Chapter Two: Explaining

Winston Jackson and Norine Verberg

Methods: Doing Social Research, 4e

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The Explanatory Role of Theory

Theories offer testable explanations for relationships in the social and physical world.

The role of the social researcher is to develop, test, and re-test explanations of social relations.

A theory is an explanation.

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Formal Theory

Set of concepts (individualism, suicide)

Set of propositions: statements of relationship between variables e.g., > individualism > suicide

Testability: some of the propositions must be testable (suicide rate in Spain is low)

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Partial Theory

A partial theory is one that attempts to account for a particular relationship by specifying a testable causal model.

Use alternative explanations for a relationship Test them

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Testing Partial Theories

Need a relationship that is assumed to hold true, either commonsensical or from review of the literature

Propose alternative explanations for the relationship Could be intervening variables, sources of

spuriousness, antecedent variables

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Testing Formal Theories

Axiomatic derivation Axiomatically derive a testable hypothesis

if > A > B and if > B > C than > A > C

Replacement of terms Replacing a general term with a specific

instance of it deviance replaced by shoplifting incident A = A1 etc

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Levels in Quantitative Research

Research in the positivist, quantitative tradition can be conceived as having three levels:

Theoretical Conceptual Operational

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Theoretical Level

Most general level: ideas about how things are related; general predictions of behavior. Here one can work with propositions that state the relationship between variables.

> A > B

> B > C

> A > C

General terms may be replaced by specific instances of terms: i.e., A = A1 or C = C1

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Proposition: >A >B >B >C

>A >C

And given: A = A1 = A2

C = C1

Derivation: >A2 >C1

>A2 Concept

>C1 Concept

>A2 Measure

>C1 Measure

THERORETICAL LEVEL

Axiomatic derivation

Replacement of terms

Derived hypothesis

CONCEPTUAL LEVEL

OPERATIONAL LEVEL

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Conceptual Level

The conceptual level defines the variables that are to be used in the research

Conceptual variable: an idea that has a dimension that can vary Gender, weight, intelligence, peer approval

Conceptual hypothesis: a relationship between conceptual variablese.g., the greater the X, the greater the Y The higher one’s socioeconomic status, the

higher one’s educational aspirations

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Operational Level

Operationalization refers to defining and executing the research protocol. It includes selecting:

The indicators for concepts in the study measurement of concepts (chapter 13)

The research design (chapters 3 – 7) The sampling method (chapter 15) Method of data collection Method of data analysis (chapter 8 & 9)

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Linkages between Levels

Validity: indicator reflects neither more nor less than that implied by definition of the concept

Reliability: repeated measures will yield similar readings if the measure is reliable

Discussed in chapter 13

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Types of Social Science Explanations1. Deductive explanations

2. Probabilistic explanations

3. Functional explanations

4. Causal explanations

5. Empathic explanations

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Deductive explanations

Explanations that show that the phenomenon to be explained is a logically necessary consequence of former explanatory premises

e.g., if A=B and if B = C, than A = C

Example: Durkheim’s explanation of why the suicide rate will be low in Spain

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Probabilistic Explanations

Explanations that are based on the likelihood of something happening are probabilistic ones.

Example: If a particular boy wants to play with a truck and you say that boys like to do that sort of thing, you have given a probabilistic explanation. He wants to play with a truck because he is a member of a gender that tends to like that sort of activity..

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Functional Explanations

To explain the presence of some phenomenon in terms of the role it plays in maintaining a system, is to use a functional explanation.

Example: The universal presence of family structures may be understood in terms of its role in population reproduction and child socialization.

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Causal Explanations

An explanation of an event is explained as the results of a series of previous events, that x causes y.

Example: To identify possible influencing factors in program selection at university would be to identify possible previous conditions that led to the particular program selection.

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Empathic explanations

Explanations that give emphasis to developing an understanding of the experiences or social processes under investigation

Associated with qualitative approaches to explanation and theory-building

Example: Qualitative researchers would strive to understand the experience of a social group will hope that their conclusions will ring true to the participants.

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The Nature of Social Science EvidenceTheory is used to explain social life. Social

science research anchors theoretical explanations in the evidence provided by data collection and analysis

Although both quantitative and qualitative research connect theory and evidence, the approaches differ Quantitative: deductive Qualitative: inductive

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Quantitative evidence

Generalization an important goal (i.e., arrive at general statements to apply to a variety of social situations)

Place emphasis on: Being objective (free of bias) Verifying results (confirming previous results) Controlled observations Use established research protocol Precise communication to peers

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Qualitative evidence

Strive to illuminate the culture, processes or experiences being studied

Interpretation judged by how well the study shed light on the subject matter

Emphasis on: Richness of description Interpretations which ring true to participants

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Types of Flawed Explanations

Illegitimate appeal to an authority Provincialism False dilemma Missing evidence Insufficient evidence Selected or suppressed evidence Unwarranted conclusions

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Conclusion

Research methods are debated by social scientists but many agree on the following:

1. Study the full range of social behaviour• With both qualitative and quantitative

approaches

2. Use the methodology appropriate to the questions asked – no one approach “better”

3. Systematic explanation – evidence-based

4. Peer scrutiny – welcome critical appraisal