CHAPTER- V
AGRO-PASTORAL PRACTICES AND THEIR ECOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES
5.1 INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT
In the twentieth century, there have been two major changes that have been
brought about by the institutional and technological aspects and have had a growing
impact on the semi-arid lands environment. Firstly, there is the rapid rise in
population growth especially since 1950. This has created tremendous pressure on
arable semi-arid land environment, at times resulting in the breakdown of a fragile
ecosystem and growing desertification. Secondly, there is the impact of new
agrarian technology. With the internal combustion engine man can now command
tremendous amounts of energy which are capable of reshaping parts of the natural
environment. Equally important has been the development of reinforced concrete
in the late nineteenth century. Thus, through construction, canals can be controlled
and rapid access communications networks built into the remotest parts of the semi
arid belt. Inspite of this, with a variety of environments, semi-arid lands have often
been considered as somewhat marginal ones, with little economic value. As a result
investment in them is restricted and development has been slow even today. Apart
from this, the low biomass per unit area of semi-arid vegetation has meant that
humans have been able to change greatly the vegetation pattern over the years,
often unintentionally. By grazing in the more semi-arid parts and by removal of
forest in the welter areas, the vegetation has been so modified that it is doubtful
whether any truly natural vegetation exists today. In the more favourable
environments, from the point of view of soils and slopes, the natural vegetation has
been replaced by cultivated fields. In the semi-arid region where precipitation
exceeds 250 m.m., rain-fed agriculture predominates, while below this figure
irrigation takes over.
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Agro-pastoral practices are undoubtedly a measure of economic utilisation
of the semi-arid lands, viz., grasslands and forest grazing grounds and also their
ecological destruction. Impacts of livestock grazing on the grazing land ecosystems
have become a natural resource management issue of note in recent years. Grazing
animals exert an influence upon the productive grazing land system by the.
defoliation of plants through eating and physical damage, by their digestive
processes and by their movements. Grazing also effects the decomposers and the
soil. The influences on structural and functional attributes of grazing land
ecosystems depend on vegetation type, rainfall and period and intensity of grazing.
In general, mild grazing keeps the herbaceous layer more diverse and productive,
compared to overgrazed and ungrazed situations. Further, the vegetation resilience
is maximum with light grazing. Overgrazing induces secondary succession and
ultimate desertification. An overview of studies conducted on grazing land
productivity revealed that 4. 73 per cent of the organic matter is lost due to grazing
(Malkania and Singh, 1988).
Heavy uncontrolled grazing by livestock over a long period of time results
in either temporary or permanent damage to the ecosystem involved. Overgrazing
is first manifested by a loss of palatable plants, followed by a loss of vegetative
cover. Once the vegetative cover is stripped away, permanent damage occurs
because soil unprotected by vegetation erodes quickly. Although livestock grazing
has been singled out as a prime cause of grassland deterioration, it must be
remembered that other land uses, such as wildlife grazing and recreation, mining
and agricultural practice, have also been destructive when not controlled. Bagar
tract of Bhiwani district is the best example of desertification caused by grazing in
hot semi-arid climates (Ehrlich and Rougharden, 1987).
Cattle are viewed as a source of wealth by village people. From an
ecological point of view, however, they are a source of poverty in hot semi-arid
climates. Cattle, parading back and forth in grazing land have been a major engine
of desertification in the semi-arid region. Sheep and goats damage grazing land
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through browsing and trampling. Because of the injury inflicted by sheep and goats
it was emphasised that this class of stock should be excluded from areas where
reproduction is desired (Prasad and Bhatnagar, 1988). However, the National Forest
Policy, 1952 laid dmvn some usef .. II guidelines for the ecological management of
grassland because firstly, continuous grazing on some areas by large herds is
destructive; secondly, free and indiscriminate forest grazing leads to the vicious
spiral of reckless increase in the number of cattle, regardless of quality and
uneconomic cattle wealth must be combatted; thirdly, to institute a reasonable fee
for the privilege of grazing; fourthly, grazing must not be allowed in regeneration
areas and young plantations; fifthly, grazing incidence should be kept at a
minimum in protected forests, i.e. those forests which must be preserved or created
for physical and climatic conditions. Also, the National Forest Policy highlighted
that the damage to young plants caused by the browsing of sheep and goats is often
irreparable and their admission into forests is incompatible with the aims and
objectives of forest management and suggested the imposition of restrictions on
sheep grazing in forests, and the total intrusion of goats therefrom.
The present chapter examines the implications of agro-pastoral practices
intensification on environmental degradation in the three villages namely, the Obra,
Amirwas and Phartia Bhima which are located in the fragile semi-arid region
spreading over the Loharu tahsil of the Bhiwani district. The district occupies a
transitional position between the fairly flat and featureless Indo-Gangetic Divide
and the adjoining region plains on the one hand and the Rajasthan desert and the
Aravalli hills on the other. A major portion of this transitional tract is a sandy,
undulating plain dotted with sand-dunes of varying shapes and dimensions
occurring in different directional dispositions. The monotony of the sandy plain is
broken in parts by the hills which once were a part of the Aravalli mountain
system, one of the geologically oldest. In several parts it has the characteristics of
desert topography and semi-arid landscapes. This also conforms to the term 'Bagar'
which in terms of climate indicates semi-arid conditions. The main objectives in
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this chapter is to examine the agro-pastoral practices from an ecological point of
view and to find out solutions to such problems as, firstly, implications of the new
agrarian technology on the one hand and the livestock grazing impact on grazing
land ecosystem on the other hand; secondly, the likely practice of multiple use of
these natural resources considering the change in time and human values; thirdly,
better utilisation and management of terrestrial natural resources. By so doing, it
is intended to demonstrate that there is no single or indeed optimal method or
model for semi-arid land management or development. There are two of the most
crucial factors having bearing on land management or development and they are
(1) objectives of the decision makers carrying out the management or development
policy and (2) the technology levels accessible to them. Equally significant is the
political importance of the decision makers and the energy source to which they
have access.
5.2 POPULATION
In Bhiwani district as per the 1991 Census there were 11 ,39, 718 persons as
against the 4, 18,268 persons in 1951 which shows an increase of 7,21 ,450 persons
over the 40 years in the district as a whole. In other words, there was 172.48 per
cent increase in the district population over the 40 years period in the entire
district. Population figures for the district as such are not available from 1901 to
1941 Censuses. There was an increase of population at the rate of 28.78 per cent
during the 1951-61 decade. Later on, the population increased at a little faster rate
of 30.55 per cent during 1961-71 in comparison to the previous decade. The
population increase may be attributed to the extension in agriculture, irrigation and
industrialisation, particularly during the second-half of the decade. During the
period 1981-91, the growth rate of population recorded a decline to 23.87 per cent
which is comparatively lower than that of the previous decade. Besides this, the
density of population was 179 persons per sq. kms. in 1981 which increased to 222
persons per sq. kms. in 1991 for the district as a whole.
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5.2.1 PHYSIOLOGICAL DENSITY
The pressure of population in the ecologically fragile Bagar belt on an average was
2 persons per hectare on the cultivated land for the sample villages as a whole. This ratio
was found, by and large, the same among the villages of Obra, Amirwas and Phartia
Bhima with the ratio of 2 persons per hectare as shown by Table 5.1. The physiological
density of population at the different size of landholding groups was found to vary on an
average. For example, the average density of population for the marginal and small
farmers landholding groups was 4 and 3 persons per hectare respectively which were
comparatively higher than that of the other size landholding groups and even higher than
the average population density ratio. Whereas the remaining categories of the farmers
landholding groups density ratio was found to be almost equal to the average. Besides this,
the spatial pattern of physiological density of population for the individual sample villages
by the different size of landholding groups presents a distinct scenario as revealed by
Table 5.1. For instance, in the Obra village, the marginal as well as small farmers
landholding groups showed the high density ratio of 5 and 3 persons per hectare
respectively on the arable land in comparison to that of the other farmers categories and
even higher than the average. And the remaining farmers landholding groups showed the
density ratio almost equal to the average. On the other hand, in the Arpirwas village, the
physiological density ratio was found to be much the same, among different size of
landholding groups with the exception of the small farmers landholding groups with a
ratio of 3 persons per hectare which was comparatively higher than the average. In the
case of the Phartia Bhima village, the marginal farmers landholding group which recorded
the highest density of ratio of 5 persons per hectare was even higher than the average. The
remaining categories of farmers landholding groups population density was almost equal
to the average with the exception of the semi-medium farmer landholding group with a
ratio of 2 persons per hectare which was far below the average. However, the
physiological density of population seems to be largely influenced by the economic base
at the different levels of the categories of farmers landholding groups as well as the spatial
location of the villages in the semi-arid hagar belt.
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Table 5.1: Pressure of Population on the Cultivated Land by the size of Landholding in the Sample Villages of Loham Tahsil.
Obra Amirwas Phartia Bhima Total (Average) Categories of Fanners Size of Number of Area (in Density of Number of Area (in Density of Number of Area (in Density of Number Area Density
Landholding landholding percent) Population landholding percent) Population/ landhold in percent) Population/ of land- (in of (in hectares) (in Percent) !Hectare (in Percent) Hectare g (in Hectare holding percent) Populat
Percent) (in ion!Hcc Percent) tare
Landless Landless 6.00 - - 8.00 - - 4.00 - - 6.00 - -Marginal Less than I 4.00 2.91 4.60 4.00 3.68 1.83 12.00 5.80 5.00 6.67 4.02 3.89
Small I -2 16.00 9.30 3.00 14.00 8.59 2.71 28.00 20.29 2.86 19.33 12.26 2.86
Semi- 2- 4 26.00 22.67 1.82 28.00 25.77 1.86 26.00 28.26 1.79 26.67 25.37 1.82 Medium
Medium 4- 8 28.00 32.56 1.37 32.00 39.26 1.62 24.00 34.78 2.08 28.00 35.52 1.67
Semi- 8 - 12 8.00 11.63 1.20 1000 15.34 1.08 6.00 10.87 2.60 8.00 12.68 1.58
Large
Large Above- 12 12.00 20.93 1.47 4.00 7.36 0.75 - - - 5.33 10.15 1.29
Total 100 00 100.00 1.77 100.00 100.00 1.75 10(1.00 100.00 2.38 100.00 100.00 1.95
Source: Above table computed and compiled from the primary data collected from the Field Survey 1993, Loham Tahsil, Bhiwani District, Haryana
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5.3 AGRICULTURE
Bhiwani is primarily an agricultural district and the vast majority of its
population lives in villages. Agriculture provides sustenance to about 68.98 per cent
of its inhabitants, either through direct cultivation or through allied occupations.
There is an extensive mechanisation here and there, yet traditional methods of
farming are still being followed. The result is a low yield per hectare. Many efforts
have been in vain for agricultural development by way of propagating the need of
modem implements, better seed and chemical inputs, and the impact has not been
perceptible or significant. Irrigation farming has been unknown to the farmers
except in small pockets. The implementation of the multi-stage canal lift irrigation
schemes is however, expected to lead to far-reaching changes in the cropping
patterns and these semi-arid lands may well blossom into a miniature granary. The
result of whatever little water has reached the thirsty lands, is a harbinger of
prosperity. The agriculture sector as yet is handicapped because of lack of resources
and traditional orthodoxy. For some more time to come bullocks and camels will
continue to play a key role in farming. The area being almost desert, its rural
economy depends on the primary sector activities.
5.3.1 OPERATIONAL LANDHOLDINGS
Table 5.1 presents the data pertaining to 150 effective landholdings selected
from the three sample villages of Obra, Amirwas and Phartia Bhima of the Bagar
belt spread over Loharu tahsil of Bhiwani district. To facilitate inter-village
comparison and to make the study more useful, the data have been computed in
relation to seven different categories of farmers based on the size of cultivated
land. So, the details regarding number of landholdings, operational area, average
size of farm landholdings and pressure of population for all the three villages are
given in Table 5.1. The total operated area for all the 150 effective landholdings
was 473 hectares with an average size of holdings_of 3.15 hectares. The average
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size of the largest landholdings was 3.44 hectares in the Obra village and the
smallest was 2.76 hectares in the Phartia Bhima village. While in the case of
Amirwas, the average size of landholdings was 3.26 hectares. It may, however, be
pointed out that the average size of landholdings represents the average size of
cultivated land as the selection of farm landholdings was purposive in nature.
It would be observed from Table 5.1 that the maximum concentration of
landholdings of 28.00 per cent was in the category of the medium farmers with the
size of landholdings group of 4- 8 hectares and the minimum of 5.33 per cent was
in the category of the large farmers with the size of landholdings group of 12
hectares and above on an average. A majority of landholdings of 46.00 per cent
was in the categories of the small and semi-medium farmers in the size of
landholdings group of 1 to 4 hectares. Whereas the semi-large farmers in the size
of landholdings group of 8 - 12 hectares accounted for 8.00 per cent of all the
landholdings. A small proportion of landholdings constituting 6.67 per cent
belonged to the marginal farmers which falls in the size of landholdings group of
less than 1 hectare. Moreover, almost a similar proportion of 6.00 per cent was in
the case of a landless farmers on an average. However, a similar pattern of the
concentration of the farmers in different size landholding groups by and large
found to exist in the villages of Obra and Amirwas with the exception of the
Phartia Bhima village in which case it was 4.00 per cent as is clearly shown by
Table 5.1. For instance, the small farmers with the size of landholdings ranging
between 1 to 2 hectares comprised the large proportion of 28.00 per cent in the
Phartia Bhima village. Whereas the majority of the farmers belonged to the semi
medium and medium categories which together constitutes a proportion of about
50.00 per cent in the size group of landholdings ranging between 2 to 8 hectares.
The semi-large farmers in the size of landholdings of 8 - 12 hectares constitute a
small proportion of 6.00 per cent. The marginal farmers with the size of
landholdings of less than 1 hectare accounted for 12.00 per cent. And the remaining
4.00 per cent was the marginal landholdings.
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5.3.2 CROPPING ROTATION
Area under both foodgrains crops of bajra (Pearl Millet) and jowar
(Sorghum) was together constituted the largest proportion of 68.07 per cent during
the kharif season in the semi-arid bagar belt for the sample villages as a wiwle.
Among the pulses crops, both the moong (Green Gram) and guwar (Broad Bean)
accounted for 28.90 per cent of the arable land. And the remaining area of3.03 per
cent was under the commercial crops of cotton etc. of the total arable land on an
average as is shown by Table 5.2. So, a similar pattern of cropping rotation
practice on arable area was also observed by and large among the individual sample
villages of the Obra, Amirwas and Phartia Bhima during the kharif season. Apart
from this, during the rabi season, the largest area was under the pulses crop of
gram which accounted for 45.39 per cent of the arable land on an average. Among
the foodgrains crops, both the wheat and barley accounted for 30.05 per cent. The
area under oilseeds crops of both mustard and mathi (Fenugreek) was together
recorded a percentage of 24.46. So, almost a similar pattern of cropping rotation
practice which is primarily concerned with the arable area under different crops
was also observed among the sample villages individually as is shown by Table
5.2. However, the cropping rotation practice was found to have had changed with
the seasons as observed during both the kharif and rabi seasons. But the areal
patterns in terms of cropping rotation practice by and large were found to be the
same among the villages located in the semi-arid Bagar belt of the Loharu tahsil.
The main crops grown in the semi-arid hagar belt are mostly the rainfed crops.
Whenever irrigation facilities were available, the per hectare yield of wheat, barley,
maize and cotton had been higher (Malhotra, et. al., 1972). However, the cropping
rotation is largely dependent on rain and the choice for crop rotation is limited.
About 39.82 per cent of the net area sown is irrigated where farmers do select
crops for rotation. However, through proper management of land and water
resources, the average area under foodgrains crops may double leading to
achievement of the required target of production by small and marginal farmers in
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the production process. Moreover, the low-cost technologies for the utilisation of
rural energy resources as well as bio-fertilisers may ultimately accelerate the
production of foodgrains.
Table 5.2:
Season
Kharif
Rabi
Source:
5.3.3
Percentage of area under major crops by seasons in the sample villages of Loharu Tahsil.
Crops Area (in per cent)
Obra Amirwas Phartia Total Bhima (Average)
Bajra 68.43 62.46 72.82 67.53
Jowar 1.29 - - 0.54
Moong 10.52 20.58 15.22 15.04
Guwar 19.76 10.70 8.15 13.86
Cotton - 6.26 3.81 3.03
Others - - - -Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Wheat 38.60 24.40 22.77 29.81
Barley - 0.30 0.55 0.24
Gram 37.78 52.56 48.04 45.39
Mathi 0.08 - - O.o3
Mustard 23.54 22.74 28.24 24.43
Others - - 0.40 0.10
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Above table computed and compiled from the primary data collected from the Field Survey, 1993, Loharu Tahsil, Bhiwani District, Haryana.
CROPPING PATTERN
In a number of cases of agricultural studies, the nature of cropping pattern
of an area is studied and by relating it with the cropping pattern of other areas. A
simple and convenient method of finding out the "crop combination" (Weaver,
19 54) having significant share in the total cropped area has been used. According
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to the Weaver's method, the significant crops during the kharif season were
identified as a three crops combination of the Bajra (Pearl Miilet), Moong (Green
Gram) and Guwar (Broad Bean). Among the villages, Obra was identified as a two
crop combination region of Bajra (Pearl Millet) and Guwar (Broad Bean). In
Amirwas village, the three crops combination of the Bajra (Pearl Millet), Moong
(Green Gram) and Guwar (Broad Bean) was identified. Whereas the village Phartia
Bhima was identified as a mono-cropping region having Bajra (Peral Millet) as the
most dominating crop. Apart from this, during the rabi season, the cropping pattern
for the villages as a whole, was, therefore, identified as a three crops combination
having the gram as the most dominating crop followed by wheat and Mustard.
Besides this, it is significant to note that all the three villages individually were
identified with the three crops combination as all these crops remained the same
with the exception of their order of dominating priority which was areally different.
For instance, the village Obra was having the wheat as the most dominating crop
followed by Gram and Mustard. Similarly, the Amirwas and Phartia Bhima villages
were also having the Gram as the most dominating crop followed by the wheat and
Mustard and the Mustard and wheat. However, the cropping pattern during the
agricultural year for the villages as a whole was identified as four crops
combination region, having Bajra (Pearl Millet) as the most dominating crop
followed by Gram, Wheat and Mustard sequentially.
However, at the individual village level, both the Obra and Amirwas were
identified as a five crops combination region. In Obra village, the crop combination
in the order of their dominance was as the Bajra (Pearl Millet), Wheat, Gram,
Mustard and Guwar (Broad Bean). In the case of Amirwas village, the crop
combination remained the same with the exception of change in the order of the
dominance of crops of Bajra (Pearl Millet), Gram, Wheat, Mustard and Moong
individually. The village Phartia Bhima was identified as four crops combination
region having Bajra (Pearl Millet) as the most dominating crop followed by Gram,
Mustard and wheat individually. However, the change in area under various crops
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m the sample villages was examined in the context of the imbalances in the
cropping pattern arising from the new agrarian technology (Sidhu and Sankhyam,
1973 ). Imbalances in the cropping pattern of various crops in the sample villages
may impede rural development if proper checks are not applied.
5.3.4 INTENSITY OF IRRIGATION
The extent of irrigation as well as the irrigation intensity per hectare by the
size of landholding groups is presented in Appendix-VII. It would be observed
from the Appendix-VII that a proportion of 62.04 per cent of the arable area of the
selected landholdings was irrigated on an average. The average intensity of
irrigation was about 1-time per hectare. At the individual village level, the
irrigation disparity was found to exist, as about three-fourth or 73.02 per cent of
the arable area was irrigated in the Obra village in comparison to the Phartia
Bhima village where it was almost equal to the average of 62.04 per cent. For that
matter, the lowest area under irrigation of about one-half or 46.50 per cent of the
arable land was in the Amirwas village. But in terms of the irrigation intensity, the
ratio was found to be almost equal to the average for all the villages. Besides this,
among the different size of landholding groups, the medium and semi-large farmers
recorded the high proportion of area under irrigation of 85.35 and 63.33 per cent
respectively. The lowest incidence of irrigation of 45.15 per cent was among the
marginal farmers; but they recorded the highest irrigation intensity of 3-times per
hectare. In the case of the small farmers, about fifty per cent of the arable land was
under irrigation while the irrigation intensity was equal to the average. So, the
extent of irrigation as well as intensity by the landholding groups for the each
individual sample village have by and large shown a similar pattern as seen from
Appendix-VII.
Apart from this, it is noteworthy that the area under irrigation as well as the
intensity of irrigation vary from season to season. For instance, during the kharif
season, the irrigated area accounted for 63.55 per cent while its proportion
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marginally declined to 60.51 per cent during the rabi season. But in terms of
irrigation intensity, the condition was found to be almost reverse as the highest
intensity was 2-times during the rabi season whereas the lowest intensity was 1-
time during the kharif season. Such seasonal irrigation differences could be due to
seasonal variability in temperature and rainfall on the one hand and the type of
crops grown during the different seasons on the other hand. For instance, the bajra
(Pearl Millet) is one of the predominant cereal among the crops grown in the
Kharif season which hardly requires any irrigation. On the contrary, the wheat was
the main cereal crop grown in rabi season which require high irrigation intensity
per hectare. However, a similar seasonal pattern of irrigation and its intensity per
hectare was found to exist among the villages of Obra, Amirwas and Phartia Bhima
as is also evidenced by Appendix-VII.
5.3.5.1 TYPE OF FERTILISERS
Among the different types of chemical fertilisers, both the urea and the die
ammonia phosphate (D.A.P.) have largely been used in agriculture among the
sample villages in the semi-arid hagar belt extending over the Loharu tahsil as is
evidenced by Table 5.3. For instance, among the chemical fertilisers, the urea
consumption accounted for the largest proportion of 64.08 per cent followed by the
die ammonia phosphate (D.A.P.) with a proportion of35.92 per cent by the farmers
in the sample villages as a whole. A similar pattern of chemical fertilisers
consumption was also noticed at the individual village level, namely, at the Obra,
Amirwas and Phartia Bhima as is clearly witnessed by Table 5.3. Besides this,
taking into consideration all the villages together in tenns of the chemical fertilisers
consumption, their descending order was sequentially as Obra, Amirwas and Phartia
Bhima with proportions of 53.11 per cent, 26.72 per cent and 20.17 per cent
respectively on an average. Apart from this, in tenns of the seasonal level of
fertilisers consumption, the urea consumption was comparatively higher during the
kharif season on an average and individually among the villages as shown by Table
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Table 5.3
Season
KHARIF
RABI
Percentage of Fertilisers Consumption by their Types and Seasons in the Sample Villages of Loharu Tahsil.
Type Obra Amirwas Phartia Total Bhima (Average)
Die Amonia 31.06 11.40 - 20.29 Phosphate
Urea 68.94 88.60 100.00 79.71
Super Phosphate - - - -
Zinc Sulphate - - - -
Any Other - - - -
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Total (Average) 58.13 19.60 22.27 100.00
Die Amonia 45.88 38.93 37.39 42.18 Phosphate
Urea 54.12 61.07 62.61 57.82
Super Phosphate - - - -
Zinc Sulphate - - - -
Any Other - - - -
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Total (Average) 51.09 29.58 19.33 100.00
AGRICULTURAL Die Amonia 41.24 33.15 25.58 35.92 YEAR
Source:
Phosphate
Urea 58.76 66.85 74.42 64.08
Super Phosphate - - - -
Zinc Sulphate - - - -
Any Other - - - -
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Total (Average) 53.11 26.72 20.17 100.00
Above table computed and compiled from the primary data collected from the Field Survey, 1993, Loharu Tahsil, Bhiwani District, Haryana
5.3. So, urea is one of the largest consumed fertiliser during both the seasons of
kharif and rabi with 79.71 per cent and 57.82 per cent respectively on an average.
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The urea consumption was found more or less around the average figure during
rabi season while it was comparatively higher during the kharif season at the
individual village level and on an average. Thus, the comparative scenario of
fertilisers consumption for the sample villages during different seasons is as
represented in Table 5.3.
5.3.5.2 CONSUMPTION OF CHEMICAL FERTILISERS
The use of chemical fertilisers has recently gained attention with increasing
irrigation infrastructures. Looking to this, the fertilisers are made available to the
farmers at convenient places. The supply of fertilisers to distribution points is
regulated by the Deputy Director of Agriculture by coordinating the programme
between extension agency and supply agency, i.e. HAFED and marketing societies.
It is a fact that the use of chemical fertilisers was varied considerably among the
sample villages and even among different size of landholding groups per hectare
of the arable land as is clearly evidenced by Appendix-VIII. The consumption of
chemical fertilisers largely depends upon the type of soils and the extent of
irrigation facilities availabie. Appendix-VIII also reveals the facts regarding the
extent to which the cultivators have taken to the use of chemical fertilisers which
is one of the major as well as important inputs generally resorted to for increasing
production. The average consumption of chemical fertilisers was 107.45 kgs. per
hectare. At the individual village level, Obra recorded the highest quantity of
fertilisers consumption of 135.55 kgs. per hectare and the lowest consumption of
77.43 kgs. per hectare was in the case of Phartia Bhima village. The average
fertilisers consumption in Amirwas village was 95.94 kgs. per hectare.
Among the different sizes landholding groups, the large, semi-large and
medium farmers showed the high dosages of chemical fertilisers, the quantity
ratio's for which were 222.92 kgs., 202.50 kgs. and 119.95 kgs. per hectare of the
arable land respectively on an average. On the other side, the average intensity of
fertilisers use among such landholding groups was as low as 0.23, 0.24 and 0.29
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per hectare respectively. On the contrary, in the case of the marginal, small and
medium farmers, the average consumption of chemical fertilisers proportion
accounted for the lower average of 42.76 kgs., 76.15 kgs. and 96.18 kgs. per
hectare respectively. Yet the intensity of chemical fertilisers use was found as high
as shown by the ratio's of 0.69, 0.62 and 0.40 per hectare for the respective
categories of farmers. However, almost a similar pattern of chemical fertilisers
consumption and its uses intensity was found to exist by and large among all the
three villages. It is significant to note that in the Amirwas village the semi-medium
and medium farmers recorded a higher consumption of fertilisers of 104.39 kgs.
and 118.05 kgs. per hectare respectively than its average consumption of figure of
95.94 kgs. per hectare. Therefore, it is noteworthy that the low quantity of
chemical fertilisers was judiciously used by the marginal, small and semi-medium
farmers in comparison to the other categories of the farmers as is clearly
manifested by Appendix-VIII. However, the agriculture extension agency IS
constantly educating the farmer community regarding the judicious use of fertilisers
vis-a-vis their increased cost. Nevertheless, there are a number of negative
implications of the chemical fertilisers use on the semi-arid ecological system.
5.3.6.1 TYPE OF PESTICIDES
Broad categories of a number of pesticides such as the insecticides,
fungicides, herbicides and plant growth regulants, fumigants, weedicides,
rodenticides and antibiotics are mainly used in agriculture to fight against the pests
and crop diseases. The use of such types of pesticides with their broad
classification is presented in Table 5.4.1 for the sample villages of the Obra,
Amirwas and Phartia Bhima which are located in the semi-arid hagar belt and for
the Loharu tahsil as a whole. The consumption pattern of pesticides in the sample
villages is quite different in terms of their types. So, out of the total pesticides
consumption, the share of insecticides as a whole is the largest which is 99.51 per
cent. The weedicides ranked the second with the proportion of merely 0.32 per cent
158
Table 5.4.1: Broad Categories of Pesticides and their Uses in the Sample Villages of Loharu Tahsil.
Categories Obra Amirwas Phartia Shima Total (Average)
Antibiotics - - - -
Fumigants - - - -
Fungicides 0.42 - - 0.17
Herbicides - - - -
Insecticides 99.58 99.38 100.00 99.51
Rodenticides - - - -
Weedicides - 0.62 - 0.32
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Total (Average) 48.85 51.45 7.70 100.00
Source:
Table 5.4.2:
Type
Aldrin
B.H.C.
Endosu1fan
Hinosan
Malathion
2,4-D
Thimet
Total
Source:
Above table computed and compiled from the primary data collected from the Field Survey, 1993, Loharu Tahsil, Bhiwani District, Haryana
Pesticides Consumption by their Types in the Sample Villages of the Loharu Tahsil.
Category Obra Amirwas Phartia Total Shima (Average)
Insecticide 4.42 3.38 17.94 4.92
Insecticide 95.16 92.80 72.65 92.22
Insecticide - 0.17 0.45 0.12
Fungicide 0.42 - - 0.17
Insecticide - 3.03 6.72 2.07
Weedicide - 0.62 - 0.32
Insecticide - - 2.24 0.18
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Above table computed and compiled from the primary data collected from the Field Survey, 1993, Loharu Tahsil, Bhiwani District, Haryana
159
followed by fungicides with 0.17 per cent (Table 5.4.1 ). Among the insecticides,
the B.H.C. formed the largest proportion of 92.22 per cent followed by the Aldrin,
Malathion, Thimat and Endosulfan with the proportion of 4.92 per cent, 2.07 per
cent 0.18, per cent and 0.12 per cent respectively on an average. And the remaining
marginal proportions of 0.17 per cent and 0.32 per cent were constituted by the
Hinosan, which is a fungicide and 2,4-D a weedicide respectively as is manifested
by Table 5.4.2. While the villages taken together, the Amirwas village was the
largest user of pesticides with a proportion of 51.45 per cent followed by the Obra
and Phartia Bhima with the proportions of 48.85 per cent and 7. 70 per cent
respectively on an average. However, the consumption of different types of
pesticides was found to vary among the villages as is evidenced by Table 5.4.1.
5.3.6.2 CONSUMPTION OF PESTICIDES
An analysis of Appendix-IX reveals many facts regarding the consumption
of chemical pesticides alongwith their use intensity ratio's which have been found
to vary but marginally at the individual village level and among different size of
landholding groups per hectare of the arable land because the consumption of
chemical pesticides mainly depends upon the kind of crop more susceptible to the
pests and the extent and nature of the pest prevailing during a particular season
with a specified area. So, the average consumption of chemical pesticides was 2.32
kgs. with a use intensity ratio of 0.38 per hectare of arable land for the sample
villages as a whole. Among the villages, the Amirwas and Obra recorded the
consumption of higher quantity of pesticides of 2.82 Kgs. and 2.75 Kgs. per
hectare respectively, whereas the lowest quantity of 0.76 Kgs. per hectare was
consumed in the case of the Phartia Bhima village. Besides this, among the
different sizes of landholding groups, the semi-medium farmers (2-4 hectares)
recorded the highest dosages of chemical pesticides of 3.82 Kgs. with the use
intensity ratio of 0.36 over per hectare of arable land on average. On the other
hand, the large (>-12) hectares) and small (<-1 hectare) farmers were recorded the
160
lowest consumption of pesticides proportion of 0.28 kgs. and 0.50 kgs. over per
hectare of arable land respectively on an average. However, the consumption
proportion of chemical pesticides for the other categories of farmers individually
was more or less equal to the average. Still almost a similar pattern of pesticides
consumption as well as its uses intensity ratio was found to exist, by and large, at
the individual sample village level except at the Phartia Bhima village where its
consumption was comparatively lower than the average as is manifested by
Appendix-IX. It is also noteworthy from the use frequency that the low quantity
of chemical pesticides was judiciously utilised by the marginal and small farmers
as is also manifested by Appendix-IX. Thus, with this background, there is an
urgent need to reduce the growing use of the chemical fertilisers in preference for
the available bio-fertilisers for use in agriculture. For instance, the cow dung should
not be extensively used as fuel in preference to its use as farmyard manure. Efforts
should be made to popularise gobar gas plants which will go a long way in
minimising the use of cow dung as fuel. Extensive education for compost making
has also been intensified for proper use of dung and farm wastes. Regular
campaigns need to be carried on organised to push up this programme.
5.3.7 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS
The traditional agricultural implements are still commonly used by the
farmers in the cultivation process as the wooden plough, cattles, spade, flat board
and cart are some of them. Any improvement in agriculture is inconceivable
without a corresponding improvements in the agricultural implements. The new
agrarian technological machineries and allied equipments are being gradually
adopted by the farmers in accordance with their utility and scope for use since the
adoption of new agrarian technological inputs requires a high capital investment in
different agricultural machineries and equipments. The new technological
implements in common use are the tractor, cultivator, roller, trolley, thresher and
the allied equipments. However, the various types of agricultural implements and
161
equipments used by the farmers in the selected landholdings in the sample villages
are shown in Tables 5.5.
Table 5.5: Inputs of New Agrarian Technological implements in the sample villages of the Loharu Tahsil.
Implements Obra Aminvas Phartia Total Bhima
Tractor 8 3 6 17
Tubewell (Diesel) 0 1 0 1
Tub ewell (Electric) 7 12 39 58
Tubewell (Total) 7 13 39 59
Plough Wooden 14 2 8 24
Plough Improved 15 25 22 62
Seed Driller 26 26 16 68
Caff-Cullter 42 33 28 103
Sugarcane Crusher 1 0 1 2
Threasher 4 2 6 12
Field Wheat Harvest 0 0 1 1 Troller
Trolly/Trailor 5 3 5 13
Cart 18 6 12 36
Gur-Boiling Pan 2 1 0 3
Roller 1 2 0 3
Bar Harrow 12 4 4 20
Cultivator 0 0 0 0
Sughaga 1 0 0 1
Meander Maker 1 0 0 1
Any Other 181 157 170 508
Source: Above table computed and compiled from the primary data collected from the Field Survey, 1993, Loharu Tahsil, Bhiwani District, Haryana
162
5.4 LIVESTOCK
Livestock population exceeds human population leading to acute imbalance
m the landuse pattern. Land predominantly constitutes degenerated forms like
barren, culturable waste and fallow lands. Increasing pressure of animals and
human population has resulted in low level of production from crop and livestock
enterprises presenting a disquieting increased instability in agricultural production.
The concentration of livestock population by the kind of animals in the sample
villages of Obra, Amirwas and Phartia Bhima of the Loharu tahsil is presented in
Table 5.6.1. The livestock population in the Bagar belt comprises buffaloes with
a proportion of 27.00 per cent; cows 4.14 per cent; sheep 13.57 per cent and goats
of 3.43 per cent, while camels constitute a comparatively significant proportion of
13.00 per cent. A large proportion of 38.72 per cent constituted by the other
animals including mostly the animal calves etc. among the sample villages as a
whole. However, almost a similar pattern of animals distribution was found to exist
in the Obra village. But, in the case of the Amirwas and Phartia Bhima villages,
the goat, sheep and farm cattle formed a negligible proportion; and the animals
distribution pattern otherwise remained the same. So, the rapidly increasing human
and livestock populations are both competing for limited land resource exploitation.
It will lead to polarisation in grassland and fodder field resources in semi-arid land
ecosystem (Whyte, 1970).
The overall livestock population exceeds human population and the
physiological density of livestock on the cultivated lands, on permanent pastures
and grazing lands and per unit of human population is comparatively higher in the
semi-arid Bagar belt (Malhotra, et. al., 1972). The pressure of livestock population
over an hectare of land in the sample villages by the different sizes of landholdings
groups is shown in Table 5.6.2. The average density of livestock population per
hectare was 2 animals which is almost equal to the human density of population.
Livestock animals form the economic base of the marginal and small farmers
because of the small size of their landholdings. The high density of livestock
163
Table 5.6.1: Percentage Distribution of Livestock Population in the Sample Villages of Loharu Tahsil.
I
Animals Obra Amirwas Phartia Bhima Total (average)
Cows 3.50 3.27 6.25 4.14
Buffaloes 17.25 41.83 34.66 27.00
Goats 6.47 0.00 0.00 3.43
Sheeps 25.61 0.00 0.00 13.57
Farm Cattles 0.00 0.00 0.57 0.14
Camels 15.36 8.49 11.93 13.00
Any Others 31.81 46.41 46.59 38.72
TOTAL 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Total (Average) 53.00 21.86 25.14 100.00
Source:
Table 5.6.2:
Above table computed and compiled from the primary data collected from the Field Survey, 1993, Loharu Tahsil, Bhiwani District, Haryana
Pressure of Livestock Population on the Land in the Sample Villages of Loharu Tashil.
Density of Amimals/Hectare Size of Landholding
Obra Phartia Bhima Total (in hectare)
Less than I
I - 2
2- 4
4 - 8
8 - 12
Above- 12
TOTAL
Source:
Aminvas (average)
8.00 1.33 2.00 3.37
7.37 1.21 1.32 2.96
1.36 0.98 1.08 1.13
1.04 0.98 1.33 1.10
2.90 0.56 1.13 1.48
1.19 0.67 - 1.06
2.16 0.94 1.27 1.48
Above table computed and compiled from the primary data collected from the Field Survey, 1993, Loharu Tahsil, Bhiwani District, Haryana
164
population of 3 animals per hectare was recorded by the marginal and small
landholding categories of farmers respectively. On the other hand, the other sizes
landholding groups recorded a livestock density almost equal to and even lower
than the average. Such a density pattern was also found to exist in the case of the
Obra and even the Pharia Bhima villages as well. In the case of Amirwas village,
the situation was almost the same with comparatively low density proportions as
is evidenced by Table 5.6.2. So, the over-exploitation of the natural resources such
as the natural vegetation by way of overgrazing and removal of tree species for
fuel, fodder and cultivation of marginal lands like sand-dunes etc., leads to a series
of ecological changes in the semi-arid Bagar desertic belt which becomes
susceptible to erosion hazards, thus, finally leading to desertification (Saxena,
1977).
5.5 AGRONOMIC-ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The major agronomic problems faced by the cultivators such as the land
severely affected by the soil erosion on the one hand and the sand deposition on
the other hand are prevalent all over the arable land in all the sample villages
located in the Bagar belt of the Loharu tahsil. Both these agronomic and allied
problems all together have affected about 14.99 per cent of the cultivable land on
an average. In comparison to the other villages, Phartia Bhima village was the
worst affected by such agronomic problems accounting for 27.05 per cent of the
cultivated land. The Obra village was also heavily affected by such agronomic
problems as is manifested by the proportion of 17.53 per cent in this case. The
proportion of the degraded land of both these villages was individually higher than
the average even individually. The village Amirwas cultivated land was not so
severely affected as is evidenced by the proportion of 2.11 per cent. Besides this,
among the different size landholding groups, the medium and large farmers land
was badly affected by the agronomic problems as demonstrated by their proportions
of 22.65 per cent and 21.08 per cent respectively on an average. On the other hand,
165
the marginal farmers were also affected at large by such problems accounting for
10.63 per cent of their cultivated land on an average. However, the cultivated land
degradation by the size of landholding groups differs among all the sample villages
as is evidenced by Table 5.7.1. In the case of the Obra viilage, with the exception
of the small farmers, were all the other landholdings were affected at large by such
problems. In the case of Phartia Bhima village the medium farmers were worst
affected on the one hand and the marginal and semi-medium farmers at large on
the other. So, the agronomic problems in the different villages located in the Bagar
belt seem associated by and large with the landscape physiography. The main
agronomic problems are the shifting sand dunes, severe wind erosion, degraded
pastures and scarcity of water (Roy, et. al., 1970).
Table 5.7.1 Land Affected by the Agronomic Problems in the Samples Villages of Loharu Tahsil.
Proportion (%) of Affected area Size of Landholding (in to total land hectares)
Obra Amirwas Phartia Bhima Total (Average)
Less than I 4.00 - 22.75 10.63
I -2 - 5.79 10.46 6.45
2- 4 11.41 0.48 18.16 9.77
4- 8 22.41 - 53.12 22.65
8- 12 14.15 9.72 - 8.77
Above- 12 28.11 - - 21.08
TOTAL 17.53 2.11 27.05 14.99
Source: Above table computed and compiled from the primary data collected from the Field Survey, 1993, Loharu Tahsil, Bhiwani District, Haryana
5.5.1 IMPLICATIONS OF NEW AGRARIAN TECHNOLOGICAL IMPLEMENTS
With the increased mechanisation of agriculture over the last few decades,
the impact of tillage upon the soil has risen considerably. In several cases, it has
been shown that the damaging effects of tillage are detrimental to the
physiography, soil structure and fertility and crop growth. It has also been shown
166
that structural damage by tillage implements may be persistent and difficult to
ameliorate (Greenland, 1977). It is apparent that these detrimental effects of tillage
arise mainly when the soil is cultivated in an unusual state, and, as a result,
structural damage is most acute in heavy and poorly drained soils. It is, therefore,
in these soils that greatest care is required during tillage. However, in view of the
problems of conventional tillage practices, increasing attention has recently been
given to alternative techniques such as minimal tillage and direct drilling. The
direct drilling involves no seedbed preparation at all, and crops are sown into the
untilled soil by a machine that cuts a narrow seed-slot. Crop residues are normally
allowed to decompose in situ, herbicides are used to control weeds and pests, and
rooting and drainage conditions are maintained by encouraging earthworm activity.
This system is known as 'direct drilling' in Britain, or as 'zero tillage' in the
United States (Briggs and Courtry, 1985). At the same time, it has become clear
that direct drilling is no panacea for the problems of tillage practices. It can only
be used on soils which are already in good structural condition. It is mainly
suitable for light, well-drained soils and consequently cannot easily be applied to
those soils that give greatest problems during conventional tillage (i.e. heavy clay
soils). Moreover, like conventional tillage, direct drilling needs to be employed
with care. If adverse effects upon the soil are to be avoided it is, therefore,
essential that the interactions between tillage and soil conditions are clearly
understood.
5.5.2 SOIL EROSION
The Soils of the Bagar belt are largely sandy in character. The Bagar belt
faces a serious problems of soil erosion. Erosion is still severe and is contributing
to the cultivable land soil degradation. So, the soil erosion is common throughout
the Bagar belt which needs proper and adequate measures not only to check erosion
on steeper slopes but also to protect the lower slopes and undulating sand dunes
region against deposition and spreading of unwanted coarse sand. Wind is a serious
167
agent of soil erosion in the dry Bagar belt. In this context, Table 5. 7.2 presents the
figures for the land affected by the major agronomic problem of soil erosion in the
sample villages of the Obra, Amirwas and Phartia Bhima. Nearly 9.49 per cent of
the land was severely affected by the soil erosion of the cultivated land on an
average. Among the sample villages, the Phartia Bhima and Obra were worst
affected by soil erosion problem as is evidenced by their proportions of 18.91 per
cent and 10.70 per cent respectively and the proportion was even much higher than
the average in the case of the former village. In the case of the Amirwas village,
the land degradation condition did not seem to be much serious. So, a green forest
belt should be established across the direction of wind to check the wind erosion
action and also to prevent the sand-spread over the arable land.
Table 5.7.2: Land Affected by Soil erosion problem m the Samples Villages of Loharu Tahsil.
Size of Land- % of Area affected to total land holding (in
Obra Amirwas Phartia Total hectare) Bhima (Average)
Less than 1 4.00 - 22.75 10.63
1 - 2 - 2.86 6.50 3.83
2- 4 3.11 - 16.08 6.23
4- 8 9.39 - 33.73 12.77
8 - 12 14.15 - - 4.72
Above- 12 24.75 - - 18.56
TOTAL 10.70 0.24 18.91 9.49
Source: Above table computed and compiled from the primary data collected from the Field Survey, 1993, Loharu Tahsil, Bhiwani District, Haryana.
168
Besides this, an analysis of Table 5.7.2 reveals the fact that among the
different sizes of landholding groups. the large and medium farmers were largely
affected by the soil erosion problem. The proportion of the affected land of both
these categories of farmers accounted for 18.56 per cent and 12.77 per cent
respectively. In addition to this, the marginal farmers were also affected by such
an agronomic problem which accounted for 10.63 per cent of the cultivable land
on an average. The small and semi-large farmers were also severely affected by the
soil erosion problem. However, as mentioned earlier, the sample villages were not
equally affected by the soil erosion at the different size of landholding groups. In
the case of the Obra village, the large and semi-large farmers were heavily affected
by the soil erosion problem on their agricultural land. Besides, in the case of
Phartia Bhima village, the medium, semi-medium and marginal farmers were
affected at large scale by soil erosion problem. In the Amirwas village, only the
small farmers were affected by soil erosion but not on a large scale. However,
intensive pressure on land and absence of subsidiary occupations compel the people
there to cultivate the dune and the marginal lands. This causes the loosening of
sand particles which become susceptible to being be carried off by the winds.
These wind-born sand particles fall on the adjacent fertile lands and ultimately
deteriorate them. So, the cultivation of the sand-dunes and marginal lands has
caused the shifting of the sand and formation of new sandy hummocks or low
dunes tracts causing deterioration of the fertile lands.
5.5.3 SAND DEPOSITION
There is yet another a serious threat to cultivation such as by sand deposition
among the sample villages of the Obra, Amirwas and Phartia Bhima located in the
semi-arid Bagar belt as is evidenced by Appendix-X. The agriculture unless where
levelling, terracing etc. have been done is unsatisfactory. Sand deposition is
common throughout the Bagar belt which needs proper and adequate measures not
only to check sand deposition on cultivable sand dune slopes but also to protect the
169
level fertile agricultural land against deposition and spreading of unwanted coarse
sand. Wind is a serious agent of sand deposition in the dry Bagar belt. Because of
this problem, nearly 4.4 7 per cent of the land was severely affected by the sand
deposition on the cultivated land on an average. Among the sample villages, the
Phartia Bhima and Obra villages were the worst affected with this problems as is
evidenced by their proportions of 6.3 8 per cent and 5.41 per cent respectively and
the proportion was even much higher than the average in the case of the former
village. In the case of Amirwas village, the land degradation by sand deposition did
not seem to be much serious. So, a green forest belt should be established across
the direction of wind to check the sand deposition action and also to prevent the
sand-spread over new areas.
Besides this, an analysis of Appendix-X reveals the fact that among the
different sizes of landholding groups, the medium and semi-large farmers were
largely affected by the sand deposition problem. The proportion of the affected
land of both these categories of farmers was 9.88 per cent and 4.05 per cent
respectively on an average. In addition to this, the semi-medium farmers were also
affected by this problem accounting for 3.54 per cent of the cultivable land. The
small and the large farmers were not so severely affected by the sand deposition
problem. However, as mentioned earlier, the sample villages were not equally
affected by the sand deposition at the different size of landholding groups. In the
case of the Obra village, the medium and semi-medium farmers were heavily
affected by the sand deposition problem on their agricultural land. Besides, in case
of the Phartia Bhima village, the medium and small farmers were largely affected
by the soil deposition problem. In the Amirwas village, only the semi-large farmers
were affected by soil deposition problem on a large scale. However, intensive
pressure of human population and livestock animals on the semi-arid arable land
on the one hand and absence of subsidiary occupations on the other, compel the
people there to cultivate the sand dunes and the marginal lands. This causes the
loosening of sand particles which become susceptible to erosion and then being
170
carried off by the winds. These wind-born sand particles deposit on the adjacent
fertile arable lands and ultimately deteriorate them. So, the cultivation of the sand
dunes and marginal lands has caused the shifting of sand and formation of new
sandy hummocks or low dunes tracts causing widespread deterioration of the fertile
arable land.
5.5.4 SOIL SAMPLE ANALYSIS
As with agricultural drainage, irrigation leads to significant changes in soil
conditions, some of which are long-lasting, and not all of which may be beneficial
in agricultural terms. A more serious effect upon the soil relates to erosion.
Chemical and organic changes in soil conditions might also be anticipated under
irrigation. In semi-arid areas or where water quality is poor, accumulation of salts
and trace elements may present a serious problem. Bicarbonate, chloride, sulphate,
sodium and boron may all reach toxic levels, and careful control of application
rates, moisture conditions and water quality is essential to remove these by
leaching. However, on the basis of theoretical considerations, it might be
anticipated that irrigation would lead to greater water movement through the soil,
more intense leaching and increased pollution of ground-waters. As with the effects
of drainage, however, definitive data are lacking and the impact upon water quality
remains largely conjectural.
The soil sample of the three villages- the Obra, Amirwas and Phartia Bhima
- located in the semi-arid Bagar belt in the Loharu tahsil irrigated by tubewells and
rainfall have been examined to see the physical and chemical properties of the soils
on the one hand; and the pH (soil reaction) value, electrical conductance (EC) or
Total Soluble Salt (ISS), organic carbon percentage, available phosphorus (kg.
P/ha.), available potash (kg. K/ha.), calcium carbonate, soil texture, nature of soil
problems and gypsum requirement on the other hand. Appendix-XI presents a
comprehensive soil test report for the sample villages of the Loharu tahsil. The
analysis of Appendix-XI reveals that the physical characteristics of the soil have
171
sandy texture based on the size of the soil grain size. So, the desertic sand soil is
found in the sample villages. This soil belong to the seironozem soil group. The
main problems are shifting sand dunes, severe wind erosion, degraded pastures and
scarcity of water (Roy, et. al., 1970). The fertility of soil is of the no~al type. The
soil has poor type of drainage. Appendix-XI presents the figures for the chemical
properties in respect of all the six soil sample relating to the semi-arid Bagar belt
in form of the major nutrients and other soil properties. The soil test report analysis
reveals that the soils are highly alkaline in nature in the case of the both the soil
samples for the Obra village. The pH value ranges between 8.1 - 8.2. The EC or
total soluble salt (TSS) ranges between 0.10- 0.01 mmhos/cm in the case of the
Obra village. The soil test report analysis also reveals that the soils are alkaline in
nature in respect of soil sample number - I and II for the Amirwas village. The pH
value of the soil is ranges between 8.3 - 9.1. The total soluble salt (TSS) ranges
between 0.08 - 0.50 mmhos/cm in the case of Amirwas village. Besides, the soils
are alkaline in nature in respect of the soil sample number - I and II with a pH
value of 8.4 for the Phartia Bhima village. The total soluble salt (TSS) ranges
between 2.4 - 1.9 mmhos/cm in the case of Phartia Bhima village.
Normally, there are three types of salts such as the sulphate, chloride and
bicarbonate and sodium which generally form the main mass of these saline
efflorescence. Calcium sulphate may also be present in very small quantities and
at some places calcium chloride and magnesium sulphate have also been found.
Usually, the direct source of salt is surface and ground-water. Apart from this, the
average value for available nutrients of organic carbon are 0.23 per cent and 0.21
per cent in the case of the soil sample number - I for the Amirwas and Phartia
Bhima villages respectively as is evidenced by Appendix-XI. This indicates that the
available organic carbon nutrient of available soil nitrogen is low in content in the
sandy soil. The soil has also deficiency of calcium carbonate in a number of cases.
The findings of a study reveals that the Zinc was also deficient in 91.00 per cent
and Zn application was a must for optimum crop yields in the semi-arid belt (Singh
172
and Banerjee, 1984 ). So, the different types of crops vary in their sensitiveness to
the presence of alkaline salts in these soil. Potatoes constitute the most sensitive
crop. Barley, wheat, legum in general, can tolerate salts to a still larger extent.
Cotton and a number of other crops can tolerate salts to a still larger extent. So,
Appendix-XI presents the results of soil test conducted by the author at the Indian
Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi for the sample village of the
Loharu tahsil on the basis of which IARI has made specific recommendations are
for growing the high yield varieties of wheat, maize and legume. It has also
recommended that the alkaline soil may be treated with gypsum @ two tons/acre
followed by leaching with good quality irrigation water in case of the Amirwas
village. It has also recommended that in the case of Phartia Bhima village, the
alkaline soils may be leached with good quality water before fertiliser/manure
application.
5.5.5 OVERGRAZING
In order to understand the ecological perspective of overgrazing, it is
essential to know the energetics of the grazing land ecosystem. As a natural system
of energy flow, grazing is the culmination of a process of transfer and
transformation of energy from primary producers to secondary producers. Grazing
lands, called as the net primary production (NPP) in ecological terminology, allow
very little accumulation of biomass. The forest ecosystems on the other hand
accumulate and store energy and function as a delayed consumption systems.
Characteristic of an ecosystem, the grazing lands are capable of self development
that may include growth, repair, replacement of part and other structural and
functional attributes that counter the natural tendency of any or all systems to
deteriorate with time. There are regulatory mechanisms known as "Homeostatic
Mechanisms" which operate as checks and balance in the ecosystem against
f1 uctuati ons.
173
The selective grazing habit of the animals causes severe deterioration of
grazing lands. Apart from overgrazing of herbaceous layer, the maltreatment of
ligneous elements of grassland and forests for firewood, fodder and minor forest
produces reduces seed output and ultimately results in poor regeneration. Further,
coppicing of thorny and weedy species are relatively more successful under heavy
grazing. Because of forage preference differences among different kinds of
livestock, grasses may increase on a sheep or goat grazing land at the expense of
forbs and bush. Conversely, on cattle grazing lands, grass may disappear. As the
plant communities evolved under the grazing pressures of large herbivores, the
grazing habit and food preferences of the bovines present in a particular grazing
land depend on the type of plants and their density. In areas representing
degenerated grasslands, the animals also feed on weedy non-pala annuals.
5.6 IMPLICATIONS OF DEVELOPMENT TO AGRO-ENVIRONMENT
DEGRADATION: A Statistical Test of Hypotheses
In the recent past, the rapid agricultural development took place due to the
adoption of new agrarian technological inputs which could by and large be
responsible for the fragile semi-arid ecosystem degradation into many ways. In
view of this, a number of sample villages such as the Obra, Amirwas and Phartia
Bhima have been taken into consideration from the semi-arid Bagar belt in order
to examine the developmental consequences on the agro-environment degradation.
In this context, the multiple coefficient of correlation matrix has been worked out
among the aspects of land use, new agrarian technological and chemical inputs and
its negative implications in the form of agronomic problems as is presented in
Appendix-XII.
The multiple correlation matrix has been worked out for the sample villages
of Obra, Amirwas and Phartia Bhima as a whole as is shown in Appendix-XII. An
analysis of it reveals important facts about the sample villages which are located
in the semi-arid Bagar belt. For instance, the agricultural productivity in terms of
174
yield per hectare (Y) shows a strong relationship with the fertilisers consumption
(x8) as is evidenced by such coefficient of r = +0.681 0 which shows merely casual
relationship. Besides this, the landholding (xi) indicator shows a high degree of
relationship with the irrigation intensity (x6), pesticides consumption (xi 0) and
sand deposition (xl3) with such the coefficients as r = +0.6724, +0.7687 and
+0.5306 respectively. All these values are statistically insignificant. In addition to
this, the agronomic problem indicators are highly correlated with the landholding
(xi) indicator as is evidenced by Appendix-XU. However increasing landholdings
caused the increase in agronomic problems which are found to be responsible for
the sand erosion vis-a-vis sand deposition in the arable field. This could be due to
the fragmentation of arable land into small pieces as well as the agricultural
intensification which could probably be responsible for the arable land being more
susceptible to soil erosion vis-a-vis deposition by the wind action in the semi-arid
Bagar belt. It is noteworthy that the population density (x2) is probably causing
agronomic problems as is evidenced by the positive coefficient of r = +0.5519.
Because the livestock population pressure is one of the important biological engine
of desertification and indiscriminate exploiter of the natural ecological system in
one way or the other in the fragile semi-arid Bagar belt. The livestock density (x3)
is found to be positively correlate with the irrigation intensity (x7), fertilisers
intensity (x9) and pesticides intensity (xll) as is shown by such coefficients as r
= +0.8859, +0.9490 and +0.8355 respectively in which the former two values are
significant at I per cent level of significance.
Besides this, the new technological inputs such as the tractors (x5) have
shown highly positive correlation with the fertilisers consumption (x8) as is shown
by such coefficient as r = +0.8839 which is significant at 1 per cent level of
significance. On the other hand, the tractors (x5) indicator shows a strongly inverse
correlation with the new agrarian technological inputs as is evidenced by Appendix
XI!. So, the tractor as the multipurpose machine, has not been extensively used
only for field irrigation purpose because of the availability of alternative means e.g.
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the electric pump-sets etc. Besides this, the irrigation (x6) indicator is positively but
casually related with the pesticides consumption (xlO) and sand deposition (xl3)
as is evidenced by such correlation coefficients as +0.6423 and +0.6064
respectively. The irrigation in the arable fields in the semi-arid Bagar b\!lt is
possible only by way of the sprinkle irrigation system through which soil erosion
susceptibility is very rare. The irrigation intensity (x7) indicator is strongly
correlated with the fertilisers intensity and pesticides intensity (xl1) as is shown
by such coefficients as r = +0.8970 and +0.6938 respectively in which the former
value is significant at I per cent level of significance.
5.7 ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION MEASURES
The sample villages which fall in the semi-arid Bagar belt have extremes of
temperatures. The south and south-western parts are an extension of the Rajasthan
desert. Sand blowing caused by high velocity wind poses serious problems. The
fertile soil particles, as a result of siltation, are transported and scattered over long
distances thus impairing soil fertility. In other situation coarse and sterile sand
particles are carried away with the high velocity wind and dust storms and are
deposited over fertile soil creating unproductivity. Thus, the greater part of the
semi-arid Bagar belt is exposed to serious sand-blows which threaten the entire
agricultural economy. Hence, to stop the soil erosion and shifting of sand dunes,
to provide greenery, shade near settlements, to provide shelter for agricultural crops
and growing animals against the adversities in the semi-arid land ecosystem are the
major aims of afforestation (Karschon, 1964 ). All programmes aimed at agricultural
development like the use of fertilisers, compost, improved seeds, pest control etc.
are likely to be rendered ineffective if the shifting sands are not stabilised.
Research has conclusively established that a permanent vegetal cover brings about
substantial reduction in wind velocity and forms the foundation of entire
programmes of agricultural development. The measures to be taken to arrest the
marching desert are described in detail as follows:
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5.7.1 FIXATION OF SAND-DUNES
Sand-Dunes formation is a common phenomena all along the Rajasthan
border adjacent to Loharu Tahsil of the Bhiwani district. These sand-dunes which
are of a shifting nature, are advancing into the interior of the semi-arid hagar belt
with strong south-westerly winds rendering the cultivated land infertile by
accumulation of sand. The total area affected by sand-dunes is about 30,000
hectares. Biological barriers in the form of trees and shrubs play a vital role in
different operations of desert control. They are the cheapest method of reducing
wind velocity to control the movement of sand.
5.7.2 RAISING OF SHELTER BELTS
The forestry schemes aim at afforestation of waste strips along rail, road and
canal. These improve the situation, as they serve as shelter belts against prevailing
winds especially wherever these belts exist perpendicularly to the wind direction.
A dense belt of trees against the strong sand-bearing winds check their velocity and
thus the sand is accumulated towards the windward side instead of encroaching
upon the cultivated lands on the leeward side. Moreover, the shelter belts protect
the crops from the evil desiccating effects of hot winds. Plants are to be raised on
the periphery of the fields of the farmers to create wind breaks so that crops are
protected from desiccating winds. Afforestation and regeneration are essential part
of the forestry. It becomes particularly urgent and important in areas of the Loharu
tahsil. The forests must be planted and maintained constantly so as to protect the
land from the ravages of erosion, tore-fertilise the soil, arrest aridity and influence
the climate.
5.7.3 GRAZING MANAGEMENT
Although the consequences of overgrazing are well documented, generally
the known, information about the impacts of livestock grazing controlled by the
scientific principals is much more limited and is nearly not understood as well.
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When controlled, grazing animals can have positive influence on the vegetative and
soil resources (Holechek, 1980). So, research shows that lightly or moderately
grazed plants are more productive than those left ungrazed (Holechek, 1980).
Research provides strong evidence that controlled grazing by domestic livestock is
compatible with other resources provided by rangelands and is a valuable tool to
enhance these resources.
Obviously, grazing is a necessary evil which has to be allowed in view of
its ecological significance and its role in livestock husbandry and poor man's
economy. But instead of unlimited and continuous free range grazing, it should be
controlled and restricted so that it does not interfere with the productive and
protective functions of the vegetation particularly the forest. The problem has to
be viewed in an integrated manner for developing technology for production,
storage and utilisation of the forage and animal husbandry. The grazing land
management has two sets of manipulatory tools. One aims at controlling grazing
land vegetation by altering the grazing factors, and the other applies such items as
seeds and fertilisers directly to the vegetation-soil complex. For instance, camels
gain a great deal of their sustenance from the top of acacia trees, a food source out
of reach of the other large herbivores and totally unexploited by cattle. Control of
the grazing land ecosystem needs to be practiced through manipulating both biotic
and abiotic factors. Of the abiotic factor fire (induced by man in most of the cases)
can be manipulated most easily. Among biotic factors, reseeding and brush control
will also alter the populations and composition of producers (plants). Grazing land
as a part of the ecosystem affects the entire system. The forestry sector should
develop a separate forest services grazing land management programme aiming for
national fodder banks to meet the fodder demand for scarcity period. Thus, the new
focus of the grazing land management programme will continue to emphasize
livestock reduction through grazing and integration with management strategies for
other resources, cost effectiveness and environment soundness.
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5.8 CONCLUDING STATEMENT
For centuries drought and famine inexorably blended with the human
population and their fate and destiny in the semi-arid Bagar belt. The pressure of
population in the ecologically fragile Bagar belt on an average was 2 persons per
hectare on the cultivated land for the sample of villages the Obra, Amirwas and
Phartia Bhima as a whole. The average density of population for the marginal and
small farmers landholding groups was 4 and 3 persons per hectare respectively
which were comparatively higher than that of the other size landholding groups and
even higher than the average population density ratio. Thus, the physiological
density of population seems to be largely influenced by the economic base at the
different levels of the categories of farmers landhloding groups as well as the
spatial location of the villages in the semi-arid Bagar belt. Besides this, the average
size of the largest landholding was 3.44 hectares in the Obra village and the
smallest was 2.76 hectares in the Phartia Bhima village, while in the case of
Amirwas, the average size of landholding was 3.26 hectares. It may, however, be
pointed out that the average size of landholdings represents the average size of
cultivated land.
Area under both the foodgrains crops of bajra (Pearl Millet) and jowar
(Sorghum) together constituted the largest proportion of 68.07 per cent during the
kharif season in the semi-arid Bagar belt for the sample villages as a whole. Apart
from this, during the rabi season, the largest area was under the pulses crops of
gram which accounted for 45.39 per cent of the arable land on an average. Among
the foodgrains crops, both the wheat and barley accounted for 30.05 per cent.
However, the cropping rotation practice was found to have changed with the
seasons as observed during both the kharif and rabi seasons since the cropping
pattern at the individual village level, both the Obra and Amirwas were identified
as a five crops combination region. The crop combination in the order of the
dominance was as the Bajra (Pearl Millet), wheat, Gram, Mustard and Guwar.
Thus, the imbalance in the cropping pattern arising from the new agrarian
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technology may impede rural development if proper checks are not applied.
About 62.04 per cent of the arable area of the selected landholdings was
in·igated on an average. The average intensity of irrigation was about 1-time per
hectare. It is noteworthy that the area under irrigation ~s well as intensity of
in·igation vary from season to season. Moreover, among the different types of
chemical fertilisers, both the Urea and Die Ammonia Phosphate (DAP) have largely
been used in agriculture among the sample villages in the semi-arid Bagar belt. The
average consumption of chemical fertilisers was 107.45 kgs. per hectare. Out of the
total pesticides consumption, the share of insecticides as a whole is the largest
which is 99.51 per cent. The weedicides ranked the second with the proportion of
merely 0.32 per cent followed by fungicides with 0.17 per cent. Among the
insecticides, the B.H.C. formed the largest proportion of 92.22 per cent followed
by the Aldrin, Malathion, Thimat and Endosulfan with the proportion of 4.92 per
cent, 2.07 per cent, 0.18 per cent and 0.12 per cent respectively on an average. So,
the average consumption of chemical pesticides was 2.32 kgs. with use intensity
ratio of 0.38 per hectare of arable land for the sample villages as a whole. In
addition to this, the new agrarian technological machineries and allied equipments
are being gradually adopted by the farmers in accordance with their utility and
scope for use since the adoption of new agrarian technological inputs requires high
capital investments in different agricultural machineries and equipments.
The livestock population in the Bagar belt comprises buffaloes with a
proportion of 27.00 per cent; cows 4.14 per cent; sheeps 13.57 per cent and goats
of 3.43 per cent, while camels constitute a comparatively significant proportion of
13.00 per cent. A large proportion of 38.72 per cent is constituted by the other
animals. The average density of livestock population per hectare was 2 animals
which is almost equal to the human density of population. Livestock animals form
the economic base of the marginal and small farmers because of the small size of
their landholdings. The rapidly increasing human and livestock populations are both
competing for limited land resource exploitation. The selective grazing habit of the
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animals causes severe deterioration of grazing lands. Apart from overgrazing of
herbaceous layer, the maltreatment of ligneous elements of grassland and forests
for firewood, fodder and minor forest produces reduces seed output and ultimately
results in poor regeneration. Because the livestock population pressure is one of the
important biological engine of desertification and indiscriminate exploiter of the
natural ecological system in one way or the other in the fragile semi-arid Bagar
belt, hence the over-exploitation of the natural resources such as the natural
vegetation by way of overgrazing and removal of tree species for fuel, fodder and
cultivation of marginal land like sand-dunes etc. leads to a series of ecological
changes in the semi-arid Bagar belt which becomes susceptible to erosion hazards,
thus finally leading to desertification.
The major agronomic problems faced by the cultivators such as the land
severely affected by the soil erosion on the one hand and the sand deposition on
the other hand are prevalent all over the arable land in all the sample villages in
the Bagar belt. Both these agronomic and allied problems together have affected
about 14.99 per cent of the cultivable land on an average. Nearly 9.49 per cent of
the land was severely affected by the soil erosion of the cultivated land on an
average. Wind is serious agent of sand deposition in the semi-arid Bagar belt.
Because of this problem, nearly 4.4 7 per cent of the land was severely affected by
the sand deposition on the cultivated land on an average. The agronomic problems
in the different villages located in the Bagar belt seem to be associated by and
large with the landscape physiography. So, the cultivation of the sand-dunes and
marginal lands has caused the shifting of sand and formation of new sandy
hummocks or low dunes tracts causing deterioration of the fertile land.
In fact, the over-exploitation of the natural resource i.e. the vegetation by
way of overgrazing and removal of tree species for fuel, fodder and cultivation of
marginal lands like sand-dunes etc. leads to a series of ecological changes in the
semi-arid Bagar belt and it becomes susceptible to erosion hazards, thus, finally
leading to desertification. Both the rapidly increasing human and livestock
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populations are competing for limited land resources. It will also lead to
polarization in grassland and fodder field resources. The intensity of animal
husbandry has grown in the semi-arid land ecosystem. In relation to the earlier
phenomenon, demand for arable land for the production of food of adequate quality
for direct human consumption is found to be growing. Severe soil erosion is taking
place due to the misuse of semi-arid vegetation for fuel, fodder etc. Thus, the
greater part of the semi-arid Bagar belt is exposed to serious sand-blows which
threaten the entire agricultural economy. Hence, to stop the soil erosion and
shifting of sand dunes, to provide greenery, shade near settlements, and to provide
shelter for agricultural crops and growing animals against the adversities of the
semi-arid ecosystem are the major aims of afforestation. All programmes aimed at
agricultural development like the irrigation, use of fertilisers, compost, improved
seeds, pest control etc. are likely to be rendered ineffective if the shifting sand are
not stabilised.
Thus,it has been conclusively established that a permanent vegetal cover
brings about substantial reduction in wind velocities and forms the foundation of
entire programmes of agricultural development in the semi-arid Bagar belt
ecosystem. Selection of the sites and the techniques applied for maintaining and
establishing tree cover is important for afforestation. Therefore, a land
transformation plan for improving the fertility of soil, introducing improved
varieties of crops, adopting soil conservation measures against wind erosion and
deposition in specific areas, increasing pasture production, afforestation in
uncultivable wasteland, encouraging farm forestry needs to be formulated to meet
the growing demands of the population and improve their standard of living.
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