Roosevelt University

MOTIVATIONS AND BEHAVIORS OF VOLUNTEER TOURISTS

Submitted to:

Professor Gerald Bober

Manfred Steinfeld School of Hospitality and Tourism Management

Hospitality and Tourism Management (MSHTM)

By:

Adrienne Catlett

November, 2014

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT.....................................................................................................................................................................4

CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY………………………………..…………………………………….5

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………........…..5

Research Question…………………………………………………………………………………………..…...7

Statement Of Problem……………………………………………………………………………………….....7

Definitions and Terms and Abbreviations…………………………………………………………......8

Summary……………………………………………………………………………………………………….....….9

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………………………………….....11

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………....11

Leisure Tourism (Mass Tourism)………………………………………………………………………..12

Flaws of the New Age Tourist…………………………………………………………………………..…12

Hybridization of Culture……………………………………………………………………………..……...13

Volunteer Tourism………………………………………………………………………………………......…14

Ancient Philosophies of Happiness…………………………………………………………………...…15

Happiness……………………………………………………………………………………………………….....16

Altruism………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....17

Motivation…………………………………………………………………………………………………………19

Culture……………………………………………………………………………………………………………....20

Higher Education…………………………..…………………………………………………………………...20

Economic Impact…………………………………………………………………………………………….....21

Marketing: The Ego…………………………………………………………………………………………....22

Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………...……...….23

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY….....…………….……………………………………………………………25

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………..…..25

Primary and Secondary Research…………………………………………………………………….….25

Qualitative Analysis………………………………………………………………………………………...….25

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Quantitative Research……………………………………………………………………………………...…28

Literature Analysis……………………………………………………………………………………...…..…30

Research Design……………………………………………………………………………………...………....30

Process: Procedure and Methods Used……………………………………………………………......31

Limitation of Study……………………………………………………………………………………….....…32

Ethical Issues…………………………………………………………………………………………………..…32

Summary………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…32

CHAPTER FOUR: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS……………………....34

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………….…...…37

Recommendations…………………………………………………………………………………………..…38

REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….......40

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ABSTRACT

The science of happiness examines an individual’s ability to take control of his or

her internal happiness, rather than leaving its impact to uncontrollable experiences,

prompting much of society to believe that happiness was an allusive concept that only

some people possessed (Lyubomirsky, 2008). Increasingly however, researchers have

recognized that a person’s baseline happiness can result from intentional altruistic acts,

such as volunteering to help those who are less fortunate. Although recently “happiness”

has become an increasing more recognized, scientific thread, the motivations of happy

people usually lead them to perceive and pursue different actives. This study examines

the activity of volunteer or alternative travel and how tourists can use traveling as a way

to sustainably increase their happiness with the intention of helping others and gaining

some form of personal well-being and effective knowledge.

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CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY

Introduction

Leisure travel has been shown to improve health, increase happiness, and reduce

stress in an individual’s life (Strauss-Blasche, Reithofer, Schobersberger, Ekmekciglu &

Marktl, 2005). Whether traveling for the holidays or for personal pleasure, “positive”

feelings and increased happiness are shown to affect tourists during their travels, as many

as three days prior to traveling (Nawijin, 2009, p. 228). Research has shown that tourists’

positive emotions are unsustainable and greatly decrease toward the end of a trip due to

the anticipation of going back to the normality of life (Nawijin, 2009). According to

Alison Mclntosh (2010) and others, however, alternative travel, or volunteer tourism, can

provide a sense of sustainable happiness through the altruistic motivation of a tourist and

the experiences encountered. Researchers have indicated that happiness is one of many

main motivators of people’s activities and decisions with respect to volunteer tourism

(Iwasaki, 2007). The intrinsic and extrinsic needs of tourists are critical motivators in

terms of how they travel, and the increased need to fulfill a sense of self-actualization and

altruism can be a driving force for tourists who “volunteer in…[an]… organized way to

undertake holiday that involve aiding or alleviating the material poverty of some group in

society” (Benson & Seibert, 2009, p. 295).

The science of happiness is used to better understand why people desire to be

happy and what intentional activities people undertake to achieve the goal of becoming

happier (Lyubomirsky, 2008). According to De Neve, Christakis, Fowler, & Frey (2012),

some people genetically inherit a “depression gene” and consequently perceive the world

differently than do more happy people. Therefore, this study sought to examine

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individuals who are pursing increased happiness set points will further offer insight into

what motivates people to travel alternatively.

Waterman (1990) writes that Aristotle suggested that there are two types of

happiness set points; eudemonia and hedonic, which motivate people’s decisions (p.39).

With respect to “eudemonia” happiness, Aristotle asserts people peruse activates which

they find self-fulfilling and “worthwhile”. Volunteer tourists pursuing “eudemonia”

happiness participate in alternative travel because they choose “activity’s … [that]…

express their virtues” or their deepest “desires” to find happiness through helping others

(Watermen, 1990, p. 39). In terms of “hedonic happiness” (Watermen, 1990, p. 39),

people can also be motivated to do things purely for pleasure; this happiness is generally

unsustainable, however, it can be correlated to leisure tourism, which is simply a means

to an end type of experience, rather than a deeper act to achieve something sustainable.

The ultimate goal of moving one’s happiness from his or her baseline happiness

set point to a higher level is of importance since happy people are radically healthier and

live better lives than those who are not prone to happiness (Kolko-Rivera, 2006).

Therefore, examining aspects of happy people in relationship to their volunteer tourism

expectations, and contrasting this to the reality of their experience, is necessary, and

possibly useful, with respect to the tourism industry. This study sought to examine the

phenomenon of tourists pursuing alternative travel and the effects that volunteer tourism

can have on tourists.

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Research Question

Why do people choose to participate in volunteer tourism?

a. What are the effects of participating in volunteer tourism?

b. What are the social impacts of volunteer tourism?

c. What are the economic impacts of volunteer tourist?

Statement of Problem and Importance of the Study

The tourism industry is rapidly becoming one of the leading industries in the

world (Berger, 2008, p. 329). With over 900 million individuals traveling internationally

annually, tourism is now a primary global economic force. The growth of the tourism

industry has expanded tourists’ perspectives and, consequently, their objectives for

excursions, prompting individuals in record numbers to seek alternative traveling

experiences. Therefore, this study sought to understand the effects and motivations of

tourists who choose volunteer tourism or alternative traveling as a means to travel for

reasons other than leisure. This study focuses exclusively on the social and economic

effect of volunteer tourism.

Only a minimal amount of research has been conducted about volunteer tourists.

Volunteer tourism, most often, has been classified together with leisure or mass tourism;

therefore, it is important to exclusively examine the experience of volunteer tourists in

order to better determine the impact such tourism can have on both the tourism industry

and world culture.

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Definitions of Terms and Abbreviations

The following terms and definitions that are provided frequently appear in this

writing. These have been determined with their meaning and relevance to this subject and

research.

Baseline Happiness: the happiness set-point individuals are born with (Lyboumirsky,

2008).

Alternative Travel/Tourist: traveling other than the purpose of leisure (Lyboumirsky,

2008).

Volunteer Tourism: traveling to help one less fortunate then oneself (Mclntosh, 2010).

Increased Happiness: obtaining a higher positive emotion then ones baseline happiness

(Lyboumirsky, 2008).

Happiness: The quality or state of being happy (Dictionary, 2013)

Tourisms Industry: and industry made from many different facets of the hospitality

industry (Nawijin, 2010).

Altruistic: unselfish regard for or devotion to the welfare of others (Mariam-Webster,

2013).

Empathy: the action of understanding, being aware of, being sensitive to, experience fully

(Mariam-Webster, 2013).

Self-actualization: the achievement of one's full potential through creativity,

independence, spontaneity, and a grasp of the real world. (Dictionary, 2013).

Sustainable Happiness: happiness that is sustained throughout one’s life (Lyboumirsky,

2008).

Decrease Happiness: ones happiness lowered to baseline happiness (Lyboumirsky, 2008).

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Unethical Marketing-Volunteer Tourist: Marketing specifically to tourist ego “blatantly

market the more personal benefits, such as cost-savings and personal growth” (Coghlan

& Gooch, 2011, p. 155).

Human Nature: the nature of humans; especially: the fundamental dispositions and traits

of humans (Mariam-Webster, 2013).

Hierarchy of needs: a list of needs that were created by Maslow detailing what people

need to be happy (Boezemn & Ellemers, 2007).

Intrinsic needs: belonging to the essential nature or constitution of a thing (Mariam-

Webster, 2013).

Extrinsic Needs: not forming part of or belonging to a thing (Mariam-Webster, 2013)

Leisure Tourism/Holiday travel: traveling for relaxation only for oneself pleasure

(Coghlan & Fennell, 2012).

Positive attributes: good characteristics of oneself (Coghlan & Gooch, 2011).

Ego: the “I” or self of any person; a person as thinking, feeling, and willing, and

distinguishing itself from the selves of others and from objects of its thought. (Dictionary,

2013).

Science of happiness: the study and research of biologically happiness (Lyboumirsky,

2008).

New age tourist: Tourist, who are extensively diverse, knowledgeable, worldly and non-

western oriented (Wilson & Harrison, 2006).

Hedonism: “Maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain” (Bergsma, p. 336, 2007)

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Summary

Alternative travel is a critical resource for tourists who are attempting to achieve

an altruistic state of mind and increase their various levels of happiness. The tourism

industry does not place enough emphasis on the motivations of tourists who chose to gain

deeper meaning from their travels rather than to merely be leisure travelers. This study

will attempt to gain a better understanding of why people travel alternatively and the

positive attributes that alternative travel can provide for altruistic tourists.

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

The body of literature focusing on the science of volunteer tourism or alternative

travel is sparse. In spite of minimal literature on the subject, there is an array of literature

pertaining exclusively to individual facets of the subject, such as: mass or leisure tourism,

new age tourist, volunteers, volunteer tourism, and the science of happiness. There is also

a great deal of literature that contributes and enhances each topic’s recurring point such

as: altruism, and the pursuit of knowledge. Lyubomirsky (2008), Nawijin & Peeters

(2010), Waterman (1990), Nawijan (2010), Steffel & Oppenheimer (2008), Wilson &

Harris (2006), Sheldon & Elliot (1998), Iwasaki (2006), Riker (2012), Brown

(2005),Yong, Mak & Mckercher (2011), De Neve, Christakis, Fowler, & Frey, (2012)

and others, have written about the subject of happiness and how it motivates people’s

activities and attitudes with respect to everyday life decisions. Li, Niinien & Jacobs

(2006), Boezeman & Ellemers (2007), Mclntosh (2010), Coghlan & Fennell (2009),

Coghlan & Gooch (2010), Strauss-Blasche, Reithofer, Schobersberger, Ekmekciglu &

Marktl (2005) assess altruistic motives of volunteer tourists and the positive health effects

of leisure tourism. Sheldon & Elliot (1998), Iwasaki (2006), Riker (2012) describe

incentives that motivate people’s behaviors and how volunteering or behaving selflessly

could potentially improve people’s quality of life. Brown (2005), Cohan (2008), Berger

(2008), and Wilson and Harrison (2006), discuss why “new age” or post tourists seek

original or novel traveling experiences like volunteer tourism. Collectively, the literature

assesses that behaviors that are self-motivated and personal are more likely to be

increasingly effective and sustainable in someone’s life (Riker, 2012), which are less for

monetary reasons and more for self-fulfilling, altruistic acts (Coghlan & Fennell, 2009;

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Lyubomirsky, 2008; Waterman, 1990). Volunteer tourism provides many people with

pride and self-worth, according to Mclntosh, (2010) Boezeman & Ellemers, (2007)

Coghlan & Fennell, (2009). This literature review will discuss leisure tourism, new age

tourist, volunteer tourist, happiness, motivations, marketing to the ego and altruism.

Leisure Tourism (Mass Tourism)

Berger (2008) writes: “Tourism is the largest industries in the world” (p. 329),

with over 900 million individuals traveling internationally annually, tourism is a primary

economic asset globally. A main subset of the tourism industry is leisure tourism, or mass

tourism, the word “tourist” having been derived from the Greek word “tornos, which ….

[is defined as]… making a circle” (Berger, p.327). The word “tourist” was meant to

represent the action of individuals leaving their homes or permanent residences for a

designated amount of time for leisure, and then returning to their places of origin (Berger,

2008, Boezeman & Ellemers, (2007) Coghlan & Fennell, (2009). Wilson and Harris,

assert that “tourists” in early research were defined as “a homogenous, mass group of

people travelling for … leisure or business” (2006, p. 161). The study of ‘the tourist’ has

been “deconstructed over the last three to four decades” (Wilson & Harris, 2006, p.161)

in an effort to understand the motivation and the economic and social impact tourists

have on host countries and their societies, and vice versa. Coghlan and Fennell

determined that individuals are motived to travel for a number of key reasons, including

to gain new knowledge, experience new environments, and relive stress.

Flaws of “The New Age Tourist”

Wilson & Harris determined, prior to the 1970’s, tourists were generally

considered “camera-toting foreigners” (2006, p. 161) who typically had a minimal

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background in terms of understanding the environments that they were visiting. Cohen

(2008), Hummel, Van der Duim (2012), and Berger (2008) observed that following

World War Two, the “American tourist became the icon of mass tourism” (Cohen, 2008,

p.333), personifying the ‘uneducated, loud and lazy’ (Cohen, 2008) tourist who lacked

complexity of understanding of the history or art of a foreign country. However, Cohen

observed that, within the current technology-driven globalized world, the prototype of the

American tourist has been replaced with the “post-tourist” (, 2008, p. 333), or new age

tourist, who is extensively more diverse, knowledgeable, worldly, and “non-western”

oriented (Cohen, 2008, p. 333). Cohen (2008) states that the new age travelers are often

“from wealthy Middle East …[countries and]…middle classes of Japan, China, India,

South Korea and Thailand…[were they have]… developed a taste for international

travel” (Cohan, 2008, p. 334).

Hybridization of Culture

The globalization of ancient artifacts, history, cities, and countries has had a

profound effect upon “the art of travel” (Cohen, 2008, p. 333). According to many

researchers, contemporary tourists seek not authentic attractions, but rather a

“hybridization of culture” (Cohen, 2008, p. 333) or an exaggerated replica of the ‘real’

thing. The expanding western culture within the international realm of other cultures

induced a shallow desire to experience other cultures. Cohen (2008) observed that leisure

tourism ‘is becoming de-differentiated, and losing its distinctness, merging seamlessly

with ordinary everyday leisure and entertainment” (Cohan, 2008), The mass tourist or

“individual mass tourist” is still looking for something new but in a context of

“familiarity …[to their]…native culture” (p. 334).

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Volunteer Tourism

Leisure or mass tourism has been heavily documented, although the topics of

volunteer tourism, pro-poor tourism, sustainable tourism, eco-tourism, or traveling for

altruistic reasons lack a significant body of research literature. The examination of

volunteer tourism “gained momentum” in the early 20th century (Coghlan and Gooch,

2012, p. 713), Raymond & Hall (2008) assert:

Volunteer tourism combines travel with voluntary work, attraction individuals that are seeking tourists’ experiences that are mutually beneficial, that will contribute not only to their personal development but also positively and directly to social, natural and /or economic environment in which they participate. (p. 530)

Volunteer tourism, similar to mass tourism, is comprised of many different

subgroups, such as pro-poor tourism, sustainable tourism, eco-tourism or traveling for

altruistic reason, all of which still are components of volunteer tourism. Boozman &

Ellmers (2007), Benson &Seibert (2009), Li, Niinien & Jacobs (2006), and Raymond &

Hall (2008) write that traveling other than for leisure has existed for centuries; religious

pilgrims, missionaries or backpackers was considered a “rite of passage for many youth “

(Li, Niinien & Jacobs, 2006, p. 211). According to Sheldon & Elliot (1998), Young,

Mak, & Mckercher (2011), Brown (2005) and Benson & Seibert (2009) volunteer

tourism allows young people to grow and mature during their travels; encountering

different cultures can expand a volunteer tourist’s perception of the world, which can

contribute to their knowledge base. Moreover, aiding or volunteering with non-

government organization (NGO’s), non-profit, or religious organization fulfills an

intrinsic need that all humans possess (Riker, 2012;Li, Niinien & Jacobs, 2006; Coghlan

& Fennell, 2009; Strauss-Blasche, Reithofer, Schobersberger, Ekmekciglu & Marktl,

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2005). Sheldon & Elliot (1998), suggest that there are intrinsic and extrinsic motivations

that people feel throughout their lives in order to improve or create meaning from life,

one aspect of which is self-actualization. The act of volunteering allows people to have a

positive self-image and achieve an increased ‘base line happiness’ level (Boezeman &

Ellemers, 2007).

Ancient Philosophies of Happiness

According to Bargsma (2007), several philosophers who expressed happiness

theories were greatly influenced by their social, economic, and political environments.

According to Bertrand Russell, happiness is only obtainable by those who have made the

correct decisions in their lives (Bergsma, 2007). Russells’s theory has been shown to

apparently be true by contemporary scientist Lyubomirsky who writes that happiness is

achievable by those who peruse intentional acts of happiness, although she does not deem

individuals’ decisions right or wrong, but rather, what is and is not prolonged happiness

(Lyumbirsky, 2008; Bergsma, 2007; Bergsma, Poot, & Liefbroer, (2008). Greek

philosopher, Epicurus stated “One must not fear god, don’t worry about death and what is

good is easy to get and what is terrible is easy to endure” (p. 334, 2007). Bergsma

determined that, Epicurus developed his beliefs due to the fact of human mortality, and,

therefore, seeking pleasure (or hedonism) could bring happiness; although, according to

various contemporary researchers, Epicurus’ theory of achieving happiness is only

temporary and unsustainable (Lyumbirsky, 2008; Bergsma, 2007; Watermen, 1990;

Bergsma, Poot, & Liefbroer, 2008). The German philosopher Schopenhauer theorized

that there is no such thing as true happiness, and reasoned, therefore, that “life is better if

[…] boredom sets in” (Bergsma, p. 334, 2007) Bergsma analyzed Schopenhauer’s theory

15

as a coping mechanism, observing that Schopenhauer was an acclaimed professor who

felt that he did not receive the notability he deserved, and, therefore making a conscious

choice of resignation was a form of happiness (2007). The ancient Chinese philosopher,

Confucius, by contrast, strongly believed in “human relations […] rationalism [… and…]

optimism” (Bergsma, p. 335, 2007). Bergsma determined that this was because

Confucius was a part of many social groups and felt deeply integrated within the society

in which he lived. Similar to Confucius, Taoism, is a Chinese philosophical lifestyle,

promotes human relations and a person’s surrounding him or herself with a positive

community in order to obtain happiness; Confucianism and Taoist theories are found in

much of contemporary happiness literature as a key to living a sustainable happy life

(Strauss-Blasche, Reithofer, Schobersberger, Ekmekciglu & Marktl, 2005; Lyubomirsky,

2008, Watermen, 1990).

Happiness

Waterman (1990) and Lyubomirsky (2008) both agree that achieving a life goal

contributes to happiness. Individuals are born with a set point of happiness, although a

majority of people seek to become happier ( Lyumirsky, 2008;Waterman ,1990; Li,

Niininen & Jacobs ,2006; Boezeman & Ellemers ,2007; Mclntosh, 2010; Coghlan &

Fennell ,2009; Coghlan & Gooch, 2010; Strauss-Blasche, Reithofer, Schobersberger,

Ekmekciglu & Marktl ,2005). Lyubomirsky (2008) observes that money and material

things do not make one happy; rather,

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happiness is primarily derive from family, small changes in life and indulging in healthy

and happy experiences that suits an individual. Nawijin (2010) determined that happiness

is un-sustainable during leisure vacation, since people are happiest during the first few

days of a trip, after which their happiness returns to its natural set point (Lyubomiersky,

2008). Sustainable happiness occurs when people participate in daily activates that

intrinsically make them happy (Lyboumirsky, 2008; Waterman, 1990). By contrast,

Staffel and Oppenheimer (2008) found that many people based their immediate happiness

on either past or present happy memories or from helping other people who are in more

dire situations than themselves. According to Iwasaki (2006), happiness is found through

seeking to improve quality of life from interaction with others who are emotionally close

and from activities that are altruistic in nature. There are also social, personal, and health

benefits from living a happy life (Lyboumirsky, 2008). People who are happier have

better jobs, more fulfilling lives, and are perceived as more likeable (Lyboumirsky,

2008). According to Mclntosh (2010), people are more content when they feel a sense of

purpose within their lives, improve upon others’ lives, learn new things, and seek new

experiences (Riker, 2012;Li, Niinien & Jacobs, 2006; Coghlan & Fennell, 2009; Strauss-

Blasche, Reithofer, Schobersberger, Ekmekciglu & Marktl, 2005).

Altruism

Coghlan and Fennell state altruism “is a fundamental element of human nature”

(2011, p.378), and present the idea that people always seek ways to help others. Iwasaki

explains that, in some cultures, helping others is generally perceived as a means to

happiness during leisure trips (2006). Furthermore, they state that pride and satisfaction

in oneself are directly correlated with selfless acts (Boezemn & Ellemers, 2007). Personal

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growth is gained through altruistic acts, according to Li, Niinien and Jacobs (2010) who

discovered that volunteer tourists often gained knowledge and personal enlightenment.

This is similar to what Mclntosh experienced as spiritual development and enhanced

satisfaction in her life, as a result of engaging in altruistic activates (2010). According to

Coghlan and Goosch (2012) and others, participating in altruistic behaviors helps people

truly understand one another, gain personal relationships, and deepen self-satisfaction

(Mclntosh, 2012; Boezemn & Ellemers, 2007; Coghlan & Fennell, 2009). Furthermore,

acquiring new knowledge is a frequent result of selfless acts (Coghlan & Goosch, 2010;

Mclntosh, 2012; Li Ninnien & Jacobs, 2006; Goglan & Gooch, 2010;Coghlan & Fennell,

2012; Nawjin & Peeters, 2009), as people attempt to understand situations and other

people who they are helping, rather than intentionally seeking personal benefits (Coghlan

& Goosch, p.397, 2010). Often, “personal rewards” (Li Ninnien & Jacobs, 2006, p. 221)

happen unintentionally (Goghlan & Gooch, 2010; Coghlan & Fennell, 2012). Seeking to

benefit oneself internally can happen though altruistic acts, which changes one’s mindset

and creates self-worth and other positive emotions (Lyubomisky, 2008; Riker, 2012,

Boezeman & Ellemers, 2007; Li, Niinien and Jacobs, 2010). In addition, participating in

acts that are intrinsically beneficial increases and sustains one’s happiness (Lyubomisky,

2008; Mclntosh, 2010). Volunteer tourism allows people to act selflessly and bring

meaning to their lives (Mclntosh, 2010; Li, Niinien and Jacobs, 2010). Volunteer tourists

seek positive attributes and sustainable happiness that is caused by altruistic experiences

(Lyubomisky, 2008, Boezman & Ellemers, 2007).

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Motivation

Mclntosh (2010), Coghlan & Gooch (2010) and Li, Niininen & Jacobs (2006) all

determined that volunteer tourists overwhelmingly are motivated to seek knowledge and

new experiences when traveling to helping others in countries that are less developed

than their own. According to Strauss-Blasche, Reithofer, Schobersberger, Ekmekciglu &

Marktl (2005), Nawijan (2010), Coghlan & Fennell, and (2009) Nawijan & Peeters

(2009), the main motivation for mass tourism or leisure trips tends to be relaxation, health

benefits, or self-discovery. Seeking out activities that are aligned with people’s life

beliefs and values, according to Sheldon & Elliot (1998) and Waterman (1990), is a main

motivation for engaging in any task that contributes to the attainment of happiness. There

are intrinsic and extrinsic motivations that people continually seek to act upon throughout

their lives in order to improve or create meaning from life (Sheldon & Elliot, 1998;

Coghlan & Gooch, 2010;). Furthermore, Boezeman and Ellemers (2007) found that

people often volunteer to achieve a positive self-image that is correlated with the act of

volunteering and feel that it would be morally wrong to stop volunteering after they have

started. In their study, Li, Niinien and Jacobs (2006) observed that volunteers’

unintentionally seek personal benefits when traveling for alternative reasons other than

self-less motivations. This is because people are happiest if they gain self-worth and

personal growth through the act of volunteering (Lyubomirsky, 2008). Riker (2012)

asserts that, for people to be motivated beyond personal benefits, they need to possess

empathy for others.

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Culture

According to Raymond and Hall (2008), there is a large subset of volunteer

tourist who are in their mid-20’, who seek new and different experiences. This is

commonly called ‘the gap year’, a time “taken out between high school and

university” (Raymond & Hall, 2008, p, 530). The gap year is typically viewed as a

means to discover one’s self. The experience of traveling while helping others can

help young people “reduce conflict” with other cultures (Raymond & Hall, 2008,

p, 530). Rousefi and Marzuki observed, when young people who are seeking

altruistic meaning in their lives and traveling internationally they, can immerse

themselves in the people and customs around them and, therefore, have the

opportunity to understand, empathize, and help the less fortunate, which can help

shape volunteers’ morals and perhaps the world around them. Ooi & Laing (2010),

Riker (2012), Sheldon & Elliot (1998), and Wilson & Harrison (2006) agreed that,

in order to understand another’s culture or experiences, it is best to encounter them

for one’s self.

Higher Education

The growth of volunteer tourism, according to Lyons and Wearing, is one of the

driving forces behind the growth of service learning tourism which is a subset, if not the

same thing as, volunteer tourism, defined as: “someone who …[offers]… service, time

and skills to benefit others and provide voluntary personal aid to promote mutual

learning” (p. 89, 2012). Service learning tourism is now considered a form of integrated

“higher education” at many institutions (Lyons & Wearing, p. 89, 2012). Experiencing

other cultures and aiding or helping within impoverished areas around the world, for

20

many universities or potential employers; is a reflection of an individual’s character and

mirrors capability similar to a resume (Boezeman& Ellemers, 2007; Lyons & Wearing,

2012; Brown, 2005). Furthermore, according to Lyons and Wearing service learning

tourism allows individuals to assist in impoverished areas by offering one’s own

expertise. Therefore, someone who chooses to participate in service learning tourism can

not only experience altruism and gained knowledge, but also develop and gain new skills

that can positively impact an individual’s career (Lyon and Wearing, 2006; Post, 2005;

Sheldon and Elliot, 1998). Lyone and Wearing (2012) explain that the first-hand

experience which service learning provides possibly could drive many industries to

require applicants to have some form of service learning or volunteer tourism; since

individual growth and cultural experiences can be acquired and subsequently used in

one’s work and personal life (Raymond and Hall, 2008).

Economic Impact

Hummal & Van der Duim determined that tourism is “identified as a

potential modernization strategy” (2012, p. 319) that can economically enhance the

financial status of many countries. Pro-poor tourism, a subset of volunteer tourism,

significantly “contributes to poverty reduction” (Hummal & Van der Duim, 2012,

p. 320) around the world. Specifically in developing countries, volunteer tourism

can help improve a region’s economy by building up impoverished areas and

creating jobs; furthermore, Hummal and Van der Duim, (2012) write that between

1999 and 2006, there has been a large increase in tourists visiting developing

countries. Iwasaki (2007) describes pro-poor tourism as a mechanism for

companies to utilize when tourists use their facilities. Rather than all tourist money

21

going to companies, some percentage can be donated to provide the impoverished

residents with jobs (Hummal and Van der Duim, 2012; Iwasaki, 2007; Brown,

2005; Berger, 2008). For example, in Johannesburg, South Africa a committee has

been formed to generate more eco-friendly tourist activities to help sustain the host

country’s resources. Pro-poor tourism reflects an effort to increase tourism in a

practical and economically beneficial manner, while also fulfilling intrinsic human

needs (Mclntosh, 2010; Li, Niinien and Jacobs, 2010).

Volunteer tourists, similar to mass tourists, also use host countries’

resources and provide financial benefits (Brown, 2005), which are directed toward

lodging, food, and activities. According to Berger (2008) and Iwasaki (2007), mass

tourists typically visit countries and consume resources, while volunteer tourist

provides resources. According to The Pacific Standard (2012), the volunteer

tourism industry is worth two billion dollars. The substantiality of volunteer

tourism, therefore, is critical (Ooi & Laing, 2010), although there are a number of

ethical issues which volunteer tourists encounter that can be detrimental to this

essential industry (Coghlan & Gooch, 2011; Li, Ninninen & Jacobs, 2010; Riker,

2012; Koltko-Rivera, 2006).

Marketing: The Ego

The absence of volunteer tourism would greatly impact the economic and

financial balance of much of the world, yet there is still an immense lack of ethical

marketing tactics that are directed toward individuals who are seeking to travel and

volunteer. There are also a number of unethical financial strategies occurring among

organizations that are supposed to support impoverished countries. Many researchers

22

have discussed the unethical marketing tactics that are used to appeal to those who

participate in volunteer tourism (Coghlan & Gooch, 2011; Li, Ninninen & Jacobs, 2010;

Riker, 2012; Koltko-Rivera, 2006; Ooi & Laing, 2010; Benson & Seibert, 2009; Brown,

2005;Yong, Mak & Mckercher, 2011). Several researchers criticize companies for

marketing volunteer tourism more for the benefits of volunteer tourists than people who

are in need (Coghlan & Gooch, 2011; Li, Ninninen & Jacobs, 2010; Riker, 2012).

According to Coghlan and Fennell (2012), this practice ultimately caters to the “egoism”

(p.381) of people who are searching for personal gain and monetary rewards rather than

“the wellbeing of others” (p. 381). A number of researchers note that people are

intrinsically selfish; therefore it is difficult for most people to seek goals beyond anything

that does not benefit themselves. Although, if people are truly seeking to achieve the

“ultimate goal” (p. 381) of altruism or to help others without the intentional benefit of

themselves, marketing is not appealing to the empathetic or altruistic traits of society

(Coghlan & Gooch, 2011; Li, Ninninen & Jacobs, 2010; Riker, 2012). For example

Coghlan and Gooch write “volunteer tourism organizations blatantly market the personal

benefits, such as cost-savings and personal growth” to tourist. This affects the goal or

intentional act that is attempting to be achieved (Lyubomirsky, 2008; Coghlan & Gooch,

2011). Marketing to people’s egos leads to un-sustainable happiness, since it would seek

more monetary than altruistic benefit (Lyubomirsky, 2008; Coghlan & Gooch, 2011; Li,

Ninninen & Jacobs, 2010; Riker, 2012).

Summary

Volunteer tourism is not only an economic asset, but also a growing field in the

hospitality industry, as well as within educational institutes. The perception of volunteer

23

tourism as a new and novel experience has, and will, continue to enhance the desire to

travel alternatively for new age tourists; but the emotional aspect is what typically

motivates travelers to choose volunteer tourism verses leisure tourism as their means of

travel. The recurring altruistic and happy emotions that result from traveling alternatively

are essential to knowing how to market alternative or volunteer tourism to travelers in the

hospitality industry, as they could greatly hinder a tourist’s experience if not correctly

presented. Furthermore, this would be detrimental to impoverished countries that finically

rely on volunteer tourism to sustain their economies.

24

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

Introduction

In an effort to understand the various facets of this study, five specific types of

research methods are discussed: qualitative methods, quantitative methods, primary

research, secondary research, and a literature review. The examination of each research

method provides a better understanding of which method best encapsulates the complex

motivations of volunteer tourism with respect to the hospitality industry.

Primary and Secondary Research

Primary research involves the direct gathering of data over a period of time.

Primary research encompasses testing and/or observing subjects correlated to a

researcher’s topic. There will usually be a review of a researcher’s proposal to identify

whether or not the research is valid and ethical before allowing a researcher to physically

test a theory or phenomenon.

Secondary research involves the evaluating of and examining another researcher’s

primary research. When participating in secondary research, one usually conducts and

analysis of scholarly articles, models, or other researchers findings and discoveries. When

using secondary research, one uses a critical eye to distinguish what other research can be

conducted or what disparities may exist in the research; this is discovered by researching

the intellectual work of others, rather than conducting first hand research.

Qualitative Analysis

Qualitative analysis is a personal and in-depth approach to understanding and

studying the facets of society, or, according to researchers Norman Denzin and Yvonna

Lincoln, “Qualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world”

25

(2007, p.3). Qualitative researchers attempt to observe people in their “natural” state and

gather research based on different “artifacts” (Creswell, 2007, p.36) and memorabilia;

this is how many researchers build a study when implementing a qualitative approach. In

addition, qualitative analysis does not heavily use statistics to bridge the gap of

information; rather, the interviewer asks intimate and pertinent questions to subjects in

order to compile and determine their findings (Creswell, 2007). There are a number of

specific approaches that a qualitative study can use.

According to Creswell, there are five types of approaches that can be used when

implementing a qualitative analysis, which are: “narrative research, phenomenological

research, grounded theory research, ethnographical research and case study research”

(Creswell, 2007, p. 35). Narrative research “can be both a method and the phenomenon”

(Creswell, 2007, p. 54); it is a method that usually focuses on more than one person and

analyzes the responses of individuals in terms their particular experiences in their lives

(Creswell, 2007). Similar to obtaining a biography or a time line of someone’s life, a

researcher using the narrative method would collect data from interviews and historical

events and align them with the “contextual focus” of a study to establish their conclusions

(Creswell, 2007, p. 54). The second type of analysis is phenomenology, which involves a

researcher focusing on an “abiding concern” or a topic that deeply interests him or her

(Creswell, p. 59) and then “reflects on essential themes” (Creswell, p. 59) related to the

topic. The researcher then analyzes or “meditates” (Creswell, p. 59) about the recurring

themes regarding the topic and what may have caused them. When using the

phenomenological method, a research attempts to leave his or her personal assumptions

out of the analysis of the theme in order to determine a conclusion (Creswell, 2007).

26

Unlike phenomenological theory ground theory attempts to “move beyond

descriptions and to generate of discover a theory” (Creswell, 2007 p. 63). Ground theory

examines exactly why something occurs. A researcher who uses ground theory typically

wants to discover “a general explanation of a process” (Creswell, 2007 p. 63). Therefore,

such a researcher would look at the actions of a number of people and try to determine

why they were undertaken to develop a conclusion or theory. Creswell goes on to discuss

the method of ethnography, which radically differs from phenomenology, as the subjects

evaluated in an ethnography study all have “shared patterns, and the unit of analysis is

larger than 20 individuals” (Creswell, p. 68). An ethnographer attempts to locate the

similar “values, behaviors, beliefs and languages of a cultural sharing group” (Creswell,

p. 68). Researchers using an ethnography method will spend extended periods of time

with their subjects in order to better understand their patterns and environment.

Furthermore, an ethnography study includes many personal interviews and extensive

observations obtained from a researcher’s subjects. A case study is a “study of an issue

explored through one or more cases within a bounded system” (Creswell, 2007, p. 73) A

researcher who uses a case study will review a number of cases, or perhaps just one case

and other documents, interviews and other materials to analyze a theme over time in

order to compile his or her data (Creswell, 2007). Qualitative research is very useful and

in-depth and “empowers individuals” (Creswell, 2007, p. 40). Although some people

criticize qualitative research for its lack of statistics, the qualitative method has been used

for years and has been shown to provide valid scientific data.

27

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is the study of experiments and an analytical consideration

of statistical data through which a researcher can make claims about a population

(Creswell, 2003, p. 153). According to Creswell, quantitative research offers a “numeric

description of trends, attitudes or opinions of the population” (2003, p.153). Within

quantitative research, data is measured for its “validity and reliability” (Creswell, 2003, p.

153) from cross-sectional or longitudinal studies in reference to the information and

context of a study. Researches who use quantitative research rely more on facts and

statistics than personal interviews or observations.

There are four main facets of quantitative research which are: “self-administered

questionnaires; interviews; structured record reviews to collect financial medial or school

information; and structured observation” (Creswell, 2003, p.155). To conduct a

quantitative study, a researcher must first identify his or hers independent and dependent

variables (Creswell, 2003). According to Creswell, an independent variable or control is

an element in a study that is manipulated to measure the change resulting from the

dependent variables “response” (2007, p. 165) or the reaction from the independent

variable. Once these elements are identified, the most appropriate method of quantitative

analysis is chosen to test a research hypothesis. Correctly identifying the independent and

dependent variable also decreases the chance of acquiring incorrect data.

When conducting quantitative research, it is important to insure validity and

reliability, since there a number of ways a research study can become skewed and lead to

a researcher “ [drawing incorrect] inferences” (Creswell, 2003, p. 171). A “data

processing error” can also affect the validity of a study if data is not correctly entered into

28

a computer (Zikmund, 2003, p. 184), or a “sample selection error” (Zikmund, 2003,

p.183) may occur when a researcher incorrectly selects his or her sample. There are also

“interview errors” (Zikmund, 2003, 184), within which an interviewer does not ask

correct or pertinent questions in reference to a study or incorrectly records interviewees’

answers. There are also many other researcher-induced errors that can greatly hinder the

validity of quantitative studies.

There are also a number of errors that can occur with respect to an interviewee or

control group. Some examples are “interviewer cheating” (Zikmund, 2003, p.184), in

which and a person participating in the study “[falsifies] the questionnaires” (p. 184),

“auspices bias,” in which the “the responses of subjects…[are]… caused by their being

influenced by the organization conducting the study” (p.183). There is also a “social

desirability bias” (Zikmund, 2003, p.183) within which people purposefully lie to appear

more desirable to society (Creswell, 2003). Errors that are unintentional or intentionally

made by participants in a quantitative study are critical to a study and can greatly skew its

results. Therefore, it is important for researches to be aware of all the errors that could

occur in order to maintain the credibility and reliability of a study.

Some quantitative studies that can be implemented by researchers include

longitudinal, panel, or cross-sectional study. A cross-sectional studies is based upon “data

collected at a single point in time” (Zikmund , 2003, p. 187). Cross-sectional studies are

commonly used within quantitative research and are conducted to study different aspects

of one particular “segment of the population” and then the segments of the study are

divided into groups to be analyzed. This is done to examine the “similarities or

differences” (Zikmund, 2003, p. 187) within subgroups of participants. A longitudinal

29

study is used to examine a specific subset of a population, but questions are asked “at

different moments in time” (Zikmund, 2003, p. 187) and consistently for a long period of

time to determine and “observe change” (Zikmund, 2003, p. 187). In a manner that is

similar to a longitudinal study, a panel study is conducted over a long period of time, but

with the same group of people (Zikmund, 2003). Quantitative research is a complex and

specific method and should be used at a researcher’s discretion. It exhibits a number of

limitations but, if done correctly, will provide valid meaningful information.

Literature Analysis

A literature analysis is a research method within which a researcher analyzes and

evaluates scholarly articles that have been published over a period of time, with a critical

eye to determine a disparity, or gap, in the literature being overviewed. The researchers

do not analyze the articles from their perspectives, but assess them from a neutral point of

view. A broad, pertinent question is raised by the researcher to further the initial research

process, although a researcher’s initial question usually evolves and changes as the

research is being conducted. A literature analysis provides a researcher the freedom to

discover additional ways within which an analysis of particular topics can be conducted.

Essentially, the amount of literature dictates what a researcher’s literature review will

include with respect to how much information can be found.

Research Design

The research method utilized in this study is a literature analysis. This researcher

reviewed scholarly articles which pertained to the statement of problems that was

previously addressed. Examining literature for its contextual importance in respect to

volunteer tourism, allowed this researcher the opportunity to identify disparities in the

30

literature related to volunteer tourism and the effects it has economically, socially, and

globally. Furthermore, undertaking a literature review provided an array of collected

works in different industries other than the hospitality field. A quantitative method was

not conducive to this study because it required primary research and a large amount of

time to find results. Furthermore, quantitative research relies heavily on factual results,

rather than humanistic experiences and motivations. Qualitative analysis also was not

conducive for this study because of the time and amount of data that would need to be

collected through primary research. Furthermore, the topic of volunteer tourism in

relation to economics and social aspects is relatively obscure; therefore, it was better to

review a wide range of previous scholarly articles as a manner to compile research.

Process: Procedure and Methods Used

The research compiled for this study was gathered from scholarly articles from

phycology, sociology, physiology, biology, tourism, and hospitality threads of literature.

The array of literature utilized was intended to better describe the whole narrative of

volunteer tourism and the global impact it has on the tourist, tourism industry, and host

countries. Therefore, it was critical to first examine mass tourism as its own entity verses

volunteer tourism. This provides the reader with insight into what sets a volunteer tourist

apart from a leisure tourist. Volunteer tourists are motivated to travel and participate in a

selfless act verses leisure tourists who are traveling for pleasure. Gathering this

information exhibited the importance of separating the two areas of travel to be examined

individually rather than collectively.

Second, an analysis of the effect volunteer tourism has on the volunteer tourist by

utilizing sociology, phycology, and physiology literature is present in chapter two as a

31

way of demonstrating that volunteer tourism has profound social effects on the tourist

and can possible be what is driving its popularity. Providing different literature threads,

such as happiness and altruism was done to explain the importance of individuals who

want to gain a deeper sense of meaning in a manner that has been chronicled for

centuries.

Lastly, examining volunteer tourism’s effects on a destination is explored through

tourist and hospitality literature threads that draw attention to the positive and or negative

economic effects volunteer tourism has on host counties in contrast to leisure tourisms’

effects. Furthermore, discussing the financial significance volunteer tourism has on the

tourism industry is in effort to reiterate the importance of examining volunteer tourism

exclusively rather than collectively in conjunction with mass tourism.

Limitation of Study

There was only one primary limitation for this study, as literature regarding the

subject is still limited in the scope of volunteer tourism, therefore there was a lack of

statistical data which was available. The majority of the study does not rely heavily on

statistical data, although statistical data could strengthen the validity and significance of

the study.

Ethical Issues

Representing and articulating the correct perspective of researchers and literary authors in

chapter two was of extreme importance.

Summary

The science of happiness is a relatively new and progressive study for much of

society even though it has been philosophically studied and analyzed for centuries. The

desire to increase one’s base line happiness is rooted in human nature and is what drives

32

people’s choices in everyday life. Alternative travel, in many ways, fulfills people’s

intrinsic desire of self-actualization and altruistic efforts. Gaining knowledge, new

experiences and empathy is often what alternative, altruistic tourist seeks through travel.

33

CHAPTER FOUR: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Alternative travel is a critical resource for tourists who are attempting to achieve

an altruistic state of mind and increase their various levels of happiness (Berger, 2008).

The tourism industry as a whole is economically essential to many countries, but, for

impoverished host countries, it is critical, and it could be detrimental too much of their

society if volunteer tourism was to decline (Hummal & Van der Duim, 2012).

According to Nawijin, there are three main reasons why individuals choose to

travel: gain new knowledge, participate in a new experience, and pleasure (2009).

Traveling as a whole can increase health and provide a stress reliving emotion.

Specifically, leisure tourism typically incorporates an increase in positive emotions

within one’s life as the anticipation of a new experience or a different experience from

the norm has been linked to improved health and increased baseline happiness (Benson &

Seibert, 2009). Travelers who participate in volunteer tourist have the same emotional

reaction as leisure tourists; however, they often have a more prolonged and deeper

positive reaction from their experience (Newijin, 2009). Volunteer tourist typically

experience altruistic, spiritual, and eudemonia happiness, whereas as leisure tourists do

not (Coghlan & Gooch, 2012).

Volunteer tourists seek a deeper emotional connection from their travels than just

pleasure. Travelers who choose alternative travel typically are intentionally pursing an

activity that is selfless and evokes empathy within them, therefore providing them with a

new experience (Waterman, 1990). Furthermore according to McIntosh (2010), traveling

with a group of other volunteer tourists also provides a sense of community. Volunteer

tourists also frequently feel a profound sense of purpose from their travels, as they are

34

providing impoverished counties with such things as, economic stability, financial

consistency, and health care assistance. Individuals who volunteer often do so, not only

because of their emotional reactions but because the sense-of- self that they develop.

People often align the mission or goals of a company with their own, this encourages

people to continue to participate in selfless acts they feel part of something more

significant and important than themselves (Li, Niininen & Jacobs, 2006). This type of

response cannot be crated though pleasure or leisure tourism.

According to Lyubomisky, happy people are motivated and view decision making

differently than others, therefore the emotional aspect of volunteering was examined and

is fundamental to why people choose volunteer tourism: it is critical and an essential for a

traveler who is choosing between volunteer tourism and leisure tourism (Sheldon &

Elliot, 1998). The desire to volunteer or participate in activities fulfills an intrinsic human

need and serves as a driving force for many individuals to repeatedly participate in

volunteer tourism (Staffel & Oppenheimer , 2008).

Moreover, happiness is a main emotional response from alternative traveling and

is also a key emotional decision making mechanism that implicitly influences individuals

who participate in volunteer tourism (Lyumirsky, 2008; Waterman, 1990). The science of

happiness examines an individual’s ability to take control of his or her internal happiness,

rather than leaving it to uncontrollable experiences, prompting much of society to believe

that happiness is an allusive concept that only some people can attain (Lyubomirsky,

2008). Increasingly, however, researchers have recognized that a person’s baseline

happiness can result from intentional altruistic acts, such as volunteering to help those

who are less fortunate. Although recently “happiness” has become an increasing more

35

recognized, scientific thread, the motivations of happy people usually lead them to

perceive and pursue different actives. This was analyzed in reference to motivating

factors in terms of why people choose volunteer tourism, as it is a leading contributor to

why individuals habitually participate in volunteer tourism.

When people choose volunteer tourism they immerse themselves in a culture as

they typically stay in rural and local housing, as well as participate in culturally authentic

activities, and eat locally. However, leisure tourists consume only commercialized

“hybridization” (Cohen, 2008) of a culture when traveling: this is detrimental to

impoverished destination countries, which rely on local income from tourists. Alternative

travel significantly “contributes to poverty reduction” (hummal & Van der Duim, 2012,

p. 320) as it has helped sustained local economies, through alternative travel, which

maintains and creates job. Volunteer tourists also consume significantly less in host

counties. In recent years, the volunteer tourism industry has grown significantly, which

has contributed to the hospitality industry. This not only adds importance to the practice

of traveling alternatively, but it further suggest that new generations of travelers are

seeking a deeper experience when traveling (Cohen, 2008). The growth in the alternative

travel realm, more importantly, adds a stable and steady flow of tourists who can grow

the economy in less fortunate host countries.

According to Coghlan & Gooch (2011), marketing tactics to volunteer tourists

that appeal only to the ego furthers a gap of sustainable happiness or an altruistic mindset

that can be achieved through volunteer travel and distorts the expectations of these types

of tourists, which cripples the experience and could possibly deter tourists from choosing

the option of traveling for alternative motives, thereby prompting people to choose other

36

ways to travel. This affects not only those who are less fortunate but also a large segment

of the tourism industry (Niinien & Jacobs, 201

Conclusions

The volume of literature regarding volunteer tourism is steadily increasing;

however, why individuals choose volunteer tourism, and the effects of such traveling, is

seldomly examined. Furthermore, the tourism industry as a whole does not place enough

emphasis on the motivations of tourists who chose to gain deeper meaning from their

travels, as there is little or no marketing to tourists who want to engage in alternative

travel, even though youth traveling “purely for leisure, dropped from 75 percent in 2007

to just 47 percent” (World Youth Student Conference, 2008) . Tourists typically have to

seek these experiences out for themselves. However, there is a large amount of literature

and marketing effort directed toward leisure tourism.

Leisure tourism is often viewed as a priority in a large majority of the literature

pertaining to the topic of volunteer tourism. Furthermore, both topics are often not clearly

differentiated, although the two traveling styles (leisure and alternative travel) attract

different travelers and the traveling experience is fundamentally unalike.

Current research asserts that happiness and altruism are often the most common

emotional effects that volunteers tourist experience when they choose volunteer tourism

as a traveling form. Furthermore, volunteer tourists are often motivated to travel

alternatively in order to experience positive emotions and participate in selfless acts that

require empathy and thoughtfulness regarding others. Alternative travel in many ways

provides a more sustainable form of traveling, both emotionally and environmentally.

37

Impoverished host countries greatly benefit from those who choose alternative

travel, as travelers contribute to and help to sustain and improve upon their economy.

Additionally, alternative travel can result in building, restoring and collaborating with a

host country’s community, helping advance the social structure to become more

educated, profitable, and self-sustaining. Consequently, traveling alternatively is

beneficial, not only the traveler, as it results are positive and can help generate deep

emotional connections to the act of volunteering, but also for the society and country

which travelers visit.

The tourism industry is undeniably one of the key economic balancing factors in

the world; it allows a host county to profit from a traveler from job creation, direct money

spending, and indirect effects, such as road improvements, increased minimum wages,

and global recognition. Also, tourist spending effects a city or country for years after a

tourist has visited (Coghlan & Gooch, 2011). Volunteer tourism helps to, provide

impoverished countries with the capabilities of creating healthier economies never-the-

less, there is a shortage of ethical marketing that is aimed at individuals who want to

pursue volunteer tourism.

Recommendations

The volunteer tourism industry is rapidly growing, however, there are not enough

attention and resources being utilized for its growth. This is because leisure tourism is

often viewed as the only form of traveling in many scholarly articles, although this

activity does not produce the emotional connection and conscious traveling practices of

volunteer tourism. Therefore, the hospitality industry would benefit greatly if more

research was conducted regarding volunteer tourist repetitive tours and the, economic

38

benefit to host countries, as well as organizations which promote and market volunteer

tourism. It would also be useful to examine the negative aspects of organizations, which

do not provide adequate money to impoverished countries that are visited through

volunteer tourism. Although these topics have previously been discussed in literary

articles, the research done is often secondary and sparse. In addition to examining topics

related to volunteer tourism, providing a vast collection of statistics pertaining to the

economic benefit of traveling alternatively will assist in developing awareness of the

usefulness of volunteer tourism.

I recommend that a critical analysis be conducted on previous volunteer tourist’s

experience over a number of years; this can provide a more in depth review of the

volunteer tourist experience to help, determine how often individuals participate in

alternative traveling; this can also provide an additional statistical base to the economic

growth volunteer tourism provides within the hospitality industry.

There is very little information pertaining to marketing in reference to volunteer

tourism: this aspect of the volunteer tourism industry should also be examined, as it can

defiantly provide evidence concerning to the lack of money spent on the industry, while

also illustrating how beneficial it would be to expand more resources on the volunteer

tourism industry. Comparing and contrasting trends of volunteer tourists vs. leisure

tourists will also contribute to the literature thread, as well as strengthen the validity of

information relating to this component of the hospitality industry.

39

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