Chapter_6

Chapter 6: Using Observation Checklists, Oral Tests and Portfolio Assessment

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In the last chapter we discussed the role of projects and practicals in the assessment

of student learning. In this chapter, we will examine another three types of

assessment tools commonly used in assessing student learning in certain subject

areas. These assessment tools are observation checklists, oral tests and portfolio

assessment. Educators are always observing behaviour in the classroom and making

decisions based on their observations. Oral tests which are often used in the language

arts is becoming a popular evaluation technique in other subject areas. Increasingly,

portfolio assessment is gaining importance as an assessment strategy seeking to

present a more holistic view of the learner.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

6.0 Introduction 6.1 What is Observation?

6.2 Assessing Behaviour Through

Observation

6.3 Assessing Students Through Oral

Presentations

6.4 Example 1: Oral Presentation in

Primary School Science

6.5 Example 2: Oral Presentations in

Economics

6.6 Portfolio Assessment

6.7 Summary

Key Terms

References

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Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

Explain how observations may be used as an assessment technique

Discuss how and what to observe in the classroom

Justify the role of oral presentations in subjects other than language

Discuss how oral presentations may be used to assess learning in different subjects

Explain the role of portfolio assessment as an alternative assessment strategy

Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 2: What to Assess

Chapter 3: Using Objective Tests

Chapter 4: Using Essay Tests

Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals

Chapter 6: Using Observations, Oral Tests,

and Portfolios

Chapter 7: Reliability and Validity of

Assessment Methods

Chapter 8: Item Analysis

Chapter 9: Analysis of Test Scores and

Reporting


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6.1 WHAT IS OBSERVATION?

What is observation? Generally, it refers to the process of gaining information

through ones senses especially, from seeing and hearing. Behavioural observation refers to the observation of behaviour other than that obtained from paper-and-pencil

tests (such as a science test or an attitude scale). There are two basic approaches to

observation qualitative and quantitative.

Qualitative observation is essentially descriptive. The observer begins without preconceived ideas about what will be observed and describes behaviour that

seems important. The observer can be actively involved (i.e. active observer) and

joins the group being observed and participates in its activities. Alternatively, the

observer only watches what is occurring. Whichever, technique is used prolonged

periods of observation are required. Qualitative observations may reveal an in-

depth understanding of the subject observed but they are difficult to implement

because they require sophisticated and highly trained observers, the analysis of

data collected takes a long time; the notes kept by the observer may be difficult to

interpret and summarise; and more importantly it is difficult to maintain

objectivity and reliability (Suen and Ary, 1989).

Quantitative observation involves determination of the behaviours that are to be observed. The time and place for observation are carefully selected and specified.

Usually, the frequency of occurrence of a particular behaviour is recorded using a

predetermined rubric. A major criticism of the quantitative approach is that, it may

oversimplify the meaning and interpretation of behaviour. Despite this criticism,

quantitative analysis of behaviour has proven to be very useful in developing

theory and practice related to the modification of human behaviour.

6.2 ASSESSING BEHAVIOUR THROUGH OBSERVATION

As humans, we are always monitoring the behaviour of others. How often

have we described the behaviour of a colleague as unreasonable, temperamental or

disgusting based on our observation! Teachers are constantly monitoring their

students. Sometimes they are just keeping an eye on things to make sure that their

classrooms are orderly or just keeping track of how things are going on. Often they

notice behaviour or situations that seem important and require their attention. For

example, Radzi is wandering around the classroom, Kumar is asleep, Chee Seng is

looking out of the window and so forth. In other situations, teachers look for specific

behaviour to observe such as social behaviour that should be reinforced (e.g. to say

please), attention to task (e.g. look at the wall-map), performance of particular skills and so forth. Information obtained from observations can be used to make academic

and instructional decisions for example, planning a lesson for students who appear to be uninterested in mathematics. The are two types of observational systems:

obtrusive and unobtrusive.


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Latency

Frequency

Amplitude

Obtrusive Observation: In this type of observation, students are aware that they are being observed. For example, the teacher has an observational

checklist and observes how students behave during group activities or in the

science laboratory. With this type of observation, students who are conscious

that they are being observed may put on their best behaviour and respond

enthusiastically to impress the teacher.

Unobtrusive Observation: In this type of observation, students are not aware that they are being observed. For example, observers can sit behind or at the

side of a classroom, and they can avoid eye contact and verbal interactions

with students. Gradually, most students become desensitised to observers

when the observers become part of their daily environment.

DIMENSIONS OF BEHAVIOUR

Behaviour is observable and behaviour is measured in terms of its observable

attributes. Salvia and Ysseldyke (1995) propose that behaviour may be measured

based on four dimensions: duration, latency, frequency and amplitude (see Figure

6.1).

Figure 6.1 Assessing Dimensions of Behaviour in a Classroom

Duration: The duration of a behaviour may be assessed if it has a distinct beginning and ending. For example, in a 30 minute activity, Shalin was

walking around for about 10 minutes.

Frequency: Similarly, the frequency of a behaviour may be assessed if it has a distinct beginning and ending. It refers to the occurrences of a particular type

of behaviour. For example, in one period of 45 minutes, Kumar walked to the

back of the class four times.

Duration


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Latency: The term latency refers to the length of time between an instruction is give and the beginning of the behaviour. For example, a teacher might

request students to take out their history textbook. Teik Leongs latency for that task is the length of time between that teachers instruction and Teik Leong s placing his book on his desk.

Amplitude: The term amplitude refers to the intensity or strength of a behaviour.

WHY USE OBSERVATIONS?

Observational techniques are commonly used to informally assess student behaviours,

attitudes, skills, concepts or processes. Anecdotal notes, checklist, video, audio

recording or photos may be used to formalise and document the observations made.

Observations are used:

To collect data on behaviours that are difficult to assess by other methods (e.g., attitude toward problem solving, selection and usage of a specific

strategy, modelling a concept with a manipulative skill, ability to work

effectively in a group, persistence, concentration and so forth).

To observe and record the way students solve problems and complete tasks.

To ascertain whether students (individually or in a group) are attaining the intended objectives with observational tools (Do I need to reteach? Are

students ready to move on?).

HOW DOES ONE USE OBSERVATIONS TO ASSESS STUDENTS?

Record and date your observations during and soon after the observation.

Develop a shorthand system and be careful that you avoid making inferences or

judgement but record what you actually observe. It is best that you observe in a

natural classroom setting so that you can see how they respond under normal

conditions. It is easier to observe students behaviour if they are working in small groups rather than alone. Have an observation plan, but be flexible enough to note

other significant behaviours. You may find it helpful to record either many behaviours

for one student or one behaviour for many students.

SELF-CHECK 6.1

a) What is the difference between obtrusive and unobtrusive observation of classroom behaviour?

b) Discuss the FOUR dimensions of assessing behaviour through observations?


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CRITERIA Student A Student B Student C

Behaviour Exhibited:

Makes detailed observations

Able to make inferences from observations

Uses right measurement units

Measures accurately

Listens carefully

Communicates clearly

Recognises patterns

Controls variables

Interprets results cautiously

Makes predictions based on data

Attitudes:

Confidence in using science

Flexibility in doing science

Self-reflection in scientific thinking

Persevering at scientific tasks

Table 6.1 Observational Checklist for Science Process Skills and Attitude

[source: Alaska Department of Education & Early Development.

Curriculum Framework. June. 1996]

Table 6.1 is an example of an Observational Checklist that may used in assessing

behaviours in the science laboratory. Note that TWO kinds of student behaviours are

observed, namely; the actual behaviours exhibited and their attitudes (which is

inferred from their behaviours).


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6.3 ASSESSING STUDENTS THROUGH ORAL PRESENTATIONS

WHAT IS MEANT BY SPEAKING Students consistently use oral language as their primary vehicle for explaining,

clarifying (by asking questions), giving their opinion, expressing their feelings and so

forth. Oral expression is the core process in formulating and sharing human experience (Marzano, 1992). It is a key pedagogical method through which students make meaning by stating what they have learned in their own words. When students

do this, they are demonstrating ability to speak clearly (intelligibility), ability to adapt

GENERAL OBSERVATIONAL CHECKLIST

OF STUDENT BEHAVIOUR

This is a checklist which may be used in observing student behaviour in any

classroom. However, not all the statements listed will apply. 1. Which students appear to be leaders? Note behaviours that suggest this. 2. Which students finish their work first? What might contribute to this behaviour

and what are the apparent outcomes?

3. Which students finish their work last? What might contribute to this behaviour and what are the apparent outcomes?

4. What do the students do with free time? How are these activities structured? 5. What behaviours indicate the degree of involvement of students with assigned

work and unstructured activities?

6. Which students tend to get off task easily? Under what conditions are these behaviours observed?

7. Which students consistently participate in group activities? Under what conditions are these behaviours observed?

8. Which students appear reluctant to participate in group activities? Under what conditions are these behaviours observed?

9. Which students seem to be dependent on the teachers time or attention? What behaviours suggest this?

6.1 ACTIVITY

a) Using the above General Observational Checklist, observe

student behaviours in one of the classes you teach.

b) Discuss your findings with your classmates.

c) What modifications would you have to make to the

Checklist to use it in your subject area?


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the forms of speech to suit the occasion, ability to express ideas without hesitation and

an in-depth understanding of the knowledge acquired. This ability to express oneself

orally cannot be captured in a paper-and-pencil test.

ORAL ASSESSMENT IN LANGUAGE SUBJECTS

Most of us are aware that oral tests are widely used in the language classroom

(Bahasa Malaysia, English, Mandarin, Tamil, Arabic and so forth) focusing on the

ability of students to communicate ideas and articulate clearly. Macintosh and Hale

(1976) suggest that oral assessment ought to focus on three areas of assessment:

Technical Excellence: This would include such factors as clarity of enunciation, fluency, quality of voice, extent and range of vocabulary,

correct emphasis and intonation and freedom from serious grammatical

error

Ability to Communicate: This would include, for example, the ability to follow, develop and maintain an argument, and the ability to convey ideas

to another person in a clear and coherent manner.

The Human Factor: This would include for example, the natural flow of ideas, evidence of a sense of humour, signs of originality and sincerity,

signs of interest in others and in the world around the student.

The oral assessment of language can be highly structured or it can relatively

unstructured. When it becomes too structured, it may loose some of the elements of

authenticity and the testing situation may be artificial. Measurement of speaking

ability is a difficult task because you need to convert a common everyday activity

such as speaking into a testing context. The challenge is to find a balance between

authenticity and objectivity. If the testing situation is unstructured, it may be authentic

but you may sacrifice objectivity and vice-versa. According to Frith and Macintosh

(1984), the most frequently used techniques in the oral assessment of language are:

o Reading a piece of prose, poetry or drama o Reading from a book which the student has enjoyed o Picture-bases tests o Role playing o A short talk, based upon some recent experience of the student o Answering questions asked by the examiner, or by other pupils in a group

situation

o An individual interview which remains a popular technique in many examination settings

ORAL ASSESSMENT IN OTHER SUBJECTS

In its simplest form, speaking can be defined as saying words. However, when using speaking as a tool for assessment, most teachers tend to focus on the more

narrow definition of public speaking which is making a speech before an audience. Using this more narrow definition, assessment of speaking has tended to focus only

on the mechanics of giving the speech such as delivery, organisation, audience, and so

forth.


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Here, we want to broaden the

definition of speaking to include oral discourse. Oral discourse is more

than mere speaking but also includes

talking about the content (Marzano,

1988). Teachers have tended to focus

on the language aspects of oral tests

and ignored the content aspect of such

tests. If content is included as an

important component of oral tests,

than this form of evaluation may be

adopted in other subjects in the

curriculum such as science,

geography, history, religious

education, moral education and so

forth (see Figure 6.2).

One of the most common

approaches adopted by many teachers

is to ask students to get up in front of the class and give an oral report on some

subject. How can an oral report assignment become a vehicle for students to

demonstrate their content understanding? The following two examples, illustrate how

oral assessment may be used in the assessment of science economics learning

outcomes.

6.4 EXAMPLE 1:

ORAL ASSESSMENT IN PRIMARY SCHOOL SCIENCE

It may seem strange for teachers to include oral

presentations as a teaching-learning strategy in science. It

may be even more strange to use it as an assessment

technique. Traditionally, many educators tend to relate

oral assessment to the language arts. The following is an

example of how a teacher has incorporated oral

assessment in science teaching [source: Oregon State

Education Department, 2004, Content Standards for

Primary School Science]. The class consists of Year

Three students who were given the task of gathering

information in the library on an animal of their choosing

(see Table 6.2).

Students were instructed write their notes on cards

on basic information about the animal and prepare a 3-4

minute speech to present in front of the class. The main

emphasis of the task was how to stand in front of the

group, maintain eye contact, and project one's voice.

Students are given a short list of questions to answer

which also focussed on the content of the speech.

Figure 6.2 Oral Assessment in Science at

the Primary Level

Gosh.. I have to make an oral

presentation of

my experiment


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Primary Science: Instructions for the Oral Presentation

Here is your task:

Select an animal from the following list. Select an animal that you find interesting and that you would like to learn more about.

Frog, Spider, Bear, Tiger, Butterfly, Cat, Whale, Dolphin, Hornbill, Cobra, Sparrow,

Crow, Buffalo, Dog.

Find out as much as you can about the animal you have selected. Get information form books, magazines, people and the internet. The media

specialist will also help you how to use the Internet to more information.

Focus on the following:

o How does this animal's looks change from when it is a baby until it becomes an adult?

o Where is this animal's habitat? What does this animal's home look like?

o What does this animal eat when it is a baby? When it is young? When it is an adult?

o What does this animal do in different seasons (spring, summer, winter, and fall)? How does the animal change based on the weather?

As you find out more about your animal, write notes about what you learned on

note cards.

Prepare a speech about your animal. The speech should be about 34 minutes long. Use the information on your note cards to create your speech.

Table 6.2 Guidelines on What Students are Required to Do

Students were told that they could use props to help them when they made their oral

presentation. For example, they could use pictures of the animal they were going to

speak about. They could refer to the notes jotted down on cards but they should try

not to read from the notes. Students were also told that it is OK to have someone

listen to them practice their speech and give feedback on how to improve their


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presentation. What kinds of skills do you think are being developed by these

instructions to students?

Primary Science: Sample Scoring Guide for the Oral Presentation

I did a

really great

job in this

area

I am doing

OK in this

area

I need to

work on

this

Knowledge About My Animal

I told what my animal looks like as an adult.

I told what my animal looks like as a baby to show how it changes over time.

I told where my animal lives and what its home is like.

I told what my animal eats when it is a baby, when it is young and when it is an

adult.

I told what my animal does in different seasons (spring, summer, winter, and fall)

and how it changes based on the weather.

I answered questions from the audience.

Delivery

I looked up at the audience.

I spoke loud enough for everyone to hear.

I spoke clearly.

I spoke at a good rate, not too fast or too slowly.

Organisation

I had a good beginning to my speech.

My ideas made sense and flowed one to the other.

I had a good ending for my speech.

Table 6.3 Criteria for Scoring the Oral Presentation


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Note that students are also told on how their oral presentations is going to

assessed (see Table 6.3), Focus is on delivery, organization and content knowledge;

and students are told that a good speech has a beginning, a middle, and an end.

6.5 EXAMPLE 2:

ORAL ASSESSMENT IN SECONDARY SCHOOL ECONOMICS

The following is an example using oral

presentation as an assessment method in

secondary school economics [source: Oregon

State Education Department, 2004, Content

Standards for Secondary School]. In an

economics class among 15 year olds, students

examine the topic on Social and Environmental

Responsibility in Business.

The instructional strategy adopted is

different from Example 1. Instead of making a

presentation based on their research, students do

research, write a paper and a debate. In groups

of four or five, students research a company

selected by the teacher such as companies

producing soft drinks and sports equipment (see

Table 6.4). In the assignment for the oral

presentation, two groups studying the same

company argue in support of or in opposition to

a company's environmental and social record (see Figure 6.3).

Secondary School Economics:

Guidelines for the Topic on Social and Environmental Responsibility

Name _______________________ Date ________________

Member of my group are __________________________________

My group will research this company

Figure 6.3 Oral Presentations are

Widely Adopted as an Assessment

Technique in American Schools

6.2 ACTIVITY

a) Are oral presentations widely used as an assessment

tool in your school or institution?

b) Do you think oral tests are appropriate as an assessment

technique in your subject area? Elaborate.


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_________________________________

Research

Each person in your group will research this company in order to answer the

following questions:

1. What do we mean when we say social responsibility? Environmental responsibility?

2. What does this company manufacture and market?

3. What is its gross sales and profit for the last five years?

4. How many employees does the company have?

5. How does the company operate (franchise, public corporation, etc.)?

6. Who owns the company? What other companies does it own?

7. Where is the company located, and is it a local, regional, national, multinational company?

8. Is this company socially responsible? Why or why not?

9. In this company environmentally responsible? Why or why not?

After completing your individual research, you can work together as a group

to combine and strengthen your ideas for your upcoming team debate on this

company. You must be prepared to speak either in support of or in

opposition to the company's environmental and social record. You will need

to cite a minimum of five sources in support of your position. You must also

cite a minimum of five sources to discount or refute that position.

Oral Presentation

The day before your presentation, the flip of a coin will determine which

team will speak supporting the motion and which team will speak opposing

the motion. The presentation format will be as follows:

Both Teams: Respond briefly to the above questions 1 through 7 to introduce

the rest of the class to your company (67) minutes.

Team One: Present your case citing sources to show that this company is

environmentally and/or socially responsible (5 minutes).

Team Two: Present your case citing sources to show that this company is not

environmentally and/or socially responsible (5 minutes).

Team One: Challenge the arguments of team two and reinforce your position

(3 minutes).

Team Two: Challenge the arguments of team one and reinforce your position

(3 minutes).


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Team One: State your conclusions (35 minutes).

Team Two: State your conclusions (35 minutes).

Both Teams: Respond to questions submitted by the audience (67 minutes).

Completing The Work

You will complete this task over the next three weeks, working both in class

and outside of class.

Everyone in your group must participate in the debate by presenting at least

one point or counterpoint. You will also be expected to respond to questions

from the teacher about your sources: where you found them, whether they

are primarily or secondary sources, and whether you consider them to be

reputable.

You will be given time to work in the library. You will also have an

opportunity to pursue information on the World Wide Web. Your team must

develop a plan for using your group time and for recording and organising

your data.

[source: Oregon State Education Department, 2004, Content Standards for Secondary

School].

Table 6.4 Guidelines on What Students are Required to Do

SCORING OF THE ORAL PRESENTATION

Students are provided with a scheme for scoring their oral presentation (i.e.

their conduct of the debate). The Guidelines for Scoring the presentation is shown in

Table 6.5.

Secondary School Economics: Criteria for Scoring the Oral Presentation on Social and Environmental Responsibility

Name _________________________ Date _________________________

Check the appropriate column: yes or no. An overall score will be given from 6 to

1 in the bottom Overall Score Box. A score of 6 equals a strong performance; a 1 represents a weak performance.

Content


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Yes No

Were the focus questions answered in the presentation?

Were five sources identified in support of/in opposition to

the issue?

Were responses to the opposing arguments handled well?

Were the ideas supported adequately by evidence?

Was research evident, or was the presentation based upon

personal experience and supposition?

Were questions from the audience handled well?

Overall Content Score

Organisation

Yes No

Could the main ideas be easily identified?

Was the presentation put together in such a way as to make

it easy for the audience to understand?

Were details placed in the speech for optimum impact?

Did the presentation have a credible introduction?


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Did the presentation have a strong conclusion?

Overall Organization Score

Language

Yes No

Was language carefully selected to emphasize the main

points and impress the audience?

Were the usage and grammar correct?

Was concise, vivid, and varied language used?

Overall Language Score

Delivery

Yes No

Was eye contact maintained throughout the presentation?

Was the use of gestures, movements, and other nonverbal

techniques effective?

Did the presenters speaks clearly and fluently?

Overall Delivery Score


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Table 6.5 Scoring Rubric for the Oral Presentation

[source: a) Oregon State Education Department, 2004, Content Standards for

Secondary School

b) R.J. Marzano, D. Pickering, and J. McTighe, (1993), Assessing student outcomes, Performance assessment using the Dimensions of

Learning model (p. 30), Alexandria, VA: ASCD]

Even though the debate method was adopted, the assessment of the oral

presentation still emphasised FOUR aspects, namely; Content, Organisation,

Language and Delivery.

.

6.6 PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT

WHAT IS A PORTFOLIO?

Portfolios tend to be associated with art,

where a student keeps his or her pieces of work in a

kind of folder to be presented for evaluation. Some

people may associate portfolios with the stock

market where a person or organisation keeps a

portfolio of stocks and shares owned. Hart (1994)

defines a portfolio as a container that holds evidence

of an individuals skills, ideas, interests and accomplishments. A portfolio is a purposeful

collection of the works produced by students which

reflects their efforts, progress and achievements in

different areas of the curriculum.

6.3 ACTIVITY

a) Comment on the appropriateness of the Oral Test

Checklists above in relation to your subject area.

b) What are the oral skills that you will test in your subject? c) Propose an Oral Test Checklist for testing oral skills

in your subject.


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According to Paulson, Paulson and Meyer (1991), portfolios offer a way of assessing student learning that is different from traditional methods. Portfolio

assessment provides the teacher and students an opportunity to observe students in

a broader context: taking risks, developing creative solutions, and learning to

make judgements about their own performances (p. 63).

WHAT IS PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT?

The collection of works by students are assessed and hence the term portfolio

assessment. The portfolio provides for continuous and ongoing assessment (i.e.

formative assessment) as well as assessment at the end of a semester or a year (i.e.

summative assessment). Emphasis is more on monitoring students progress towards achieving the learning outcomes of a particular subject, course or programme.

Portfolio assessment has been described as multidimensional because it allows

students to include different aspects of their works such as essays, project reports,

performance on objective tests, objects or artefacts they have produced, poems,

laboratory reports and so forth. In other words, the portfolio contains samples of work

that over an entire semester, term or year, rather than single points in time (such as

during examination week only).

Portfolio assessment represent a significant shift in thinking about the role of

assessment in education. Teachers who use this strategy in the classroom have shifted

their philosophy of assessment from merely comparing achievement (based on grades,

test score, percentile rankings) toward improving student achievement through

feedback and self-reflection.

WHY PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT?

In has frequently been suggested that paper and pencil tests (objective and

essay tests) are not able to assess all the learning outcomes in a particular subject area.

For example, many higher-level cognitive skills and the affective domain (feelings,

emotion, attitudes, values) are not adequately assessed using traditional assessment

methods. Portfolio assessment allows for the evaluation of a wider range of skills and

understandings and most importantly, it provides an opportunity for the teacher to

trace or monitor change and growth over a period of time. Since portfolio assessment

is an ongoing process, it provides an opportunity for students to reflect about their

own learning and thinking. They have an opportunity to monitor their understanding

and approaches to solving problems and decision making (Paulson, Paulson and

Meyer, 1991). Upon reflection, students can identify where they went wrong or how

they can improve themselves.

A portfolio tells a story. It is the story of knowing. Knowing about things...

Knowing oneself... Knowing an audience... Portfolios are students' own stories of

what they know, why they believe they know it, and why others should be of the

same opinion. A portfolio is opinion backed by fact... Students prove what they

know with samples of their work. (Paulson & Paulson, 1994, p.2)


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Epstein (2006), Introduction to Portfolios, Synapse Learning Design, cited in

Teachervision.com, argues that portfolio assessment:

Allows the teacher to see the student as an individual, each with his or her own unique characteristics, needs and strengths.

Emphasises improving student achievement rather than ranking students according to their performance on tests.

Help students to be more accountable for their work

Allow the adaptation of instruction to the learning styles of students

Involves students in the assessment process

Invite students to reflect upon their growth and performance as learners

However, Epstein (2006) also lists some of

the problems with portfolio assessment.

Portfolio assessments may be less reliable

because they tend to be more qualitative

rather than quantitative. Society is still

strongly oriented towards grades and test

scores and added to it most universities and

colleges still use test scores and grades as

the main admission criteria. Also, portfolio

assessment may be time consuming for

teachers and data form portfolio assessments

can be difficult to analyse.

ARE THERE DIFFERENT TYPES OF PORTFOLIOS?

There are two main types of portfolios: process oriented and product oriented

portfolios.

Process-Oriented Portfolios: These portfolios tell a story about the student and how the learner has grown. It will include earlier drafts and how these

drafts have been improved upon. For example, the first draft of a poem written

by a Year Three student reworked based on the comments by the teacher and

the student reflecting on his or her work. All the drafts and changes made are

kept in the portfolio. In this manner, student works can be compared providing

evidence about the how the students skills have improved.

Product-Oriented Portfolios: These portfolios contain the works of a student which he or she considers the best. The aim is to document and reflect on the

quality of the final products rather than the process that produced them. The

student is required to collect all his or her work at the end of the semester, at

which time he or she must select those works which is of the highest quality.

Students could be left to make the decision themselves or the teacher can set

Figure 6.4 Teachers may set the

criteria on what to include in the

portfolio


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the criteria on what a portfolio must contain and the quality of the works to be

included (see Figure 6.4).

HOW IS A PORTFOLIO DEVELOPED?

The design and development of a portfolio involves FOUR main steps:

Collection, Selection, Reflection and Connection (Epstein, 2006. Introduction to

Portfolios, Synapse Learning Design, cited in Teachervision.com).

Collection: This step simply requires students to collect and store all of the work. Students have to get used to the idea of documenting and saving their

work which they may not have done before.

o How should the works be organised? By subject, by themes? o How should the works be recorded and stored? o How to get students to form the habit of documenting evidence?

Selection: This will depend on whether it is a process or product portfolio and the criteria set by the teacher. Students will go through the work collected and

select certain works for their portfolio. This might include: examination papers

and quizzes, audio & video recordings, project reports, journals, computer

work, essays, poems, artwork and so forth.

o How does one select? What is the basis of selection? o Who should be involved in the selection process? o What the consequences of not completing the portfolio?

Reflection: This is the most important step in the portfolio process. It is reflection that differentiates the portfolio as being a mere collection of student

work. Reflection is often done in writing but it can also be done orally.

Students are asked why they have chosen a particular product or work (e.g.

essay); and how it compares with other works, what particular skills and

knowledge were used to produce (e.g. the essay) it and how it can be further

improved.

o Should students reflect on how or why they chose certain works? o How should students go about the reflection process

Connection: As a result of reflection, students begin to ask themselves, Why are we doing this?. They are encouraged to make connection between their school work and the value of what they are learning. They are also

encouraged to make connection between the works included in their portfolio

with the world outside the classroom. They learn to exhibit what they have

done in school to the community.

o How is the cumulative effects of the portfolio evaluated? o Should students exhibit their works?

6.4 ACTIVITY

a) To what extent is portfolio assessment used in your

institution?

b) Do you think portfolio assessment can be used as an

assessment technique in your subject area? Explain.


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6.7 ELECTRONIC PORTFOLIOS

With the rapid expansion of digital technology and the internet electronic

portfolios is gaining popularity in many colleges and universities and school systems.

However, its use would be more widespread if teachers and educators had a better

understanding of how electronic portfolios can be used for formative assessment to

improve student learning. As mentioned earlier, a portfolio is a collection of a

learners work to show understanding and growth over time as well as the learners reflection on individual pieces of work or artifacts.

What is an electronic portfolio? The electronic portfolio uses electronic technologies as the container such as CD, DVD or the web, allowing students to

collect and organise artifacts in many media types (audio, video, graphics and text)

and to use hypertext links to organise material, connecting evidence to appropriate

outcomes, goals and standards (Barrett, 2006, p.3). How is the electronic portfolio different from the traditional portfolio?

According to Barrett and Wilkerson (2004), an electronic is a digital archive of a

learners work which uses the learners authentic voice and serves as a database to collect teacher-generated assessment based on tasks and rubrics. These different

characteristics of the electronic portfolio are allowed to talk to each other.

IMPLEMENTATION OF ELECTRONIC PORTFOLIOS

It is important that when implementing an electronic portfolio initiative, each

school or district or state must determine from the onset the primary purpose for

having students create an electronic portfolio. The purpose and goals of using

portfolios will determine the content to include, creation process and the assessment

system (Barrett, 2006). Once the purpose and goals are stipulated, the next step is to

select the tools needed in the development and management of electronic portfolios.

What are the tools available? The development tools commonly used are word

processors (Microsoft Office, OpenOffice, Adobe Acrobat). These tools allow

students to publish their portfolio on to CDs or a local area network server or on to the

Internet. Publishing on to the web requires the students to become web developers

such as learning HTML or using web authoring tools such as Dreamweaver,

FrontPage and others. It is also possible educational institutions to purchase

commercial electronic portfolio software and storage facilities.

MERIT OF ELECTRONIC PORTFOLIOS

Using technology can be a motivating force in encouraging students to

develop portfolios electronically or digitally. Todays young generation are growing up with digital technology by their bedside! We have seen how much students are

motivated with networking online using MySpace, FaceBook and other social

networking sites. The electronic portfolio is able to capture this level of motivation

and enthusiasm in furthering the goals of deep learning and reflection.

However, it is important to realise that the electronic portfolio is not a

replication or a digital version of paper-based artifacts. Neither is it a data-base-type

portfolio system that allows students to fill in blanks on a web-based form (Barrett,


21

2006). The electronic portfolio is much more than that! How? To truly engage

students, the new technologies should be used to motivate and engage students

express their own voice and carve their own identity in their portfolios. For example,

students are provided opportunities to tell stories digitally, develop and upload

multimedia artifacts, use podcasting and blogging and maintain a reflective online

journal so as to exhibit their individuality, creativity and ownership (Barrett, 2006).

SUMMARY

Observation is generally referred to as the process of gaining information through ones senses especially, from seeing and hearing.

In qualitative observation, the observer begins without preconceived ideas about what will be observed and describes behaviour that seems important.

In quantitative observation, the behaviours that are to be observed are pre-determined through a checklist.

In obtrusive observation, students are aware they are being observed while in unobtrusive observation, students are not aware they are being observed.

Behaviour may be observed and measured based on four dimensions: duration, latency, frequency and amplitude.

Observations are used to collect data on behaviours that are difficult to assess by other methods, to observe and record the way students solve problems and

complete tasks, and to ascertain whether students (individually or in a group) are

attaining the intended objectives with observational tools.

Oral expression is the core process in formulating and sharing human experience.

Oral discourse is more than mere speaking but also includes talking about the content.

Oral assessment has tended to be confined to the language arts.

The definition of oral assessment has been widened to include the assessment of content.

Oral assessment can be implemented in the assessment of subjects such as science and economics.


22

A portfolio is purposeful collection of the works produced by students which reflects their efforts, progress and achievements in different areas of the

curriculum.

An electronic portfolio is a digital archive of a learners work which using the learners authentic voice.

REFERENCES:

Alaska Department of Education & Early Development. Curriculum Framework. June. 1996.

Barrett, H.C. (2006). The reflect initiative researching electronic portfolios: Learning, engagement and collaboration through technology. Connected

Newsletter.

Barrett, H. and Wilkerson, J. (2004). Conflicting Paradigms in Electronic Portfolio Approaches. [Retrieved April, 21, 2008 from:

http://electronicportfolios.org/systems/paradigms.html]

Hart, D. (1994). Authentic Assessment: A Handbook for Educators. Menlo Park.CA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.

Epstein, J. (2006). Introduction to Portfolios, Synapse Learning Design, cited in Teachervision.com

Macintosh H. and G. Firth (1986). A teachers guide to assessment. Nelson Thornes Ltd.

Marzano, R. J. (1992). A different kind of classroom: Teaching with dimensions of learning. Alexandria VA: Association for Supervision and

Curriculum Development.

KEY TERMS

Observation Observation checklist Portfolio

Qualitative observation Behavioural observation assessment

Quantitative observation Oral assessment Electronic

Obtrusive observation Speaking portfolio

Unobtrusive observation Oral discourse


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Marzano, R.J. and D. Pickering, and J. McTighe, (1993), Assessing student outcomes, Performance assessment using the Dimensions of Learning model

(p. 30), Alexandria, VA: ASCD]

Paulson, F.L. Paulson, P.R. and Meyer, CA. (1991), February. What Makes a Portfolio a Portfolio? Educational Leadership. 60-63.

Paulson, F.L. & Paulson, P. (1994) Assessing Portfolios Using the Constructivist Paradigm in Fogarty, R. (ed.) Student Portfolios. Palatine: IRI

Skylight Training & Publishing. 1-22.

Oregon State Education Department, 2004, Content Standards for Primary School Science.

Young, J. (2002). Creating online portfolios can help students see 'Big Picture,' Colleges Say. February 21

Suen, H.K., & Ary, D. (1989). Analysing quantitative behavioural observation data. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Salvia, J and Ysseldyke, J. (1995). Assessment. New York: John Wiley.

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