American Government and Politics: Deliberation, Democracy, and Citizenship

Chapter FourteenThe Presidency

Chapter Fourteen: Learning Objectives

• Summarize the key developments in the history of the American presidency and describe their importance

• Describe the organization of the executive branch and how it influences presidential deliberation

Chapter Fourteen: Learning Objectives

• Explain how the interaction of the presidency with the other branches affects the exercise of executive power and the functioning of the national government

• Identify the ways in which presidents independently exercise authority

Chapter Fourteen: Learning Objectives

• Explain how presidents, Congress, and the courts have interacted, and sometimes clashed, in the area of foreign policy and war powers

• Describe Congress’s power to hold presidents accountable for serious constitutional violations through impeachment and removal

Chapter Fourteen: Learning Objectives

• Explain how presidents contribute to public deliberation on national issues

• Discuss how Americans judge presidential performance and what makes for presidential greatness

Introduction

Presidents must deliberate with other governmental actors as well as the public in order to accomplish their goals.

Presidents have unique advantages as well as unique problems in deliberation.

Historical Development of the Presidency:Creating the Presidency

Features of the presidency

• Single person has executive power

• President has a variety of powers

• Legislature does not select president

• Presidential term is four years

International Perspectives

Presidents and prime ministers

Prime ministers share power with members of parliament that serve in the cabinet.

American presidents rise to power through elections, not congressional service.

Historical Development of the Presidency:Citizenship and the Presidency

Article II, Section I sets forth the citizenship requirements for the presidency which require the presidency to be either “a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United States, at the time of the adoption of the Constitution.”

Historical Development of the Presidency:Washington and the Early Presidents

How did the following early presidents contribute to the office?

1. George Washington2. John Adams3. Thomas Jefferson

Historical Development of the Presidency:Jackson and the Democratization

Jackson was the first president to

• Speak directly to citizens, bypassing Congress

• Interpret reelection as popular endorsement

• Call himself the direct representative of citizens

Historical Development of the Presidency:Lincoln and the Civil War

Lincoln faced many struggles during the Civil War and one of his more controversial actions was the suspension of habeas corpus.

Was the suspension of habeas corpus by Lincoln constitutional? Why or why not?

Historical Development of the Presidency:Rise of the Modern Presidency

Theodore Roosevelt

• Believed president was “a steward of the people”

• Called the presidency a “bully pulpit”

• Use of rhetoric to develop policyBettmann/CORBIS

Historical Development of the Presidency:Rise of the Modern Presidency

Woodrow Wilson

• Scholar of American government (had a Ph.D.)

• Made presidency center of policymaking

• Shaped theory of modern presidency

Historical Development of the Presidency:Rise of the Modern Presidency

Franklin D. Roosevelt

• Added political skill and charisma to presidency

• Elected to presidency four times

• Dominant on the national political scene

Bettmann/CORBIS

Historical Development of the Presidency:The Contemporary Presidency

Since FDR, most presidents have embraced the role of legislative leader.

Contemporary presidents use rhetoric to influence public opinion.

Pete Souza/Mai /Landov

Historical Development of the Presidency:The Contemporary Presidency

Rethinking presidential power

The Vietnam War and Watergate made many Americans rethink presidential power.

Nixon’s successors had more low-key governing styles.

Historical Development of the Presidency:The Contemporary Presidency

Ronald Reagan

Reagan spoke against big government.

Reagan relied on rhetoric so much that he earned the nickname “The Great Communicator.”

Myths and Misinformation

Reagan and the size of government

Reagan’s quote concerning the size of government has been misconstrued.

Reagan had a more flexible approach to government than some would admit.

Historical Development of the Presidency:The Contemporary Presidency

Reagan’s successors

• Have had a significant impact on foreign and national security policy

• Not as dominant in areas of domestic policy

• Controversy over president’s powers renewed after 9/11

Historical Development of the Presidency:The Contemporary Presidency

Barack Obama

• Refashioned national security policy

• Passed a large stimulus plan through Congress

• Led federal “bailout” of banking and auto industry

• Pushing for major national health care reform

Organization of the Executive Branch:The Vice Presidency

Nine vice presidents have become president.

Until recently, the vice president did not have many powers as the only constitutional duty of the office is serving as president of the Senate.

Organization of the Executive Branch:Executive Office of the President

Created in 1939, the Executive Office of the President is the formal staff organization of the White House.

Presidents have delegated authority to these staffers in different ways.

Executive Office of the Presidency:The Cabinet

The Cabinet is the president’s formal advisers.

There are 15 cabinet-level departments.

Presidents rely on their cabinet secretaries in many ways.

Organization of the Executive Branch:The Special Case of National Security

The National Security Council (NSC) was established in 1947 to deliberate about national security and foreign policy.

Presidents typically prefer to make decisions related to national security based on deliberation with the NSC.

Organization of the Executive Branch:White House Deliberation

Two obstacles in deliberation

1. Groupthink

2. Prestige of presidency may intimidate people to defer to his wishes

The Presidency and the Other Branches

What effect does the interaction of the presidency with the other branches have on the exercise of executive power and the functioning of the national government?

The Presidency and the Other Branches:The Two-Way Street of Persuasion

Presidents use a mix of deliberation and bargaining to influence Congress.

Congresspersons also want to influence the president’s policy decisions.

The Presidency and the Other Branches:Vetoes

Presidents may influence legislation through vetoes.

Vetoes are typically more common in times of divided government, but the president does rely on his party to provide opposition to sustain vetoes.

The Presidency and the Other Branches:Direct Authority

Tools of direct authority

• Proclamations• Executive orders• Signing statements• Recess appointments• Executive agreements

The Presidency and the Other Branches:Foreign Policy and the War Power

Presidents work with their advisers to negotiate treaties with foreign countries and to make policies related to war and national defense.

The Constitution grants the power to declare war to Congress, but presidents exercise war power.

The Presidency and the Other Branches:Foreign Policy and the War Power

Throughout history, Congress has passed resolutions to support the president’s use of the armed forces for war actions.

The War Powers Resolution (1974) was passed by Congress to limit the president’s war making powers.

The Presidency and the Other Branches:Investigation, Privilege, and Impeachment

Presidents have exercised executive privilege to keep information confidential.

In U.S. v. Nixon (1974), the president’s right to exercise executive privilege was recognized by the Supreme Court.

The Presidency and the Other Branches:Investigation, Privilege, and Impeachment

Presidents may be forced out of office through the impeachment process.

The House draws up the articles of impeachment and the Senate conducts the trial.

Pledges and Promises

The presidential oath of office

The presidential oath is different from other oaths.

The words of the oath have been important in impeachment battles.

The Presidency and the Other Branches:The Judiciary

Presidents attempt to influence the judiciary through their appointments to the federal courts.

Presidents also appoint the solicitor general, who is responsible for government litigation in the Supreme Court.

The Political Presidency

When and how do presidents deliberate with the general public?

Do you believe such deliberation is influential on presidential behavior? Why or why not?

The Political Presidency: Links to Parties and Interest Groups

Presidents want to influence public opinion and may try to do so through party activists and interest groups.

There are limitations placed on the president’s use of government resources for political activities such as election campaigns.

The Political Presidency: Communication and the White House

Contemporary presidents have emphasized communication with the public and to do that, they have employed press secretaries and speechwriters to assist them.

How does speechwriting foster deliberation?

The Political Presidency: Presidents and Public Opinion

Many factors influence the public’s opinion of the president, but the economy and national security have greater impact.

What is the rally effect and how does that affect the president’s public opinion numbers?

The Political Presidency: Presidents, Sacrifice, and Citizenship

During difficult times, the president often asks Americans to sacrifice.

Asking for sacrifice may have an impact on a president’s public opinion ratings.

Presidential Greatness

Two factors in assessing presidential greatness

1. Time and chance

2. Courage and conviction

Presidential Greatness

Source: From Intercollegiate Review (Spring 1998). Copyright © 1988 by Intercollegiate Studies Institute, Inc.Reprinted with permission.

The Presidency and Deliberative Democracy

How do presidents contribute to deliberative democracy?

• Deliberate with advisers and aides

• Work to influence Congress

• Participate in national debate to influence public opinion

Deliberation, Citizenship, and You

Influencing public deliberation

Imagine you are the president’s speechwriter and he asks you to write a speech on a subject that deserves more national attention. What would you write about? Who is your audience?

Summary

• President protects nation, carries out laws

• Presidents have been legislative leaders

• Presidency is more than just one person

• Presidents need to mobilize public support