Chapter20.ppt

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QUESTIONNAIRES

© LOUIS COHEN, LAWRENCE

MANION, AND KEITH MORRISON



STRUCTURE OF THE CHAPTER

• Ethical issues• Approaching the planning of a questionnaire

• Types of questionnaire items

• Asing sensiti!e questions

• A!oi"ing pitfalls in question #riting• Sequencing questions

• $uestionnaires containing fe# !er%al items

• The layout of the questionnaire

• Co!ering letters&sheets an" follo#'up letters• Piloting the questionnaire

• Practical consi"erations in questionnaire "esign

• A"ministering questionnaires

• Processing questionnaire "ata



ETH(CA) (SSUES

• (ntrusion• (nforme" consent

• Rights to #ith"ra# at any stage or not tocomplete particular items

• *eneficence• +on'maleficence

• Confi"entiality, anonymity an" non'tracea%ility

• Threat or sensiti!ity• A!oi"ance of %ias

• -ali"ity an" relia%ility in the questionnaire

• Reactions of the respon"ent



APPROACH(+. THE P)A++(+. OF A

$UEST(O++A(RE

• Stage One/ 0eci"e the purposes&o%1ecti!es&research questions2

• Stage Two: 0eci"e the population an" sample

• Stage Three/ (temi3e the topics&constructs&concepts2

• Stage Four / 0eci"e the in"s of measures orresponses nee"e"2

• Stage Five/ 4rite the questionnaire items2

• Stage Six / Chec that each research questionhas %een co!ere"2

• Stage Seven/ Pilot the questionnaire an" refine2

• Stage Eight : A"minister the questionnaire5



OPERAT(O+A)(6(+. A

$UEST(O++A(RE

• Clarify the questionnaire7s general purposes an"

then translate them into a specific, concrete aim

or set of aims5

• ("entify an" itemi3e su%si"iary topics that relateto its central purpose5

• Formulate specific information requirements

relating to each issue5• Plan #ith the "ata analysis in min"5



STRUCTURE0, SE8('STRUCTURE0 A+0

U+STRUCTURE0 $UEST(O++A(RES

• The larger the si3e of the sample, the morestructure", close" an" numerical thequestionnaire may ha!e to %e5

• The smaller the si3e of the sample, the lessstructure", more open an" #or"'%ase" thequestionnaire may %e5

• Structure" questions tae a lot of time to set up

%ut then a short time to process an" analy3e5• Open questions tae a shorter time to set up %ut

a longer time to process an" analy3e5



T9PES OF $UEST(O+

• Open to close"

• Choose the metric :scale of "ata;/

< +ominal

< Or"inal

< (nter!al

< Ratio

• 0o not assume that respon"ents ha!e the

information&no#le"ge&!ie#s



T9PES OF $UEST(O+

DICHOTOMOUS

MULTIPLECHOICE

RATING SCALES

OPEN-ENDED

YES/NO

ONE/MANYRESPONSES

ODD/EVEN

NUMBERS

FREE RESPONSE



T9PES OF $UEST(O+

RANKING

RATIO DATA

CONSTANT SUM

RATIO DATA

1st /!"# ETC#

MANYRESPONSES

DISTRIBUTING

MARKS

MARKS OUT

OF TEN



0(CHOTO8OUS $UEST(O+S

• .oo" for clear ans#ers2

• 9es&no questions are often %etter rephrase" as

=to #hat e>tent7 or =ho# much7 types of question5



8U)T(P)E CHO(CE

• +ee" for a pilot to gather e>hausti!e categories

of response2

• 0o not allo# for range of response2

• (f more than one response permitte" then eachchoice is a separate !aria%le5



)(?ERT SCA)ES• Useful for measuring "egrees of intensity of feeling2

• +o assumption of equal inter!als2

• +o assumptions of matche" intensity of feeling2

• +o #ay of no#ing if respon"ents are telling the truth2

• +o #ay of no#ing if there shoul" %e other categoriesor items2

• Halo effect2

• Allo#s for "ifferent scaling an" mi"'points, e5g5/

$%& st'(!)*+ "s%)' . !t' %)' !('"s%)' . st'(!) %)'0

$& !(t %t %** . % 2'+ )'%t "%*0

• Central ten"ency2

• Or"inal "ata5



SE8A+T(C 0(FFERE+T(A) SCA)ES

• A #or" an" its semantic opposite, e5g5/

< Approacha%le 5 5 5 unapproacha%le

< .enerous 5 5 5 8ean

< Frien"ly 5 5 5 hostile

• Same concerns as for )iert scales5



OPE+'E+0E0 $UEST(O+S

• Ena%le authentic responses2

• 8ore time'consuming an" "ifficult to

analy3e&process5



RA+?(+. SCA)ES

• Ena%les comparisons to %e ma"e %y

respon"ents across items2

• Ena%les sensiti!ity of response to %e a""resse"2

• Can %e =strong on reality7 of "ecision maing2

• Too many items to ran may result in unrealistic

raning :people may not ha!e strong enough

opinions to %e a%le to ran;• Too many "ecisions to %e ma"e2

• Or"inal "ata5



RAT(O 0ATA/ 8A+9 RESPO+SES

• A!oi"s forcing responses into categories2

• Allo#s for !ery great accuracy :e5g5 =ho# ol" are

you@7;

• Ratio "ata/ mean, stan"ar" "e!iation, me"ian



CO+STA+T SU8

• 0i!i"e a fi>e" num%er of points %et#een a range ofitems2

• 9iel"s priorities, comparati!e highs an" lo#s an"equality of choice quicly an" easily < in the

respon"ents7 o#n terms2• Requires participants to mae comparati!e

1u"gements an" choices across items2• 8ay %e too "ifficult if there are too many items

across #hich to sprea" mars2• People may mae computational errors in"istri%uting mars2

• Or"inal "ata5



RAT(O 0ATA/ 8AR?S OUT OF TE+

• Ena%les proportions&ratios to %e calculate"2

• Ena%les high le!el statistics to %e compute",

e5g5 regression, factor analysis, structuralequation mo"elling5



AS?(+. SE+S(T(-E $UEST(O+S

• Use open rather than close" questions a%out sociallyun"esira%le %eha!iour5

• Use long rather than short questions a%out sociallyun"esira%le %eha!iour5

• Use familiar #or"s #hen asing a%out sociallyun"esira%le %eha!iour5

• Use "ata from informants5

• 0eli%erately loa" questions so that o!erstatementsof socially "esira%le %eha!iour an" un"erstatementsof socially un"esira%le %eha!iour are re"uce"5

• 4ith regar" to socially un"esira%le %eha!iour, firstlyas #hether the respon"ent has engage" in that%eha!iour pre!iously, an" then mo!e to asing a%out

current %eha!iour5



AS?(+. SE+S(T(-E $UEST(O+S

• )ocate sensiti!e topics #ithin a "iscussion of otherless sensiti!e matters5

• Use alternati!e #ays of asing stan"ar" questions5

• As respon"ents to eep "iaries5

• At the en" of an inter!ie# as respon"ents their

!ie#s on the sensiti!ity of the topics that ha!e %een

"iscusse"5

•Fin" #ays of !ali"ating the "ata5

• As questions %ecome more threatening an"

sensiti!e, e>pect greater %ias an" unrelia%ility5



=RU)ES7 FOR $UEST(O++A(RE

0ES(.+ :;

• E!s3' t%t %4 ss3 s 56*('" ! 7('t%! (! 83st(!2

• D4" t 7(st %66'(6'%t 9!" (: 83st(!

%!" t 9!" (: s4%*0• P*%! ;t t 9!" (: %!%*+ss ! 7!"0

• A2(" *%"!) 83st(!s/ =0o you prefer a%stract,aca"emic'type courses, or "o#n'to'earth, practical

courses that ha!e some %enefit in "ay'to'"ay #or@7• E!s3' t%t t 83st(! st7 "(s !(t :'%7

t %!s;' / =The tourism in"ustry is successful%ecause 5 5 5 575




0ES(.+ :B;

• A2(" )'(; 83st(!s/ =4hat particularaspects of the current positi!istic&interpreti!e "e%ate#oul" you lie to see reflecte" in the course of"e!elopmental psychology@7

• A2(" !)%t2s %!" "(3* !)%t2s/ =Ho#far "o you agree that #ithout a Consumer Associationthe pu%lic cannot "iscuss consumer matters@7

• A2(" 4(76*5 83st(!s/ =4oul" you prefer ashort a#ar"'%earing course #ith part'"ay release an"one e!ening per #ee atten"ance, or a longer, non'a#ar"'%earing course #ith full'"ay release, or the #hole"ay "esigne" on part'"ay release #ithout e!eningatten"ance@7

• A2(" t(( 7%!+ (6!-!"" 83st(!s (! s*:-

4(76*t(! 83st(!!%'s




0ES(.+ :;

• T'+ t( 4(!2't "4(t(7(3s 83st(!s !t('%t!) s4%*s/ =0o you5 5 57 & =Are you5 5 57 %ecome=Ho# far 5 5 5@7& =Ho# much 5 5 5@7

• P'(2" %!4(' st%t7!ts :(' '%t!) s4%*s0• H%2 % 7!737 :2-6(!t '%t!) s4%* : +(3

(6t :(' 3!2! !37's0

• D4" ;t' t( %2 ("" (' 2!

!37'" '%t!) s4%*s0• A2(" 5t'7s ! '%t!) s4%*s : e5g5 =al#ays7,

=ne!er7;

• A2(" t(( 7%!+ (6!-!"" 83st(!s !

*%') s3'2+s0




0ES(.+ :D;

• O!*+ %s9 (! t!) %t % t7< A!oi"/ =ho# much

"o you thin *usiness courses shoul" %e a!aila%le

to all stu"ents, or shoul" they only %e a!aila%le to

higher a%ility stu"ents@7• A2(" %7)3t+< =Are your parents in

employment@7 =Ha!e you "one your home#or

this #ee@7 0o you "o your home#or regularly@7

=Ho# many staff are there in your institution@7 Ho#many computers "oes your institution ha!e@7

• A2(" t'%t!!)/''t%t!) 83st(!s< =Ho#

frequently "o you "rin alcohol each #ee@7




0ES(.+ :;

• C*%':+ t 9!" (: 's6(!s s(3)t ! %!(6!-!"" 83st(!/ =Please in"icate the mostimportant factors that re"uce staff participation in"ecision maing57

• St%'t ;t s76* :%4t3%* 83st(!s %!"t! 7(2 t( 7(' s!st2 83st(!s0

• P'(2" !st'34t(!s :(' (; t( 4(76*t%!" 't3'! t 83st(!!%'0

• H%2 % 4(2' st ;4 56*%!s t63'6(ss (: t 83st(!!%' %!" ;4sts (3t t4%* ss3s#




0ES(.+ :;

• E!s3' 4%t)('s %' 73t3%**+ 54*3s2 %!"

4(76'!s2 $4(2'!) %** 6(ss* 4(4s

(: 's6(!s&0

• A2(" 6'ss3's!)/%s!) + %ss(4%t(!<e5g5 ="o you agree #ith your school principal

that %oys are more trou%lesome than girls@7

• H%2 t'%!s*%t(!s 2':"/3s %49

t'%!s*%t(!0

• K6 t %s s('t, s76* %!" 4*%' %s 6(ss*0

• P*(t t 83st(!!%'#



SE$UE+C(+. $UEST(O+S

• T%9 4%' ;t ('"' ::4ts < Earlier responses affect later responses < Early tone&moo"'setting affects later moo"s in

completing questionnaires

• P'7%4+ ::4t < (tems high in a list ten" to %e chosen more than items

lo#er in a list < Respon"ents choose the first reasona%le ans#er

from a list, e!en though a later response statement

might %e more fitting• A2(" 6*%4!) s!st2 83st(!s %t t st%'t

< Em%e" them later questions• M(2 :'(7 (=4t2 :%4ts t( s3=4t2 2;s



$UEST(O++A(RES CO+TA(+(+.

FE4 -ER*A) (TE8S

• A questionnaire might/

< inclu"e !isual information an" as participants

to respon" to this :e5g5 pictures, cartoons,

"iagrams; < might inclu"e some pro1ecti!e !isual

techniques :e5g5 "ra# a picture or "iagram;

< 1oin t#o relate" pictures #ith a line, #rite the#or"s or #hat someone is saying or thining

in a =%u%%le7 picture



THE )A9OUT OF THE $UEST(O++A(RE • (t must loo easy, attracti!e an" interesting5• ?eep it as uncomplicate" as possi%le5• Clarity of #or"ing5• Simplicity of "esign5• Simple, short an" clear instructions for completion5

• A!oi" placing instructions at the %ottom of a page5• *rea "o#n long lists of num%ere" items into separate

sections, each item in the section starting #ith the num%er =75• 8ae it clear if respon"ents are e>empte" from completing

certain questions or sections :filter;, an" #here they go ne>t ifthey are e>empte"5

• (nclu"e a preliminary statement of anonymity&confi"entiality5• Place response categories to the imme"iate right of the te>t5



THE CO-ER(+. )ETTER SHOU)0 5 5 5

• Pro!i"e a title to the research2• (ntro"uce the researcher an" contact "etails2• (n"icate the purposes of the research2• (n"icate the importance an" %enefits of the

research2• in"icate #hy the respon"ent has %een selecte" forreceipt of the questionnaire2

• (n"icate any professional %acing, en"orsement,or sponsorship of, or permission for, the research2

• Set out ho#, #here an" %y #hat "ate to return thequestionnaire2

• (n"icate #hat to "o if questions or uncertaintiesarise2



THE CO-ER(+. )ETTER SHOU)0 5 5 5

• (n"icate any incenti!es for completing thequestionnaire2

• Pro!i"e assurances of confi"entiality, anonymityan" non'tracea%ility2

• (n"icate ho# the results #ill an" #ill not %e"isseminate", an" to #hom2• Than respon"ents in a"!ance for their co'

operation5



• To chec clarity of items&layout&sections&presentation&instructions2

• To gain fee"%ac on appearance2

• To eliminate am%iguities&uncertainty&poor #or"ing2

• To chec rea"a%ility2

• To gain fee"%ac on question type :suita%ility&feasi%ility&format :e5g5 open&close"&multiple choice;2

• To gain fee"%ac on appropriateness of question stems2

• To generate categories for responses in multiple choices2

• To generate items for further e>ploration&"iscussion2

• To gain fee"%ac on response categories2

• To gain fee"%ac on length&timing :#hen to con"uct the"ata collection as #ell as ho# long each taes to complete:e5g5 each inter!ie#&questionnaire;;&co!erage&ease of

completion2

PURPOSES OF P()OT(+.



• To i"entify re"un"ant items&questions :those #ith little"iscrimina%ility;2

• To i"entify irrele!ant questions2

• To i"entify non responses2‑

• To i"entify ho# moti!ating&non engaging&threatening&‑

intrusi!e&offensi!e items may %e2

• To i"entify sensiti!e topics an" pro%lems in con"uctinginter!ie#s2

• To test for inter rater relia%ility2‑

• To minimise counter transference2‑

• To gain fee"%ac on lea"ing questions2

• To i"entify items #hich are too easy&"ifficult&comple>&remote from e>perience2

• To i"entify commonly misun"erstoo" or non complete"‑

items5

PURPOSES OF P()OT(+.



PRACT(CA) CO+S(0ERAT(O+S (+

$UEST(O++A(RE 0ES(.+

• Operationali3e the purposes of the questionnaire5• *e prepare" to ha!e a pre'pilot to generate items for a pilot

questionnaire, an" then %e rea"y to mo"ify the pilotquestionnaire for the final !ersion5

• (f the pilot inclu"es many items, an" the intention is tore"uce the num%er of items through statistical analysis orfee"%ac, then %e prepare" to ha!e a secon" roun" ofpiloting, after the first pilot has %een mo"ifie"5

• 0eci"e on the most appropriate type of question <"ichotomous, multiple choice, ran or"erings, rating scales,

constant sum, ratio, close", open5• Ensure that e!ery issue has %een e>plore" e>hausti!ely

an" comprehensi!ely2 "eci"e on the content an" e>plore itin "epth an" %rea"th5

• Use se!eral items to measure a specific attri%ute, concept

or issue5




$UEST(O++A(RE 0ES(.+

• As more close" than open questions for ease of analysis:particularly in a large sample;5

• *alance comprehensi!eness an" e>hausti!e co!erage ofissues #ith the "emoti!ating factor of ha!ing respon"entscomplete se!eral pages of a questionnaire5

• As only one thing at a time in a question5 Use singlesentences per item #here!er possi%le5

• ?eep response categories simple5• A!oi" 1argon5

• ?eep statements in the present tense #here!er possi%le5• Stri!e to %e unam%iguous an" clear in the #or"ing5• *e simple, clear an" %rief #here!er possi%le5• Clarify the in"s of responses require" in open questions5




$UEST(O++A(RE 0ES(.+ • *alance %re!ity #ith politeness, e5g5 replace a %lunt phrase lie

=marital status7 #ith a gentler =please in"icate #hether you aremarrie", li!ing #ith a partner, or single555575

• Ensure a %alance of questions #hich as for facts an" opinion5• A!oi" lea"ing questions5

• Try to a!oi" threatening questions5• 0o not assume that respon"ents no# the ans#ers, or ha!e

information to ans#er the questions, or #ill al#ays tell the truth:#ittingly or not;55

• A!oi" maing the questions too har"5

• *alance the num%er of negati!e questions #ith the num%er ofpositi!e questions5

• Consi"er the rea"a%ility le!els of the questionnaire an" therea"ing an" #riting a%ilities of the respon"ents5

• Put sensiti!e questions later in the questionnaire5

• (ntersperse sensiti!e questions #ith non'sensiti!e questions5




$UEST(O++A(RE 0ES(.+ • *e !ery clear on the layout of the questionnaire so that it is

unam%iguous an" attracti!e5• A!oi", #here possi%le, splitting an item o!er more than one

page,5• Ensure that the respon"ent no#s ho# to enter a reply to each

question5• Pilot the questionnaire5• 4ith the "ata analysis in min"5• 0eci"e ho# to a!oi" falsification of responses5• *e satisfie" if you recei!e a G per cent response to the

questionnaire• 0eci"e #hat you #ill "o #ith missing "ata5• (nclu"e a co!ering letter5• (f the questionnaire is going to %e a"ministere" %y someone

other than the researcher, ensure that instructions for

a"ministration are pro!i"e" an" that they are clear5



8ETHO0S OF A08(+(STER(+.

$UEST(O++A(RES

• Post

• Self'a"ministration in presence of researcher

• Self'a"ministration #ithout researcher present

• (n situ completion :e5g5 #orplace& home;• Face'to'face inter!ie#

• Telephone

• (nternet



PROCESS(+. $UEST(O++A(RE 0ATA

• Co"ing

• 0ata re"uction techniques

• E"iting an" cleaning "ata

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