

in the last Act that their sufferings will definitely bring joy to the posterity. She is

positive that peace, harmony and happiness will reign supreme on the earth. She exhorts

her sisters to make most of their lives.

Chekhov's keen observation of life and people around him supplied him with

many interesting characters. It also helped him to perfect his naturalistic technique of

characterization. He retained his early impressions in his mind for along time before

they took concrete form in his mature work. In his time, the intelligentsia were inactive,

talkative and dissatisfied. Chekhov observed the stagnation and inertia of these people

and described what he saw around him in his plays and stories. In the words of

W.H.Bruford: "It is clear that few sides of Russian life can have escaped him" (14).

His unique power of observation helped him to create life-like, flawless and charming

characters. He is as great Shakespeare in his portrayal of different characters from

society. In real life, vice often triumphs over virtue. Good, brave and intelligent people

have to face endless miseries, failures and frustration. Lazy, idiotic and unscrupulous

people lead a life of luxury and comfort. Chekhov's presentation of life in his plays is

beautiful and powerful, complex and varied. Treplev and Medvedenko of The Seagull,

Vanya and Dr. Astrov of Uncle Vanya, Tuzenbakh and Vershinin of Three Sisters are

Chekhov's good and honest men, but they are unable to lead a happy and S U C C ~ S S ~ U ~

life. Nina of The Seagull, Sonya of Uncle Vanya, Olga and Irina of Three Sisters are

~hekhov's good, brave and industrious women. These hapless women have to confront

countless odds to make their lives meaningful. It is true that a true description of life

can never be interesting. The merits and demerits of Chekhov's characters are the flaw-

less reflection of people's own characteristics, and they have to identify themselves in

his characters. By showing the absurdities and ugliness of life, Chekhov wants his

readers and spectators to change and improve their way of living.

Chekhov's analytical mind aided him to penetrate the inner realm of human

hearts and understand the secret motives of human emotions. He observed keenly the

characteristic traits of people and presented them in his work with artistic integrity and

simplicity. His descriptions of peasants reveal his sharp analytical mind. Sorin, Sham-

rayev and Medvedenko of The Seagull, Serebryakov and Telegin of Uncle Vanya,

Kulygin, Vershinin, Tuzenbakh, Solyony, Fedotik and Rode of Three Sisters, Pishchik,

Charlotta and Yepikhodov of The Cherry Orchard are Chekhov's life-like characters.

Through his younger brother, Ivan, Chekhov met Colonel Mayevsky and other military

men. This helped him in the creation memorable military men in his play Three Sisters.

Chekhov met an English governess at Smirnov's (Stanislavsky's cousin) and he liked

that very jolly woman. He modelled Charlotta of The Cherry Orchard on the English

governess. His personal contact with the miserable school teachers resulted in the crea-

tion of Kulygin of Three Sisters and Medvedenko of The Sea@. As a doctor, Chekhov

was deeply interested in medical men and represented them as an idealistic and self-

sacrificing group. He maintains his usual objectivity and portrays the physicians with

their sorrows, problems, kindness and faults. Dr. Dam of The Seagull is a romanticist,

Dr. Astrov of Uncle Vanya is a selfless idealist, Dr. Lvov of lvanov is highly duty-

conscious and Dr. Chebutykin of Three - Sisters is an incorrigible pessimist.

Chekhov mastered the technique of suggesting large effects through small

details, like, word or gesture. In the last Act of Uncle Vanya, a large map of Africa is

found above the desk of Vanya. As M.Esslin observes, "Africa never turned into the

play, but the very incongruity of the map's presence illustrates the wayward, ineffectual

character of Vanya himself' (The Anatomy of Drama, 52-53). The map of Africa is a

brilliant device on Chekhov's part. It does not lengthen the play by one second, and

yet, it communicates a great deal. In Act Three of Three Sisters. Dr.Chebutvkin lets the

porcelain clock, the treasured possession of his beloved, tall and break. This idiotic

gesture of the old doctor reveals him as an inhuman creature completely divorced from

life. Life has become meaningless to this despicable pessimist.

Chekhov's clever use of the messenger element aids character portrayal. In The -

Seagull, Chekhov makes Dr.Dorn leave for Italy. When Dr.Don returns from his foreign

tour, Chekhov makes use of the messenger, in this case Treplev, to give an account of

Nina's pathetic life with the treacherous Trigorin and the villain's ruthless desertion of

the innocent and vivacious Nina. The following conversation between Dr. Dorn and

Treplev in the last Act reveals Chekhov's judicious use of the messenger element:

Dorn:Genoa.

Treplev: Why Genoa?

Dorn: The street life is so wonderful. Leaving your hotel in the evening, you

find the whole street jammed with people, and you drift round in the

crowd. going any old where in any old direction. You share its life, enter

into its spirit and begin to think there really could be such a thing as a

world spirit, like the one Nina Zarechny once acted in your play. By

the way, where is Miss Zarechny these days ? Where is she and how is

she ?

Treplev: She's well, 1 presume.

Dorn: 1 heard she was leading a rather odd life. What's it all about?

Treplev: That's a long story, Doctor.

Dorn: Then make it short (Pause.)

Treplev: She ran away from home and had an affair with Trigorin. You know

that ?

Dorn: Yes.

Treplev: She had a baby. It died. Trigorin tired of her and returned to his former

attachments, as could only be expected. He never really gave them up

in point of fact, but somehow contrived in his feeble way to keep a foot

in both camps. Nina's private life has been a disaster so far as I can

see. (TSG, 1 18- 1 19)

Chekhov's clever use of the chorus reveals him as a master of characterization.

In many instances, the chorus is the mouthpiece of the dramatist. When the playwright

cannot appear in person, he may make his presence felt in the person of an accredited

agent. In Shakespeare's plays, some characters play the role of the chorus. Enobarbus

i n Antony and Cleopatra gives his views on Cleopatra and comments rightly on

Antony's conduct at the various ckical stages. However, the frequent utterances of a /

particular character should not be mistaken for the views of the dramatist. For example,

the cynical comments of Jaques in As You Like It are certainly not the views of

Shakespeare on human life. This is clear because all the healthy-minded people in the

play laugh at him. T.S. Eliot uses the chorus effectively in Murder in the Cathedral and

Family Reunion to enable h e reader to have a clear idea of the mental goings-on of --

the characters. In Three Sisters, Tuzenbakh in the role of a chorus makes the audience

know that Olga's desire to return to Moscow is mere nonsense. The chorus element

can be discerned in the following lines from Act One:

Olga: ....Eleven years ago, but I remember i t all as though we'd only left yester-

day- kavens, how marvellous ! When I woke up this morning and saw

the great blaze of light and knew that spring had come - I fclt so happy

excited, I felt I just had to go back home to Moscow.

Chebutykin: (To Solyony and Tuzenbakh). Not a chance in hell.

Tuzenbakh: Absolute nonsense of course. (TS, 19 1 - 192) --

In the last Act of Three Sisters, Olga, Masha and Irina perform the role of the

chorus:

When Vershinin leaves the town with his men, the three sisters realize that the

changes of life are inevitable and inscrutable. Masha knows that life must go on and

Irina searches for consolation in industry. Olga firmly believes that their sufferings will

bring happiness to posterity. She tells her sisters,

We still have our lives ahead of us, my dears, so let's make the most of them.

The band's playing such cheerful, happy music, it feels as if we might find out

before long what out lives and s~fferings are for. If we could only know!

If we could only know! (TS, - 265)

The three sisters huddle together and give expression to their determination to strive

hard and lead a purposeful life. They do not want to surrender to the severe trials of

life. They are optimistic about the future happiness of mankind.

Telegin in Act Three of Uncle Vanya plays the part of the chorus when he tries

to pacify the agitated Vanya. Vanya feels that his brother-in-law does not bother about

his welfare by not giving him single extra rouble for his work. His salary of five

hundred roubles a year from Serebryakov is a mere pittance to him. The professor says

that Vanya could have helped himself to as much as he liked. Vanya does not want to

steal money and his mother had to intervene and tell him to be calm. The agitated

Telegin tells Vanya,

Vanya, my dear chap, don't talk like this, for heaven's sake. 1 am trembling all

over. Why spoil good relations. (Kisses him.) Please don't. (UV, - 173)

When Vanya recounts how he worshipped Serebryakov in the past, Telegin tells him,

Oh stop it, Vanya, please. I can't stand this. (UV, - 173)

Vanya continues to rave about his wasted life and Helen wants him to be quiet. He

says that he has not lived and considers Serebryakov as his worst enemy. Telegin in

an agitated mood tells Vanya,

I can't stand this, I really can't. I am going. (Goes out in terrible agitation.)

(UV, - 173)

In Act Four, Telegin again performs the role of chcrus and informs the audience

that Serebryakov and Helen are leaving for Kharkov after pacifying Vanya. He tells

Marina that the professor and his wife have a plan to look round there and then send

for their things. He says,

So they're not going to live here after all. Marina, so that's how things have

worked out. Such are the dictates of destiny. (UV, - 177)

Marina is terribly frightened after the row Serebryakov and Vanya made that afternoon

and she considers that row a thorough disgrace. Telegin agrees with her and says,

Yes, it was a subject worthy of the brush of Ayvazovsky. (UV, - 177)

It is understood from Telegin that the frustrated Vanya is planning to put an end to his

life.

Chekhov has made brilliant use of the anival and departure element to portray

his characters. This element gives him the opportunity to enable the reader to have a

good understanding of the characters. Chekhov prepares the mind of the mader and

provides him with valuable clues to participate actively in the progress of the play. In

Act one of Three Sisters, the expected arrival of Vershinin at Irina's birthday party gives

Chekhov a wonderful opportunity to depict Vershinin's character with the aid of Tuzen-

bakh. It is made known to the readers and spectators that Vershinin is middle-aged,

decent and talkative. This interesting person has a crazy wife with suicidal tendencies.

His unpresentable wife often tries to commit suicide just to irritate him. I'uzenbakh

informs the sisters,

I 'd have left a woman like that long ago, but he puts up with it and goes

round feelling sony for himself. (TS, - 193)

In Act One of Three Sisters, Dr. Chebutykin departs with a solemn face and

returns with a costly silver samovar for Irina on her twentieth birthday. A silver

samovar is usually given as a present by a husband to his wife on the twenty fifth

wedding anniversary. The following lines clearly reveal Dr. Chebutykin as an incor-

rigible pessimist;

Chebutykin: My darling girls, I've no one else but you, you're more precious

to me than anything in the world. I'll soon be sixty and I'm an old

man, a lonely, insignificant old man. My love for you is the only good

thing about me and if i t wasn't for you I'd have departed this life long

ago. (To Irina.) I've known you since the day yea were born, dear child,

I used to hold you in my arms. And I loved your mother, God rest

her soul.

Irina: But why these expensive presents?

Chebutykin: (Through tears, angrily.) Expensive presents ! Oh, get away with

you! (TO the soldier,) Take the sanlovar in there. (Mocking her.) Ex-

pensive presents. (The soldier takes the samovar into the ballroom.) (TS, -

197-198)

In Act One of The Cheny Orchard, the expected arrival of Mrs. Ranevsky from

Paris gives the opportunity to Lupakhin to describe her character:

(listening). No, they're not. There is the luggage to be got out and all that.

(Pause.) Your mistress has been living abroad for five years and I've no idea

what she is like now. She was such a nice woman, unaffected and easy to get

on with. (TCO, 269)

Mrs. Ranevsky was very kind to Lopakhin when he was a boy of fifteen. His father

gave him a blow and made his nose bleed. Ranevsky treated Lopakhin's bleeding nose

with great care and told him that he would be all right within a shon time.

In the last Act of The Cherry Orchard, Gayev and Mrs. Ranevsky depart from

their ancestral house after exhibiting the sentimental and ludicrous elements of their

character:

(Mrs. Ranevsky and Gayev are left alone. They seem to have been waiting

for this moment and fling their arms round each other, sobbing quietly, restrain-

ing themselves, afraid of being heard.)

Gayev: (in despair). My sister, my dear sister

Mrs. Ranevsky: Oh, my dear, sweet, beautiful orchard. My life, my youth, mv

happiness, good-bye. Good-bye.

Anya: (off stage, happily and appealingly). Mother!

Trofimov: (off stage, happily and excitedly). Hallo there!

Mrs. Ranevsky: One last look at the walls and the windows. Our dear mother

loved to walk about this room.

Gayev: Oh Lyuba, my dear sister

Anya: (off stage). Mother 1

Trofimov: (off stage). Hal10 there ! Mrs. Ranevsky : We're coming. (They go out.) (TCO, 328-329)

Chekhov uses pauses and stage directions as tools for characterization. His

pauses are fruitful means to explain the mental states of his characters. In Act Two of

The Seagull the following stage direction is found:

Masha: (restraining her enthusiasm) When he recites his eyes blaze and he turns

pale. He has a beautifu1,sad voice,and he looks like a poet. (Sorin is

heard snoring.) (TSG, 92) - The last line, "Sorin is heard snoring", helps one to comprehend Masha's character.

Nobody takes Masha's praise of Treplev seriously. Knowing her true character, Sorin

prefers to sleep in order to avoid her false and meaningless utterance. The following

stage direction is found in Act Three of The Seagull: (Treplev sits down and quietly

cries.) (TSG, - 108). It clearly reveals Treplev's unheroic nature and his profound affec-

tion for his unsympathetic mother. In Act Three of The Seagull, the following stage

direction appears: (Pause. Trigorin makes a note in his book) (TSG, _I_ 11 I) . It helps one

to understand one of the important characteristics of the celebrated author, Trigorin.

Like Chekhov, Trigorin depends heavily on his observation in creating life-like charac-

ters. The following is the stage direction found in the final Act of The Cheny Orchard:

(Mrs.Ranevsky and Gagev are left alone. They seem to have been waiting for this

moment and fling their arms round each other, sobbing quietly, restraining themselves

afraid of being heard.) (TCO, 328). The lines show Lyuba and Gayev as ludicrous char-

actem. They could not think of any constructive plan to save their property. Their

sentimentality reaches its climax in their copious tears. They are solely responsible for

their miserable plight. Their tears do not make one sympathetic towards them. They

provoke only laughter, and hence, they do not deserve any sympathy.

Chekhov makes a subtle use of irony to draw his characters. Irony arises when

one's meaning is expressed by saying something which is the direct opposite of what

is intended to be conveyed. Actions and events can also become ironical, when a situa-

tion is misjudged by the persons involved in it. Again a wrong thought or a wrong

emotion is ironical, when it is seen to be so by some one. Inadequate knowledge in

someone and fuller knowledge in someone else cause ironical situations. There are two

kinds of irony: comic and tragic. Flat characters contribute a great deal to comic irony.

Only round characters can provide tragic irony for any length of time. In Chekhov, as

in real life, good, brave and honest people suffer. As mentioned earlier, lazy, idiotic

and unscruplous people thrive in this world. Dr. Chebutykin of Three Sisters sense-

lessly drops the porcelain clock of the woman he loved and breaks it to pieces. The

incorrigible pessimist says in Act Three,

..* What are you all staring at? Natasha's carrying on with Protopopov and a lot

of notice you take, you sit around as if you'd lost the use of your eyes while

Natasha carries on with Protopopov. (TS, 238)

Chebutykin's ironical statement regarding Natasha and Protopopov indirectly refers to

the intimate relationship between Masha and Vershinin.

Olga of Three Sisters passes an innocent remark on Natasha's green belt unhich

does not suit her dress. Natasha takes this as an insult and waits for the opportune

moment to retaliate. In Act Four, Natasha looks at Irina's belt and says,

... That sash doesn't suit you at all, dear, in fact it's in a very poor taste. You

need something nice and bright. (TS, - 263)

Natasha's comment on Irina's belt is full of irony and it amply reveals Natasha's

satanic character.

In Ivanov, the hero Nicholas Ivanov ruins his life because of his inability to

check his meaningless mental depression. He loses interest in his wife Anna and derives

pleasure from the company of the young Sasha. After his wife's death, he decides to

many Sasha. He could have married her and started his life anew. It is irony that he

loses the opportunity to give some meaning to his existence by rejecting Sasha at the

last moment and by committing suicide to free his suffering soul. Both Anna and Sasha

fail to make a new man of Ivanov, and it is ironical that they do not deserve the hellish

torments that they have to undergo.

It is ironical that Treplev in The Seagull while trying to reform the stage i s

unable to extricate himself from the pitfalls of conventional writing as he lacks definite

aim. Nina in The Seagull ironically prefers Trigorin to Treplev and pays the penalty

for her indiscreet action. Trigorin pleads with Irina to set him free and enable him to

lead a meaningful conjugal life with Nina, but he does not hesitate to leave Nina in

the lurch after satisfying his overwhelming passion.

In Uncle Vanya, Serebryakov is highly successful both in his personal and

professional life. It is irony that a nonentity like Serebryakov succeeds inall his en-

deavours with the help of others. His wife, Helen, the lazy and predatory woman, leads

a luxurious life using her physical beauty as a weapon to realize her selfish aims. It is

ironical that a good and industrious woman like Sonya has to bear with undeserving

and relentless torments of both mind and body. Her uncle, Vanya, realizes that he has

wasted the most important part of his life working tirelessly for the welfare of the

worthless professor.

In Three Sisters, the three good and brave women, Olga, Masha and Irina be-

come victims of undeserved sufferings. It is ironical that a woman with a questionable

character like Natasha bosses over all the others and even succeeds in driving out the

three sisters from their home.

Irony is an important structural element in the plays of Chekhov. His plays con-

tain both comic and tragic irony and succeed in presenting to the reader "a slice of

life". His irony sharpens the intellect of the reader as he tries to comprehend the real

and intended meaning.

Chekhov could not avoid symbolism and came under its inevitable spell. Sym-

bols are used to aid and enrich the dramatic experience. C. Chadwick points out, "It

(symbol) can be used to describe any mode of expression which, instead of referring

to something directly, refers to it indirectly through the medium of something else" (1).

Symbols have been used on the stage since the earliest times. Much of the Elizabethan

'stage furniture' was symbolic, as a throne for a Court, a tent for a battlefield, a tree

for a forest. But Symbolism as a conscious art-form conceived as a reaction against

Realism came into the theatre with Maeterlinck, writing under the influence of Mallarme

and Verlaine. His characters have no personality of their own, but are symbols of the

poet's inner life. This aspect was intensified in Yeats' early plays in verse. Other

dramatists to come under the influence of Symbolism include Andreyev and Enreinov

in Russia, the later Hauptmann in Germany, Synge and O'Casey in Ireland and O'Neill

in the'United States. Chekhov has used subtle symbols with the positive characters like

Vershinin, Tuzenbakh, Olga, Masha and kina of Three Sisters. The titles of his two

plays, The-seagull and The Cheny Orchard are symbolic in character. The seagull

symbol can be interpreted in two different ways. It can refer to the hapless Nina, as

well as, to the hopeless Treplev. Chekhov h a used a stuffed seagull as a symbol at the

end of the of his play The Seagull to emphasize the change in Nina's character. In his

last play, The Chew Orchard, the cherry orchard symbolises that the old has to give

place to the new since changes are inevitable in a vibrant and progressive world. In

Three Sisters, the predominant symbol is Moscow. All the major characters heavily

depend on the strange attraction that Moscow has for them. The joys and sorrows of

the majority of the characters are the unmistakable result when they dream of their

return to the heavenly city, Moscow. Andrew wants to become a professor at Moscow,

and his three sisters, Olga, Masha and Irina are extremely eager to return to their place

of birth. They long to settle in Moscow in order to bring some meaning to their ex-

istence. All of them fail to realize their dreams, and hence, they have to live a

frustrated life in the dull provincial town.

Chekhov's art is known for its objectivity. Chekhov does not express his per-

sonality in his plays. As true art rests in the writer's ability to escape from his per-

sonality, Chekhov presents his views in an objective way and wants the reader to draw

his own conclusion. He is not a judge of his characters, but only an impartial witness.

He gives the audience facts and invites their genuine participation in the play. With

his visionary power , he could foresee the forces about to mould a new generation,

whose heavy steps are heard clearly in The Cherry Orchard. In Ibsen, Strindberg and

Chekhov life can be seen as an iceberg nine-tenths submerged. In Chekhov, avle sees a

whole group, a whole society as victims. In the words of R. Williams, "It is not the

question now of the dramatic resolution of the fate of a single individual, but of an

orchestration of responses to a common fate. Three Sisters and The Cheny Orchard

are examples of this essentially new form" (Modem Tragedy, 143).

In Chekhov's plays, music is an important structural element which the dramatist

has used to perfection. Strictly speaking, any music written for and used in the produc-

tion of a spoken play is in the nature of incidental music, even if not technically so

described. Incidental music, then, may be defined as any kind of stage music expressly

written for use in a dramatic performance that would still be in all its essentials com-

plete without it. It is clear that Shakespeare's plays asked for a good deal of' music, not

only interpolated songs, which the poet fortunately made an integral part of his work

by himself providing the words for them.

Music attracts people belonging to different strata of society. Music in a play

moves people, creates a mood and provides relaxation. It succeeds in evoking memory

and helps in the delineation of characters. It gives relief to the reader and prepares his

mind to participate actively in the progress of the play. Chekhov has judiciously utilised

music for creating charming characters. In Act Three of Three Sisters Vershinin and

Masha do not need words to communicate their love:

Masha: Ti turn ti turn ti ---

Vershinin: Turn turn turn ---

Masha: Tara Tarara.

Vershinin: Turn ti tum. (Laughs) (TS, - 239).

This musical expression of love clearly illustrates the achievement of intimate com-

munication between Venhinin and Masha. True love and perfect urlderstanding do not

require words to express themb

Shabelsky of Ivanov tells Anna that if he could win a few hundred thousand

roubles, the first thing he will do immediately is to listen to the songs of gypsies in

Moscow. Anna finds the words of Shabelsky as irritating as the hooting of an owl.

She tells him,

Anna: It's terribly boring. Shall we play another duet?

Shabelsky: All right, get the music out. (IV, - 1 1)

Anna tells the depressed Ivanov in Act One,

You're depressed, you say. That I understand. Look, Nicholas, why not try sing-

ing, laughing and losing your temper as in the old days. (IV, 14) -

Music has the tremendous power to triumph over depression and that is the reason why

Anna volunteers to sing for Ivanov even in her miserable condition.

Ivanov and Shabelsky leave for the Lebedevs and Anna is left in the company

of Dr. Lvov. In Act One, the music from an accordion makes Anna painfully aware

of her hopeless life:

(Pause. The sound of an accordion far away.) (IV, - 15)

Anna tells Dr. Lvov that the coachmen and the cooks are enjoying a dance and she,

their mistress, feels forsaken. Music signifies the happy disposition of the person who

indulges in it. At the birthday party of Sasha in Ivanov, Borkin sings in order to drive

out boredom :

(to Lebedev). MY dear Lebedev. (to Ivanov.) Respected Patron (Sings.)

Nicholas voila, ho - hi - ho. (E 30) Borkin becomes the life and soul of the party and succeeds in lifting the unnecessary

tension. The following lines from Act Two reveal the power of music:

Borkin: ... I'm on top of my form, Martha, I feel exalted. (Sings) "Once more

before you ----

Zinaida: Yes, do something because we are all bored. (IV, - 30)

Dr. Dam of The Seagull i s a lover of music and is romantrc by temperament.

He loves to hear and even imagine melodious music from a pianist. He tilkes the world

in his stride, and he is not unduly bothered about Polina's meaningless jealousy. He

views everything philosophically and loves to make life pleasant by indulging in sing-

ing. The following line in Act Two reveals his positive approach to life:

(singing quietly). "Oh, speak to her, you flowers---- " (TSG, 90).

He goes on singing the line in order to keep himself sane among misfits.

Masha of The Seagull continues to love Treplev even after marriage to another

man. She does not care for her husband and her child Her amorous advances are repul-

sive to Treplev and he makes it a point to avoid her company. In Act Isour, the unhappy ed

lives of both Masha and Treplev is background I by waltz music:

(A melancholy waltz is played in the next room but one.)

Polina: That's Constantine playing, he must be depressed.

Masha: (silently does two or more waltz steps). The thing is not to keep seeing

him, Mother. If only Simon gets the new job, 1'11 be over this in a month,

take it from me. It's all so silly. (TSG, - 116)

Treplev, unlike Nina, is unable to find his moorings and fails in his endeavours to be-

come a creative artist. To drown his pangs of failure, he goes on playing the piano,

The following line in Act Four summarizes the sad predicament of Treplev : (A sad

waltz is played off stage.) (TSG, - 123). Unable to bear the excruciating tortu~ of his

own wasted life Treplev puts an end to his life. Dr. Dom, like the others, hears the

sound of a shot and finds Treplev dead. He tells the others that a bottle of ether has

exploded. He sings even at that tragic hour to drown reality: (sings softly). "Once

more enchanted I appear before thee" (TSGp - 129).

Telegin of Uncle Vanya plays a polka, and Vanya and the others listen to him

with rapt attention in order to get over the pangs of depression in the monotonous

estate* But at the end of Act One, when Telegin plucks the strings of a polka, the

others are so busy in their preoccupations that they fail to listen to his music. Vanya

chases Helen like a mad cap professing his love for her. Mrs. Voynitsky does not bother

to listen to Telegin's polka and goes on making a note in the margin of her pamphlet.

Both Dr. Astrov and Vanya are in love with Helen. They take liquor and Vanya asks

Telegin to play his guitar. Telegin strums very softly and the tipsy doctor puts his

hands on his hips and sings softly:

"Come dance, my stove, come dance, my shed. Ihe master has nowhere to lay

his head." (UV, - 151)

Masha of Three Sisters married a schoolmaster and was anticipating a happy

conjugal life. Contrary to her expectations, her married life has proved unhappy. To

get over her disappointment and pain, Masha whistles softly even while reading an

interesting book. When Olga says that Masha can visit her, Andrew and Irina and

spend the whole of summer in Moscow every year, Masha whistles a tune to express

her joy at the prospect of leaving the dull provincial town.

Andrew of Three Sisters is indirectly introduced to the readers when he plays

a violin off stage. His two sisters, Masha and Irina inform Vershinin,

Masha: That's Andrew playing, our brother.

Irina: He is the clever one of the family. He's bound to become a professor.

Father was a soldier, his son's chosen an academic career. (TS, - 201)

In the First Act of The Cherry Orchard a shepherd's pipe is heard from far

away on the other side of the orchard. There is peace everywhere but it is only a

prelude to the sound made by a breaking string later on signalling the destruction of

the old and the birth of a new world order.

In Act Two of the The Cherry Orchard, Yepikhodov plays the guitar and sings,

(playing the guitar and singing).

"I am tired of the world and its bustle,

I am tired of my friends and foes."

How nice it is to play a mandolin. (TCO, 289)

Dunyasha, who cares for her physical appearance, is amused to hear Yepikhodov

describing his guitar as a mandolin. Yepilhodov answers Dunyasha:

To a man crazed with love it's a mandolin. (Sings softly.) "If only my heart

delighted by the warmth of ardour requited". (TCO, 290)

The lines quoted above clearly indicate Yepikhodov's deep love for Dunyasha.

In Act Two of The Cherry Orchard, Mrs.Ranevsky and Gayev listen to the music

provided by the famous Jewish band far away from them. Ranevsky forgets the auc-

tion of her estate and the cheny orchard, and she wants to bring the famous band to

her house some time and have a party. Lopakhin says that he does not hear anything

and starts singing softly:

"For a spot of cash your Prussian

Will frenchify a Russian." (TCO, 295)

Lopakhin's character as a practical and industrious businessman is revealed in these

lines. He does not want to waste his precious time on fruitless exercises. He knows

fully the immense value of time and money.

In Act fro of The Chew Orchard, Trofimov finds fault with the indifferent

and negative attitude of people with regard to life in general and industry in particular.

People pretend to know everything but in reality they are groping in the dark, not know-

ing the meaning and purpose of existence. After his lengthy speech, everyone sits deep

in thought. They are very quiet, and the following lines from Act Two hint that the

quiet atmosphere is only temporary. The strange and inexplicable vicissitudes of life

are going to overwhelm them:

(Every one sits deep in thought. It is very quiet. Suddenly a distant sound is

heard. It s ~ ~ m s to come from the sky and is the sound of a breaking string. It

dies away sadly.) (TCO, 299)

Ranevsky is horrified to hear the sound of a breaking string. Gayev and Trofimov

think that it must have been the sound made by a heron or an owl. Lopakhin feels

that a cable must have broken somewhere away in the mines. The sound made by the

breaking string foretells the arrival of a brave new world order in which industry and

devotion will reign supreme. Aristocracy cannot be complacent anymore, and the aris-

tocratic people have to study carefully the changing times if they want to survive.

The Cherry Orchard concludes with the following lines:

(A distant sound is heard. It seems to come from the sky and is the sound of

breaking string. It dies away sadly. Silence follows, broken only by the thud of

an axe striking a tree far away in the orchard.) (TCO, 329)

The serfs had to undergo untold miseries under the ruthless rule of the Czars . The

serfs became free in 1861 and realized their role in building up a powerful nation.

The decline of aristocracy is mainly due to their lack of understanding of the changing

times, Their inability to cope with the inevitable and sweeping changes ushered in

by the dynamic life resulted in their utter isolation and decay. The lines quoted above

clearly reveal the mood of the people according to the dictates of the changed environ-

ment at the turn of the twentieth century. Revolutionary ideas along with dynamic

action a m e to the aid of the multitude to face the challenges of life. The sound

produced by "the breaking string" signifies the end of the old way of life and "the

thud of an axe striking a tree" announces the arrival of a new world order.

Music is an integral part in Chekhov's plays. As mentioned earlier, Chekhov's

brilliant use of music throws light on the characters. It immensely helps him to develop

his characters in an interesting manner. Different kinds of sounds also provide useful

clues for the proper understanding of the various characters.

Another judicious technique used by Chekhov is Indirect-Action in his mature

plays. In his early plays Platonov, The Wood Demon and Ivanov, Chekhov made use

of direct action. The protagonists of these plays commit suicide on the stage in full

view of the audience.

Chekhov outgrew this violence, theatricality and disturbing sensationalism. He

realized the flaw in his technique and the happy result was that he concentrated on

indirect action and utilized it to perfection in his four major plays. Indirect action is

to imply a certain level of action in what is represented on the stage.

In Ivanov, the hero Ivanov, in spite of the efforts taken by almost all the char-

acters, shoots himself dead on the stage. His mental depression, his woeful inability

to manage a vast estate, his lack of practical application of his knowledge about farm-

ing, his inexplicable and inhuman treatment of his sick wife and his failure to grasp

opportunities to place his life on secure rails make him a victim of existential loneliness.

When his mental torture becomes very grave and unbearable he can think only of put-

ting end to his utterly useless life. The following passage from Act Four reveal the

operation of direct action:

action came to the aid of the multitude to face the challenges of life. The sound

produced by "the breaking string" signifies the end of the old way of life and "the

thud of an axe striking a tree" announces the arrival of a new world order.

Music is an integral part in Chekhov's plays. As mentioned earlier, Chekhov's

brilliant use of music throws light on the characters. It immensely helps him to develop

his characters in an interesting manner. Different kinds of sounds also provide useful

clues for the proper understanding of the various characters.

Another judicious technique used by Chekhov is Indirect-Action in his mature

plays. In his early plays Platonov, The Wood Demon and Ivanov, Chekhov made use

of direct action. The protagonists of these plays commit suicide on the stage in full

view of the audience.

Chekhov outgrew this violence, theatricality and disturbing sensationalism. He

realized the flaw in his technique and the happy result was that he concentrated on

indirect action and utilized it to perfection in his four major plays. Indirect action is

to imply a certain level of action in what is represented on the stage.

In Ivanov, the hero Ivanov, in spite of the efforts taken by almost all the char-

acters, shoots himself dead on the stage. His mental depression, his woeful inability

to manage a vast estate, his lack of practical application of his knowledge about farm-

ing, his inexplicable and inhuman treatment of his sick wife and his failure to grasp

opportunities to place his life on secure rails make him a victim of existential loneliness.

When his mental torture becomes very grave and unbearable he can think only of put-

ting &* end to his utterly useless life. The following passage from Act Four reveal the

operation of direct action:

h n o v : What do you mean, come on ? I'll put an end to all this here and now.

I feel like a young man again, it's my old self that's speaking. (Takes

out his revolver.)

Sasha: (shrieks). I know what he wants to do. Nicholas, for God's sake!

Ivanov: I 've rolled downhill long enough, it's time to call a halt. I've outstayed

my welcome. Go away. Thank you, Sasha.

Sasha: (shouts). Nicholas for God's sake! Stop him!

hanov: h a v e me alone ! (Runs to one side and shoots himself.) (IV, 69) -

In The Seagull, Constantine Treplev is unable to bear his mother Irina's love

for the young and successful writer, Trigorin. He fails to attract his mother with his

symbolic play. His love for Nina ends in a fiasco. Treplev has lost everything in life.

His "mother fixation" and his failure in getting the hand of Nina force him to shoot

himself off stage. The following lines from the last Act of the The Seagull show the

use of indirect action in a clever way:

(A shot is heard from off-stage, right. Everyone gives a start.)

Irina: (terrified). What's that?

Dorn: Don't worry. A bottle must have gone off inside my medical bag, don't

worry. (Goes out through door, right, and comes back half a minute later.)

As I said. A bottle of ether's exploded. (Sings softly.) "Once more

enchanted I appear before thee".

Irina: (sitting down at the table). Oh dear, I was frightened. It reminded me of

when - (Covers her face with her hands.) It made me feel quite ill.

Dorn: (turning the pages of a magazine, to Trigorin) There was an article in this

thing about two months ago, a letter from America, and I wanted to ask

you, amongst other things --- (takes Trigorin by the waist and leads him

to the front of the stage). Being extremely interested in this matter ---

(Dropping his voice, in an undertone.) Get Irina out of here somehow.

The fact is, Constantine has shot himself. (TSG. 129- 130)

In Uncle Vanya, the hero of the play, Voynitsky, realizes to his utter dismay the

worthlessness of his brother-in-law, Serebryakov, after his retirement. He has wasted

his entire life to keep the old professor happy and prosperous. The selfish character of

the retired professor is clearly revealed to Vanya. The professor wants to dispose of

his estate in order to settle down comfortably in St. Petersburg. He does not care for

the unselfish sacrifices made by his own daughter, Sonya and Vanya. Vanya's anger

and frustration reach the climax, and he runs after the old professor to shoot him.

Chekhov has used indirect action in the following lines:

(A shot off stage. Helen is heard to scream.Sonya shudders.)

Marina: Oh, a curse upon you!

Serebryakov: (runs in, staggering and terrified). Stop him, stop him! He's gone

mad!

(Helen and Voynitsky are seen struggling in the doorway).

Helen: (trying to take the revolver from him). Give it to me. Give it to me. 1

tell you! (UV, - 175)

In Three Sisters, Chekhov has mastered the technique of indirect action to per-

fection. Baron Tuzenbakh, being inspired by Inna, wants to leave the army and take

up work at the brickyard. Irina does not love Tuzenbakh but she agrees to marry him

for safety and protection. She has a sort of premonition that something very painful

and irreparable is going to happen soon. Solyony loves Irina, and he is prepared to

eliminate any challenger to him. Finding Tuzenbakh in love with Irina, he challenges

him to a duel. Knowing fully well the superiority of Solyony, Tuzenbakh accepts his

challenge and dies in the duel. The duel takes place off-stage. and the tragic outcome

of it is reported by Dr.Chebutykin to Olga in the last Act:

Chebutykin: Olga!

Olga: What is i t ? (Paw@ What's happened?

Chebutykin: Nothing. I don't know how to tell you. (Whisprs in l~cr ear3

Olga: (aghast). No,No, i t can't be true.

Chebutykin: Yes. What a business ! I'm tired out, absolutely done in. I don't

want to say another word. (Annoyed) Anyway, what does i t all matter?

biasha: What happened? Olga: (embracing Irina). This has been a terrible day.

Darling I don't know how to tell you.

Irina: What is it ? Tell me at once, for God's sake - What i s it? (Cries).

Chebutykin: The Baron's just been killed in a duel.

Irina: (weeps quietly). I knew it, I knew i t . (TS, - 264)

In The Cherry Orchard,the auction of the cherry orchard and the estate belong-

ing to Lyuba Ranevsky and Gayev takes place off- stage. Gayev has gone to the place

of auction with the insufficient money given by his aunt at Yaroslavl. The auction i s a

major event in the lives of the aristocrats, Lyuba and Gayev. Lyuba waits anxiously for

the arrival of her brother. The suspense regarding the outcome of the auction is too

much for her to bear. She says in Act Three,

Oh, 1 shall die, Yasha, go and find out who bought it. (TCO, - 3 12)

Gayev and Lopakhin arrive, and Gayev is unable to break the tragic news to his sister.

The click of billiard balls helps him to regain composure. Lopakhin has bought the

cherry orchard and the estate at the auction paying an exorbitant prize. He is embar-

rassed when Lyuba enquires him about the auction, and he does not want to exhibit his

delight. He i s too good a man to wound the feelings of the former owners of their

ancestral propefly. LYU ba continues her anxious enquiry:

Mrs. Ranevsky: Was the Cherry Orchard sold?

Lopakhin: It was.

Mrs. Ranevsky: Who bought it?

Lopakhin: I did. (Pause) (TCO, 3 16)

Chekhov uses only sounds at the end of The -. Cherry Orchard, to announce the -- .---...-

birth of a new world order. Life is dynamic and those who fail to adjust theinselves to

the changing reality will find i t immensely difficult to survive. The following lines

clearly indicate the inevitable changes that are going to take place in the near future:

(A distant sound is heard. It seems to come from the sky and is the sound of a

breaking string. It dies away sadly. Silence follows, broken orlijl by the thud of

an axe striking a tree far away in the orchard). (TCO, 329)

The clever use of indirect action reveals Chckhov's evolution as a great

dramatist. Chekhov realized his flaws in his earlier plays and corrected himself in his

later plays by dispensing with direct action. The use of indirect action stimulates the

reader's interest in the progress of the play. The various suggestions offered by the

indirect action help the reader to have a proper understanding of the characters.

Chekhov has effectively used the technique of incorporating literary allusion to

bring home his point of view. Most of the hterary allusions were well-known to the

audience of his time. He eagerly expects the active participation of his audience and

the readers of his plays and stones with regard to their progress. As C.S. Tufts observes,

~ h u s Chekhov encourages his audience to temper emotional identification with

critical reflection,empl~ying a method here similar to the one he used in his

fiction, a method which he described in a letter to Alexei Suvorin, his friend

and publisher: "When I write I count upon my reader fully, assuming that he

himself will add to subjective elements that are lacking in the telling. (486)

Chekhov had great regard and admiration for the dramatic genius of

Shakespeare. Chekhov's audience would have definitely known the theme and techni-

ques employed by Shakespeare in Hamlet. Polevoy first translated Shakespeare's Hamlet

into Russian, and it became immensely popular. Polevoy's translation of Shakespeare

m d e him very popular in Russia. Inspired by Shakespeare, Chekhov has made use of

the technique of including a play-within-the play for an entirely different purpose. In

Shakespeare,Hamlet stages a play in order to confirm the words of his father's ghost

that he has been foully murdered by his own brother. The ghost informs Hamlet the

truth concerning his death in Act One, Scene Five:

Tis given out that, sleeping in mine Orchard,

A serpent stung me; so the whole ear of Denmark

Is by a forged process of my death

Rankly abused : but know, thou noble youth,

The serpent that did sting thy father's life

Now wears his crown. (952)

Claudius, the murderer, also succeeds in marrying his brother's wife, Gertrude. The

play staged by Hamlet closely resembles the incidents connected with the poisoning of

his father. Claudius calls for lights and leaves the place abruptly being shaken by the

enactment of his foul deed in murdering his angelic brother. Hamlet is thoroughly

convinced the Ghost's words and vows to avenge the brutal murder of his father.

Treplev has invited his mother, Trigorin, Sorin, Dr. Dom, Shamrayev. Polina and

Masha to witness his new play. Nina is to play the leading role . When Treplev appears

from behind the stage, Irina asks him,

(to her son). When does the thing start, dear boy? (TSG, 8 1 )

Treplev requests his mother to be patient. Irina quotes from Shakespeiue'~~.Htt~~leL .:\

-'5,jm#q ,f, <a - _ , "I+'\ (declaims from Hamlet). "0 Hamlet, speak no more: ,/ <\: -. .. A L !

\ I

Thou turn'st mine eyes into my very soul;

And there I see such black and grained spots.

As will not leave their tinct". (TSG, - 81)

Irina has suspicions that her son, Treplev, does not approve of her illicit relationship

with Trigorin. Her character is similar to the character of Gertrude in -- Hamlet. Treplev

who finds himself in the same predicament of Prince Hamlet quotes from - Hamlet:

(from Hamlet). "Nay, but to live

In the rank sweat of an ensearned bed,

Stew'd in corruption, honeying and making love

Over the nasty sty ---- " (TSG, 81)

The lines reveal the jealousy and hatred of Treplev for Trigorin who has mined the

cordial relationship between him and his mother. His only thought before his suicide is

about his mother. He does not want his mother to know about Nina's visit to his

residence:

It'll be a pity if any one sees her in the garden and tells mother. It might upset

her. (TSG, - 129)

The allusion to Shakespeare's Hamlet in Chekhov's The Seagull would have

created a tremendous amount of inteest on the part of the audience. The spectators'

interest would have prepared their minds to participate in the progrcss of the play with

a genuine and positive frame of mind.

In Three Sisters, Chekhov relies on the alertness and participation of the

audience to pick up the clues he gives them in order to understand the irony in the

depiction of various characters. Literary allusions are scattered throughout Three Sisters.

As C.S. Tufts points out,

Relying on the literary memory of his audience, a memory both iiural and oral,

which would have enabled every educated Russian of the day to recognize and

recite by heart much of the country's great works of prose and pxtry,Chekhov

works to manipulate the members of that audience in to actively providing

much of the ironic counterpoint to the characters' visions of themselves. (486)

The satire in Three Sisters is in the Horatian mode, gentle and smiling. It is not biting

and bitter. Chekhov's aim is to elicit sympathetic knowing laughter.

Solyony of Three Sisters is obsessed with his contrived resemblance to the

romantic poet Lermontov. He challenges Tuzenbakh to a duel in which the inex-

perienced Baron dies. He wants only to wound Tuzenbakh in the duel, but he succeeds

in killing him. The obvious Chekhovian irony is powerful in the unexpected death of

Tuzenbakh.

Solyony's response to Masha's attacks is to take refuge in a literary text. He

cleverly covers up the fact that she has wounded him by quoting two lines from

Krylov's 'Fable 'Old Mat and his Man':

"Before he had time to turn a hair.

He'd been knocked over by a bear." @, 196)

The audience would have known that 'Old Mat and his Man' is a story built on the

theme of ingratitude. Old Mat is rescued by his servant from a ferocious and unexpected

attack by a bear, He does not express his gratitude to his saviour, but goes on cursing

him.Similarly. instead of being grateful to Solony for his company, Masha has expressed

her intention of leaving Irina's birthday party. In the words of C.S. 'hfts, "Like the

bear in ' Old Mat and His Man' Solyony attacks Tuzenbakh without provocation- Like

Old Mat , Solyony is guilty of ingratitude. Tuzenbakh offers Solyony kindness and

friendship. His pose as Lermontov ruins him - the irony is, of course,that he ends by

murdering the one person in the play to find him "likeable somehow" (496).

Chekhov has relied on the active participation of the audience to discover the

gap between the self-conscious role each of his charactewis playing and the character's

true self. Chekhov has made use of the lines from Puskn's - Ruslan and Ludmijla

which Masha in Three Sisters pensively quotes, and she is in the habit of distractedly

repeating them:

"A green oak by a curving shore,

And on that oak a chain of gold -

And on that oak a chain of gold." (TS, - 262)

Chekhov has made Masha repeat PusHun's lines in a distracted manner and he suggests

that Masha really sees herself as Pushkin's Ludmilla, as an imprisoned princess. She

feels like a captive creature by her marriage with the schoolmaster Kulygin, whom once

she believed to be the cleverest of men. As C.S. Tubs observes. "His (Kulygin's) power

over Masha is non-existent; it is not he who holds her captive; like lrina and Tuzenbakh

and Solyony 9 Masha , too, is the prisoner of her own romantic drama which dictates her

role as captive princessw (500). To an audience familiar with the literary allusions that

permeate the play, Three Sisters, it would not have been difficult to comprehend that

the characters of the play are prisoners of self- created romantic drama. The audience

must be careful enough as listeners to pick up the counterpoint that Chekhov opposes

to be the characters'visions of themselves. It is Chekhov's fervent hope and desire that

people should try to change their perceptions, attitudes and behaviour in order to create

for themselves another and better life. The fulfilment of Chekhov's hope is still in

question. The audiences of Three Sisters continue to identify themselves with the char-

acters and shed copious tears. That itself is a testament to the acuity of Chekhov's

satiric vision.

Chekhov's language forms one of the pillars of the structure of his plays. His

language is simple, sincere and true. It is admirably suited to his plot, theme and char-

acterization. According to Mayakovsky,

Chekhov's language is as precise as 'Hello!' and as simple as "Give me a glass

of tea", In his method of expressing the idea of compact little story, the urgent

cry of the future is felt : "Economy ,"It is these new forms of expressing an idea

this true approach to art's real tasks, that give us the right to speak of Chekhov

as a master of verbal art 4 3 1)

Behind the familiar Chekhovian image, that of a grumbler dissatisfied and unhappy with

everything, the defender of the ridiculous people against society, a discerning scholar

can comprehend the outline of the other Chekhov, the joyous and powerful master of

the art of literature. In the words of C.A. Hubbs, "The most striking feature of Chekhov

plays must be the extraordinary balance of every line and every scene" (123). Repetition

is a central thematic and structural element in Chekhov's major plays. As J. Lahr ob-

serves,

Language, however, cannot isolate the pat, and neither can memory. Chekhov

hints at this in Three Sisters. Olga's first words show the limitations of the

human imagination, trying to control facb which are imtrievable : "It is exactly

a year ago Father died, isn't it he he finality of the statement is mocked by the

rhetorical question ,( 14 1 - 142)

Chekhov's enthusiasm for the stories narrated to him by his mother and his nurse

enabled him very early in life to have a strong liking for the art of story telling. His

time spent at his father's grocery shop in Taganrog as a boy helped him to have a close

look at the way people lived and the language used for communication.

According to N.A. Tournanova, Chekhov's language and diction owe a great

deal to the Bible, the Russian classics and Ibsen. Chekhov read the Bible many times

in his boyhood and later on turned to it quite often to perfect his prose style. He had

an eternal interest in reading the Russian classics. Ibsen's successful use of prose as

dramatic language and his economy of words inspired Chekhov a great deal. T.S. Eliot

has praised both Ibsen and Chekhov for their brilliant and successful use of prose in

their plays. As R. Hingley points out, "Throughout the 1880's he was gradually aban-

doning his early facetious narrative vein, and producing stories more and more imbued

with his own characteristic blend of poignancy, astringency, detachment, and carefully

controlled humo&' (Five Major Plays by Anton Chekhov, xiii).

Chekhov's diction is a wonderful combination of simplicity, clarity and

economy. It contributes in a significant manner to the creation of unforgettable char-

acters. His verbal art and mastery over his diction can be clearly seen in his lively

dialogues and lengthy speeches. Chekhov has given lengthy speeches to his important

characters when they try to bring home and emphasize their poinb of view which are

dear to them.