Table of Contents Arthro/Ento Cart Collection Acknowledgments...................................................1 Cart Materials and Presentation...................................2 Maple Cart and Collection Care....................................3 Overview..........................................................4 Arthropod Collection Specimens....................................5 Butterfly and Moth Collection Specimens...........................7 Major Features of Collection Specimens............................8 Themes and Concepts..............................................10 Structural Differences in Arthropods..........................10 Insect Metamorphosis..........................................11 Reproductive Strategies.......................................13 Coloration.................................................... 18 Mimicry....................................................... 20 Batesian Mimicry............................................20 Mullerian Mimicry...........................................21 Aggressive (Defensive) Mimicry..............................21 Eating Strategies............................................. 23 Defensive Strategies..........................................26 Arthropods and Humans.........................................29 Specimen Descriptions............................................30 Chelicerates.................................................. 30 Scorpion....................................................30 Black Widow spider..........................................30 Brown Recluse spider........................................31 Rosy-legged Tarantula.......................................31 Myriapods..................................................... 33 Centipede...................................................33 Millipede...................................................33 DRAFT 8
Transcript
Table of Contents
Arthro/Ento Cart Collection
Acknowledgments.................................................................................................................................1Cart Materials and Presentation.............................................................................................................2Maple Cart and Collection Care............................................................................................................3Overview................................................................................................................................................4Arthropod Collection Specimens...........................................................................................................5Butterfly and Moth Collection Specimens............................................................................................7Major Features of Collection Specimens...............................................................................................8Themes and Concepts..........................................................................................................................10
Structural Differences in Arthropods.............................................................................................10Insect Metamorphosis....................................................................................................................11Reproductive Strategies.................................................................................................................13Coloration......................................................................................................................................18Mimicry.........................................................................................................................................20
Eating Strategies............................................................................................................................23Defensive Strategies......................................................................................................................26Arthropods and Humans................................................................................................................29
Monarch and Viceroy Butterflies......................................................................................38Leaf-like Butterflies...........................................................................................................38Owl Butterfly.....................................................................................................................38Blue Morpho Butterfly......................................................................................................39Painted Lady Butterfly.......................................................................................................39
Using DISPLAY ONLY Live Animals...............................................................................................44Madagascar Hissing Cockroach....................................................................................................45Darkling Beetle..............................................................................................................................46Millipede........................................................................................................................................48Tarantula........................................................................................................................................50
The Arthropod/Ento collection was created in 2003 by a group of docents who wanted to bring an abundant and diverse group of living organisms to the attention of the public. Entomology, the study of insects, is a large component of the Academy’s research effort and insects comprise, by far, the largest number of specimens catalogued in Academy collections. Related arthropod species, such as spiders, scorpions, and millipedes, are also represented in the collections and so a broader focus on varieties of arthropods, including insects, became the goal.
The founding committee consisted of Vivian Easter, Pat Graham, Ken Graham, Sandy Linder, Delcey Watkins, Eleanor Visser, and Debbie Vollick.
This group explored what concepts the cart should present and what specimens would demonstrate these concepts. They then decided, based on a balance between thematic goals and possible specimens, what items should be included on the cart, and set about obtaining them. The specimens and supporting materials were vetted by Norm Penny, Senior Collections Manager, Entomology in 2005.
After the Academy returned to Golden Gate Park, it was observed that many of the specimens had suffered extreme wear. Consistent with the Academy’s commitment to excellence, damaged specimens were retired and many new specimens were obtained. Material supporting the Live Animal Program was supplied by Rachael Bertone. Special thanks to Lynda Hutton who assisted in adding new text to support themes and concepts, and to Docent Program staff, Manager Kathleen Lilienthal and Coordinator Velma Schnoll, who helped guide the renewal of this collection.
New material was vetted by Dr. David Kavanaugh June, 2010.
Jacqueline CraigCart Team Chair
DRAFT 8 1 June 2010
Cart Materials and PresentationGOAL
The goal of cart presentations is to engage visitors in exploration and discovery. Cart Collection specimens are chosen for their attractiveness to the public, their availability,
their teaching potential (both singly and/or combined with other specimens), and their durability and safety for handling.
Research has shown that visitors will have a more positive experience when they have personal interactions with a person representing the Academy.
PURPOSE To stimulate curiosity and understanding by giving visitors a docent-guided opportunity to
examine and learn from real specimens. To offer a unique, engaging hands-on exploration. To provide insight into Academy exhibits and concepts.
PRESENTING A CART Place the cart where there is good light, high visibility, and doesn’t block pathways,
emergency information, or fire apparatus (see map). Look interested and eager – show that you want to talk with visitors. Look outward to visitors rather than reading material. Be enthusiastic – about the cart material, your theme, the Academy. Stay with your cart. Get someone to stay with your cart if you need to take a break.
BEFORE YOU BEGIN Prepare in advance. Choose a theme for which you have been trained and that can be supported by available
specimens. (Cart binders include information describing themes for presenting specimens on the public floor.)
Study background information before presenting the cart. Highlight only one or two concepts or themes. Choose hands-on items that best support themes using no more than 4-6 specimens (only
vetted specimens can be taken on to the pubic floor).
AFTER YOUR SHIFT Replace materials in their proper boxes or shelf in the cart or cabinets. Return support information or pictures to binder/files. Lock and return cart/bins to proper location (maple carts should be turned so that rear of cart
faces the floor and that mirror does not face the exterior). Use Damage Specimen Report Form to report any missing/damaged specimens to Docent
Program Staff (send email notice to cart monitor and leave a copy of report in the binder).
Arthro/Ento Collection Monitors: Hudelle Newman and Delcey Watkins
DRAFT 8 2 June 2010
Maple Cart and Collection Care
MAPLE CART COLLECTIONSMaple Carts are stored at opposite ends of the Academy and should be turned with the drawers to the windows, but the mirror should be turned inward so that birds are not attracted.
Drawers should be locked when not in use.
Cart drawers are lined with appropriate drawer liners to reduce sliding as drawers and cart are moved.
Each drawer contains labels indicating where specimens are stored.
Specimens should be returned to appropriate drawers after cart presentation.
Fragile specimens should be returned to their labeled boxes or wrapped in bubble wrap.
OTHER CART COLLECTIONS Several cart collections are stored in various locked cabinets in the first level.
Maple carts may be used to present these specimens when maple cart collections are not being presented by another docent.
Specimens must be returned to locked cabinets after use.
FABRICCart fabric is provided in the day lounge to cover tops of carts. This is to reduce sliding of specimens on cart surface and to give a consistent presentation to the public.
DEMONSTRATION STATIONSDemonstration stations may also be used for displaying collections. Specimens may be placed on top of table. Demonstration stations may require cleaning before storing.
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Overview
Arthropods, by any measure, are the most successful animal group on Earth. They have conquered sea, land, and air. They comprise almost 85% of known species, live in almost every habitat, and display enormous diversity of form, size, and life history. The Arthropod/ Entomology Collection contains only terrestrial arthropods.
The name “Arthro/Ento” is a contraction of “Arthropod/Entomology”. The phylum Arthropoda includes the spiders, scorpions, crustaceans, millipedes, centipedes and insects. The term “entomology” means specifically the study of insects (from the Greek “entomon” for insect). It was decided to include the term “arthro” for accuracy, as the cart collection includes specimens from arthropod groups including, but not limited to insects.
Consistent with the purpose of cart collection presentations, this collection may be used to give visitors a docent-guided opportunity to examine remarkable terrestrial arthropods from different taxonomical groups. This arthropod collection is featured for many reasons.
Arthropods are an incredibly successful group of organisms that display remarkable diversity.
Arthropods are separated into several different groups, yet all share some common characteristics.
Arthropods have many different strategies and adaptations for finding and eating their food.
Arthropods display a variety of strategies to avoid being eaten by predators.
Arthropods have a remarkable diversity of reproductive strategies. Arthropods interact in many ways with humans, some beneficial, some
detrimental.
Any of these concepts can be reduced in scope by focusing on spiders and/or insects instead of the entire arthropod group.
Academy scientists are making important contributions to our understanding of the evolutionary history, life histories, and importance of various arthropod groups.
Please refer to the Hidden Treasures guidebook at the back of this binder for more specific information about terrestrial arthropods.
DRAFT 8 4 June 2010
Arthropod Collection Specimens
SUBPHYLUM CHELICERATAClass Arachnida
Order Araneaerosy-legged tarantulablack widow spiderbrown recluse spidertarantula (living)
Order Scorpionestwo scorpions in alcohol
SUBPHYLUM MYRIAPODA Class Chilopoda
centipede Class Diploda
millipede (living)
SUBPHYLUM CURRENTLY UNNAMED1
Class Hexapoda (Insects) Order Odonata
dragonflydragonfly metamorphosis
Order Blattodea (Blattaria)cockroaches (living)
Order Neuropteraantlions (adult)
Order Phasmatodealarge stick insect leaf insect
Order Coleopteraatlas beetledung beetleselephant beetles (male and female)jewel beetlesrhinoceros beetle
darkling beetle (living)
1 According to the “Tree of Life” project from Harvard University, the Hexapoda (insects) are now listed as a class within an unnamed subphylum. The classification of crustaceans is currently being debated. According to the “Tree of Life” Crustacea may be placed in the same unnamed subphylum as Hexapoda. We will revisit this topic at a later date and make necessary adjustments to our classifications. See: Tree of Life web project http:/tolweb.org/tree?group=Arthropoda&contgroup=Bilateria
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Order Hemipteratrue bugs: Harlequin bug, Western conifer seed bug, Bordered plant bug,
Yucca plant bug Order Hymenoptera
bullet antshoney bee
Order Lepidopteraassorted butterflies and moths (see next page)
Luna Moth Actias luna Atlas Moth Attacus atlas (Subfamily Saturniinae Tribe Attacini)
Bombycidae
Silkworm Moth Life Cycle
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Major Features of Collection SpecimensARTHROPODA (ARTHROPODS)
body composed of segments exoskeleton that must be shed to grow paired, jointed appendages
CHELICERATA (CHELICERATES) two-part body plan - head (cephalothorax) and abdomen chelicerae (jaws tipped with fangs that inject venom) pedipalps four pairs of walking legs no antennaeARACHNIDA (SCORPIONS, SPIDERS, AND OTHERS)
SCORPIONES (SCORPIONS) last tail segment bears venom gland and stinger pedipalps modified into pincers have book lungs for respiration
ARANEAE (SPIDERS) lack jaws – inject digestive enzymes that liquefy prey tissue narrow “waist” between cephalothorax and abdomen spinnerets, used to produce silk for burrows and webs have book lungs and/or tracheae for respiration
MYRIAPODA (MYRIAPODS) two body segments: head and multisegmented trunk have tracheae for respirationCHILOPODA (CENTIPEDES)
multiple pairs of legs, with one pair per body segmentsDIPLOPODA (MILIPEDES)
two pairs of legs on most body segmentsHEXAPODA (INSECTA)
consolidated thorax with three pairs of legs three-part body – head, thorax, abdomen three pairs of legs usually one or two pairs of wings
Odonata dragonflies and damselfliesNeuroptera lacewings and ant lionsBlattodea cockroachesPhasmatodea walking sticks and leaf insectsColeoptera beetlesLepidoptera moths and butterfliesHymenoptera wasps, ants, beesHemiptera true bugs
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CRUSTACEA (CRABS, LOBSTERS, SHRIMP, ETC.) segmented body with two or three sections head and thorax may be fused to from a cephalothorax each segment can bear a pair of appendages head segments bear two pairs of antennae, mandibles and maxillae thorax bears legs which may be specialized for walking and feeding gills for respiration in most species
Isopoda sow bugs
DRAFT 8 9 June 2010
Themes and Concepts
Structural Differences in ArthropodsSPECIMENSSelect several specimens from different sub-phyla or classes to show structural differences.
THINGS TO NOTICE Number of body parts Segments: Can you see separate segments? Show millipede. Introduce
that segments fuse together to form parts. Exoskeleton Chitin. Rigid? Flexible? Heavy? Lightweight? Ecdysial
line where skin splits for molting. Legs: How many? Jointed or straight? How many joints? Why so
many joints? Are all the legs alike on a specimen? Show dragonfly’s spiny uneven leg lengths, first pair shortest, next pair a bit longer, third pair longest – an arrangement so that “aerial basket-net” scoops up insects in mid-air.
Introduce how legs evolve into adaptive appendages like paired chela, pedipalps, antennae, and mandibles in the head section.
Wings present or no wings. How many wings? Are wings all the same?: (transparent, membrane with scales, hardened outer elytra covering, a delicate membrane wings). Notice venation. Notice: wings may fold or wings are held out from thorax. What difference does this wing structure make? Why are there more winged than non-winged insects?
Eyes: Placement? Number of eyes? Simple and compound eyes Appendages: Antennae, chelicerae, claws. pedipalps (difference
between male and female’s), jaws/mandibles: How do they eat? Do they chew, crush, sip, suck, siphon?
Antennae or no antennae: How many? Straight? Jointed? Clubbed at end? Feathery? Tapered? Why antennae?
Fangs and stingers? Where? Why? Sensory organs for sound, vibrations, touch, taste, and smell:
STRUCTURAL AND BEHAVIORAL DIFFERENCES IN LEPIDOPTERAIs it a butterfly or moth? Both species are very similar to each other but differ slightly.
Distinction is based on structure: specifically, the structure of the antennae.
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Butterflies have long, thread-like, slender antennae enlarged at the tip making them look like miniature clubs. The antennae of moths are not club shaped, but are of various other forms. Many are feathery, long, slender and gradually taper towards the tip, some have a hook or spur at the end. The difference in the antennae structure influences how night-time copulating moths seek each other out. The male’s sensitive feathery antennae readily detect the airborne pheromones sent by the hidden female. In addition to these characteristics there are also distinctions in the veins of the wings and in the manner of holding the wings when at rest. Moths tent their wings together over their bodies as do some butterflies; butterflies may also hold their wings away from their bodies.
Butterflies are diurnal in their habit of flying between sunrise and dusk and very seldom fly at night.
Moths generally fly from dusk of evening to early morning; most are nocturnal.
Insect MetamorphosisMetamorphosis refers to the way insects develop, grow and change form. The word “metamorphosis” means “change.” The majority of insect species including all beetles develop with complete metamorphosis. This means they progress from an egg through a larva and pupa stage before becoming an adult. During the pupa stage, the insect is sealed within a cocoon and does not eat. Most of the larval cells are broken down, and a few dormant cells are brought to life to create the adult winged insect that emerges, flies, and mates.
This system of growth is advantageous as it allows insects to develop specialized forms and behaviors for the fundamental activities of eating and growth separate from reproduction as an adult. Larvae, in general, do not compete with adults of the species for habitat or food and develop specific survival strategies different from the adult, Insects, like all arthropods, must molt in order to accommodate their body growth. How they change can differ slightly.
In gradual metamorphosis —ametabola—there is little or no structural change as insects grow older. The young resemble the adults except for size and sexual maturity. Grasshoppers, termites, true bugs, aphids, earwigs, thrips, and booklice undergo gradual metamorphosis.
Incomplete metamorphosis—hemimetabola (3 life-cycle stages: egg, nymph and adult)—occurs in mayflies, dragonflies, cockroaches, ants, and praying mantids. Maturation of wings, external genitalia, and other adult structures occurs in small steps from molt to molt.
Complete metamorphosis—holometabola (4 life-cycle stages: egg, larva, pupa and adult)—occurs with butterflies, moths, flies, fleas, beetles, wasps, bees, silkworms, mealworms and ladybugs.
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Approximately 88% of all insects undergo complete metamorphosis, while about 12% go through incomplete metamorphosis. As a strategy, metamorphosis presents multiple opportunities for evolutionary adaptations.2
2 See the Hidden Treasures guidebook, “Growth and Development” (page 5) for more information on metamorphosis.
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Reproductive StrategiesSPECIMENS
Examples of Indirect Sperm TransferscorpiontarantulaBlack Widow spiderdragonfly
Examples of Direct Sperm Transferbutterfliesmothsantscockroaches (living)
THINGS TO NOTICE Pedipalps: Sperm punchers. Sperm placed in pouch at tip of pedipalps. Cerci tails: Paired appendages on the last abdominal segment serve as
sensory organs, aid in copulation and are used as defensive structures. Claspers or harpes: Paired lateral clasping organs on tip of abdomen. Ovipositor: Specialized tubular egg-laying organ, usually concealed
but sometimes extends as an outgrowth from the tip of the abdomen. Some are equipped with cutting edge so that eggs can be placed inside slits in plants.
Sperm pouch: External accessory organ under the second abdominal segment of male Odonata (dragonfly and damselfly).
Feathery antennae: Acutely sensitive hairs that detect chemical pheromones.
Ootheca: Specific name for the case packed with egg mass that female cockroach may carry around attached to the tip of her abdomen, for all or part of incubation time or carry internally from which live young are born.
THINGS TO NOTE THAT AREN’T VISIBLE Spermatophore: Packet of sperm plus gelatinous mass of proteins and
nutrients produced by the male in a wide range of insect groups, which may be deposited on the ground (scorpions) or transferred directly into the female.
Spermatozoa: Sperm plus essential nutrients. Spermatheca: Interior sac-like receptacle (s) in the female
reproductive tract in which spermatozoa are stored until needed to fertilize the ova. It can also be the site of fertilization.
Pheromones: Chemical molecules that when released, act as a signal of readiness to mate. These airborne molecules are species specific.
DRAFT 8 13 June 2010
EXAMPLES OF INDIRECT SPERM TRANSFERScorpion
Elaborate courtship dance, claw-in-claw. Male grasps female, holding and pushing her around until finding suitable place to deposit sperm mass (spermatophore) onto a solid substrate. He then pulls the female into position over sperm and she accepts it into her genital opening.
Scorpions are viviparous, giving birth to live offspring that develop within mother’s body. Specialized structure connects embryo's mouth to female's digestive system. Gestation period is 7–9 months.
Tiny young born alive, litter of 9–35. Parental care seems important. Young stay on mother's back, as she protects and cares for them.
Black widow spider Small (in comparison to female) male spins a “sperm web” on which
it deposits a small amount of semen from its testes that are located near end of abdomen and coats pedipalp pouches with this sperm.
He finds the female of its species, begins its courtship, by drumming, tremulation and push ups so that female recognizes the species-specific vibration as those of a mate.
Vibration intensity correlates with male fitness and is important in sexual selection. Males insert pedipalp(s) into the females’s openings, and sperm is released into spermathecal sac(s).
Female controls flow of sperm from spermathecal sac as she fertilizes the eggs. She lays eggs into a small silk web, which she then covers with more webbing until it forms a cocoon, which is then camouflaged and guarded, or is carried on her back.
Eggs hatch within cocoon and spiderlings emerge. The popular notion of the female black widow spider eating the male
after the mating takes place is not always true. Although it has been observed sometimes, usually the males do manage to escape, especially if the female has been well fed or if the male does not remain in the vicinity after mating.
The female may need the nourishment from eating the male to spin out the silk that forms the cocoon.
Dragonfly Male has sperm pouches, a separate organ from its testes under his
second abdominal segment (structure unique to Odonata), and claspers for holding the female at the tip of its abdomen.
Females have an egg-laying organ, an ovipositor, at the tip of the abdomen.
DRAFT 8 14 June 2010
Wheel position: Elaborate mid-air circle-shaped mating procedure preceded by the male first curling his abdomen below his own body and bringing together the genital opening on the ninth abdominal segment and the pouches in the second abdominal segment behind the thorax and transferring sperm to the pouches.
He uses his claspers to hold the female by the neck. The female curls her abdomen below the male contacting the sperm pouches. Sperm held in internal spermatheca.
Eggs laid as female flies over water and drops eggs into water, or using her ovipositor, cuts slits in stems or bark growing near the water (as do damselflies) and deposits the eggs in the slits.
EXAMPLES OF DIRECT SPERM TRANSFERStick insects
Female (larger than the male) is greenish colored and quite inconspicuous, except for her abdomen when it becomes swollen with developing eggs.
It’s thought that the female gives off an attractant scent to which male responds.
Male stands over female, bending its abdomen down and under and releases sperm into her spermatheca, directly. They copulate for a prolonged time and remain very still.
Females in some stick insect species are capable of laying fertile eggs without being mated (parthenogenesis). These eggs give rise to male stick insects, increasing the chance in the next generation that there will be more males to mate with females.
Eggs resemble seeds in shape, color and size and, if they are dropped on leaf litter on the ground, also show a knob-like capitulum that aids in their survival. Ants move the seed-like eggs to their nests, protecting the egg from parasitism by wasps.
The egg development can be suspended if weather conditions are not favorable.
Nymph emerges pale green and crawls at night until it finds a tree with the young leaves it needs for food. Especially likes eucalyptus tree leaves.
Butterflies Butterflies recognize each other through pheromones and by the size,
color, shape and vein structure of the wings, all of which are species specific.
Many perform aerial flight dance, then descend to vegetation where mating takes place, some mate on the fly. The birdwing male is known to ambush the female and after fertilization plug the genital tract with a frothy secretion to prevent other males from mating with her.
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Other behaviors are hilltopping, when they fly upslope to the summit of the nearest hill and puddling, when they gather communally at puddles to sip the salt and minerals they need for mating.
Clasper appendages at tip of male abdomen clasp the female’s genital opening. They stay together coupled for some time.
Spermatophore inserted into the spermatheca pouch. Remains there until the sperm is needed to fertilize the eggs, which are laid singularly.
Caterpillars need to start eating as soon as they hatch, so most of the time the female places the eggs directly onto a type of plant that the caterpillar will eat. Typically, the eggs attach to the underside of a leaf, so they are hidden from predators.
Ants Ants demonstrate that mutual dependence of all the individuals in a
colony and their specialization benefits each member of the population.
In a mature colony some larvae are singled out for special treatment and grow larger. The pupae also grow larger and show traces of wing buds.
Fully winged reproductive females and males emerge and remain in the nests until weather is favorable to their flying.
They swarm out of nests and mate mid-air. Gravid flying females are very tasty for birds and many are eaten.
Female alights on the ground, bites her wings off, and finds a suitable nesting site. Here she digs a shaft and gallery and plugs up the entrance to her nests, lays her eggs, and starts her independent colony. She may also return to her “home” nest and successfully begin a satellite colony. But if she returns to the original colony, her scent may challenge the existing queen, in which case she may be attacked and killed by the ancestral queen.
After the first brood of small workers emerges from the eggs, the sealed nest is opened so they can eat and bring in food for the queen who continues to produce eggs that develop into successive stronger workers.
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ColorationSPECIMENS
butterflies and mothsTray of assorted TroidesBirdwing butterfliesSilk moths (Promethea, Emperor, Luna)Tray of assorted NymphalidaePainted Lady butterflyMonarch and Viceroy butterfliesOwl ButterflyBlue Morpho butterflyTray of assorted small Peridae butterfliesTray of assorted Lycaenidae butterflies, especially Great Purple HairstreakPhoto of Pipevine Swallowtail butterfly
THINGS TO NOTICE Brilliant colors and/or bold pattern displays speak “beware” to
predators. Black and yellow, black and orange, yellow and white, bright blue, and red are color combinations and colors that signal, “Stay away, I’m toxic, I sting, I’m bitter tasting.”
Warning colors are effective in reducing predation. Notice red hourglass on black widow spider. Show how viceroy mimics monarch.
Unusual bright colors are suddenly flashed, startling the predator or fixing the predator’s attention to a place on the wing that if attacked will not result in the death of insect.
Most jewel beetles have bright, shiny colors. For some, these colors help attract prey. Other jewel beetles have colors that fool their predators – they have spots of bright color on their elytra that look like eyes. When they display their elytra, the “eyes” look right at the predator and startle it. This gives the beetle time to fly away, or perhaps predator may only get a bite out of wing.
Decoy color display: Notice owl butterflies, called so because their huge eyespots resemble owls’ eyes (the predator of the night). Note: It’s in the genus Caligo, meaning night.
Notice Great Purple Hairstreak butterfly’s convincing form of deception: it has a distinctive spot on the underside of the hind wings at the outer bottom margin and a tail-like
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hair behind the spot. At rest it rubs its hind wings in a circular motion with its hind wings together; the spot looks then very much like an eye and the hair looks like an antenna, making the insect look like it is resting in the opposite position, thereby confusing its prey.
Cryptic-colored shapes or patterns (instead of drawing attention to oneself, the goal is camouflage). Darkling beetles camouflage and conceal themselves by blending into tree bark, leaves, and other parts of their environment, as do stick insects, leaf insects, and many moths and butterflies (note leaf butterfly) so that predators cannot see them. Note dull colored underwings of many Nymphalidae butterflies.
Pigmented color: The result of DNA or what individual eats – it is in the cells and fades when insect dies. Typical colors are orange, red, yellow, and brown.
Structural color: Iridescent scales and ridged wing-covers act as a prism, breaking light into select wavelengths of blue, green, or violet.
Color displays are signals of fitness and gene quality when males need to impress the female to gain access to mate.
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MimicryThe evolution of toxic and poisonous insects that emit warning signals paved the way for the subsequent evolution of harmless insects that mimic them. These mimetic insects are protected by their resemblance to aposematic (warning coloration) toxic insects.
Batesian MimicryBatesian Bluffers are edible, innocuous insects that bluff their way past predators by imitating the warning signals of some noxious insect.
Peridae butterflies do not look anything like their closest relatives. Instead they resemble the members of the Heliconiidae butterfly family. Heliconiids are fragile, slow moving and brightly colored – ideal prey for birds. Yet, birds never touch them because they are unpalatable. Bates concluded after seeing the edible Peridae that what was happening among them was that they were imitating the inedible species, and he called this Batesian mimicry.
THINGS TO NOTICE Pipevine butterfly’s upper surface wings are largely black and have a
flashing brilliant blue sheen that is very conspicuous when light strikes it at certain angles. The lower surfaces are black and iridescent blue, and the hind wings are marked with large orange spots. Many butterflies mimic the toxic Pipevine Swallowtail’s unmistakable warning coloration. Mimetic species include both sexes of Spicebush Swallowtail, the female Tiger Swallowtail, and female Diana fritillary.
Notice, only the female needs the mimicry because she is most exposed when she deposits her eggs from place to place in the early evening when birds are active insect predators.
Promethea moth: Mostly black upper wings (male), no working mouthparts (vestigial mouthparts), very feathery antennae.
Only the male Promethea of the giant silk moths mimics the toxic Pipevine Swallowtail and only on the upper surface of the wings. The female moth remains nonmimetic creamy-white and orange-brown. This sex-limited mimicry is related to the fact that the males are more exposed to predation than the females and stand to gain more by being mimetic. The other giant silk moths are not mimetic because they fly only at night. The male Promethea moth flies when it is still light. The female Promethea, like the females of the other giant silk moths, fly only when they lay their eggs at night. Hidden safely in foliage, the females emit their powerful sex-attracting
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pheromones and mate only during the late afternoon. Thus, the male, following the scent, is flying conspicuously in daylight, exposing himself to feeding, diurnal, insect-eating birds. Notice: Male needs only the upper surface to resemble the pipevine butterfly because that is what is seen as it flies. The lower surface of the wing would be exposed if the moth perched while feeding on a flower, but the giant silk moths do not feed. They only live briefly, surviving during their adult life on fat stored in their bodies.
Mullerian MimicryTwo or more toxic species will tend to evolve similar warning signals and closely resemble each other. An economy for both, since some of each will be killed and they share the inevitable mortality.
THINGS TO NOTICE Monarch and viceroy: similarities in wing coloration and pattern Monarch and viceroy differences:
Male monarch has androconium spot in center of each hind wing from which pheromones are released.
Viceroy is smaller and has black line that runs across the veins of hind wings
Viceroy caterpillar feeds on willow, poplar and cottonwood (Salicaceae). Sequesters salicylic acid from the leaves, resulting in their being bitter and repugnant tasting. Note they are not toxic, but noxious.
Monarch caterpillar feeds on milkweed, and both caterpillar and adult butterfly retain milkweed’s toxic chemicals, making them repugnant to potential predators.
Aggressive (Defensive) Mimicry SPECIMENS
stick insectsleaf insectsNymphalidae butterflies (underwings dull) – Painted Lady, Red-spotted Purplehairstreak butterflies – especially Great Purple HairstreakAtlas Moth
THINGS TO NOTICE Many insects aggressively resemble natural objects (twigs, and leaves)
as a camouflage (stick insects, leaf insects, leaf butterflies). In the Nymphalidae the brightly colored Painted Lady’s grey underside with red and white markings are dull and sometimes resemble dead leaves to help camouflage and make it disappear. The pupae and larvae of
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some insects resemble repulsive objects like the ordure of birds to avoid predation.
Dummy heads: Decorating the hairstreak's lower hind wings are spots that look like eyes, and out-growths that look like antennae, creating the illusion that the butterfly has a second head. When the hairstreak alights, it jerks its dummy antennae up and down while keeping its real antennae immobile, presumably, to distract predators and draw attention to the fake eye.
Atlas moth called the "snake's head moth,” refers to outer extension of the forewings, which bear a passing resemblance to a snake's head.
Cocoons and eggs resemble something other than what they are, such as dead leaves and seeds. (Note eggs of stick insects.) Antlion cocoons buried deep in soft sand resemble rabbit droppings covered with sand grains; butterfly and moth cocoons may resemble dead leaves.
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Eating Strategies
SPECIMENSscorpiontarantula Black Widow spidercentipededragonfly, nymph and adultantlionbutterflydung beetlecockroachant
THINGS TO NOTICEMouthparts of arthropods have evolved into a number of forms, each adapted to a different style or mode of feeding. Most mouthparts represent modified, paired appendages which in ancestral forms would have appeared more like legs than mouthparts. In general, arthropods have mouthparts for cutting and chewing, piercing and sucking, siphoning, and filtering. The structure of the mandible differentiates the method of eating and what is eaten.
Sharp claw-like chelicerae for subduing, killing, piercing Fangs connected to venom gland that inject venom that change solids
to liquid Hollow fangs used as a straw for sucking Maxillipeds (Crustaceans) are combination pincers and poison claws Forcipules (Centipedes) are paired "poison claws” that curve forward,
tipped with a pointed fang, used to capture and poison prey Mandibles that pierce the victim and suck fluids out of its body
may be sickle like jaws (antlion) Mandibles that chew, cut and masticate (beetles) Vestigial mandibles in adult insects that do not feed at all (moth) Labium “mask” in dragonfly larvae
Other Structural Adaptations Modified legs used as baskets (dragonfly) and arms Teeth Proboscis is a long retractable tongue that siphons liquid (butterfly) Feet: Are there claws on the tip of the tarsus? Are there sense organs?
DRAFT 8 22 June 2010
Scorpion Chelicerae: paired claw-like structures that protrude from the mouth
area. Chelae (pincers) used to catch prey. Depending on the toxicity of their venom and size of their claws, crush
the prey and inject it with neurotoxin venom that paralyzes or kills and turns the solid food to mush. Scorpion can only digest food in a liquid form.
Sharp chelicerae used to pull small amounts of food off the prey for digestion.
Eight legs, each having claws at tips
Tarantula Claws of paired chelicerae move vertically parallel to each other
catching prey. Inject prey with poison from fangs. The poison paralyzes the prey. Enzyme in the sting turns the prey's insides into mush. Suck out the
mush using hollow fang. Has eight legs, seven segments on each leg, last segment (tarsus) has
2-3 claws (“daws”) with fine teeth.
Dragonfly larvae and adult Predacious, carnivorous larvae or nymph has a modified labium
appendage called a “mask” below and behind the mouthpart that is like a spring-gun.
When the nymph detects its prey within striking distance, the labium springs forward and two opposed jaws at the tip grab the prey that is then brought into the mouth and eaten.
Adult dragonfly Sharp dragon teeth inside mandibles, compound eyes, legs used as
aerial net-basket
Antlion larvae Digs pit trap in sand and waits for prey to fall in. Sickle-like jaws
with sharp, teeth like projections (like sharp hypodermic needles) pierce the victim. Sucks fluids out
Butterflies Long proboscis. When it is not feeding, the proboscis rolls up onto
itself inside the head. Butterfly effectively draws up the nectar by creating a vacuum, much like a bulb syringe slurps up liquid.
Puddling behavior: butterflies need minerals and salt. Gather in groups drinking from very shallow, still water.
DRAFT 8 23 June 2010
Butterflies taste with sensory organs on feet. When “foot” touches food source, a reflex causes its proboscis to uncoil. This lets the butterfly retrieve and swallow the food.
Dung beetles Strong mandibles are adapted to bite and chew food. Mandibles move
horizontally, grinding the food, before it is ingested. (The word “beetle” is derived from the Anglo-Saxon bitan, "to bite.")
Elephant, Rhinoceros and Atlas Beetles Strong, chewing mouthparts with well-developed mandibles allow
beetles to eat a broad range of materials. They are known to eat leaves, bark, dung, and other insects as well as man-made fabrics. Some beetles are predators, some are herbivores or scavengers, and some are parasites. Depending on the species of beetle, the jaws are used for grasping and killing prey, or for gnawing or chewing.
Adaptive horns/antlers are used to defend food sources as well as competitive armament to win a mate.
Beetle larvae, called grubs, can be predacious or herbivorous. All grubs have biting mouthparts. Elephant beetle grubs aid tremendously in the decomposition of dead plants and trees.
Ants Mandibles are used to eat almost anything. Different species of ants
prefer different types of food: Some eat other insects and dead animals that they come across, while others eat sugar, fruits, seeds, oils, vegetables and other sources of proteins. The also need water to survive.
Some ants “milk” honeydew out of insects and aphids, these ants can only digest liquid foods.
Ants utilize scouts to locate food and then lay down a trail for the rest to follow back to it, using chemicals called pheromones.
DRAFT 8 24 June 2010
Defensive StrategiesTHINGS TO NOTICE
Wings Venom Warning colors: yellow and black, red (hourglass on black widow) Mimicry: Common “orange complex” (Heliconilnae butterflies) Diversionary decoy markings: eyespots (ocelli)
In some butterflies, particularly the owl butterfly, “eyes” serve as decoy, diverting bird attack away from body, and towards outer part of hind wings or the fore wing tips.
Exoskeleton: Armored covering. Chitin is very strong for its weight and provides Protection from water loss, predators.
Jointed appendages: Allow running, jumping, borrowing, swimming, etc.
Sensory organs: Visual acuity - Eyes: type, number and placement. Compound eyes
with fixed-focus, six-sided lenses, called facets. (Dragonfly has up to 28,000 lenses/facets).
Vibration and sound-sensitive organs on sides and bottom of abdomen, complex organs found in the cavity of the tibia of each leg. Notice “Alert Attitude:” scorpions and some spiders’ legs orient in a circular arrangement so that organs in the slit between the tarsus and the metatarsal of its eight legs sense vibration. Spiders have ultra sensitive lyriform organ.
Sensitive tactile surface hairs and bristles on body, feet and antennae. Sensitive olfactory cells (chemical sensors) on antennae (moth), hairs
and bristles (sensilia), cerci tails and feet (butterflies, spiders) Modified appendages: chelicerae, fangs, mandibles (notice size),
maxillipeds, labium “mask,” proboscis, abdominal hair darts, and giant horns. Elephant and Rhinoceros beetles “armament” displays resolve disputes and are used to size up rival’s weaponry and access their own strength against another’s.
(Monarch), communal flights (Morpho), fly at night, migration, hibernation.
Toxins ingested in larval stage: potent milkweed glycosides (Monarch); salicylic acid from willows (Viceroy); poisonous passifloracae vine, Fabaceae and Violaceae (the orange species Heliconilnae, a subfamily of Nymphalidae); aristolochic acid in Dutchman’s pipe, Birthwort and Pipevine (Birdwing and Pipevine Swallowtail butterflies).
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Trickery (Hairwings) and Play Dead (motionless stick insect), Hide or drop out of sight (spider, tarantula).
Pheromones: species specific (spider coats silk with its own specific scent, ant trails are species specific).
subdue. Tactile sensors on tarsal hairs and bristles.Organs in leg joints detect vibrationsArmored exoskeleton
Rosy-legged tarantula Fangs inject venom, shoots hair darts with barbed-end from hairs on abdomen
Brown recluse spider Hides from the world in undisturbed places, but bites, if bothered. Venom has enzyme that causes skin cells and the subcutaneous cells to die. Loxoscelism: the skin tissue disease resulting from the venom
Black widow spider fangs inject powerful toxin; highly sensitive sensorsCentipede fangs inject venom, sharp mandibles biteMillipede changes shape; secretions are foul-smelling, cyanide secretionBeetles (Elephant, etc) huge horns used for defending food and mate selectionDarkling Beetle (AKA stink bug)
emits stinky secretion and brown stain
Madagascar Cockroach Hisses and sensory organs detect substrate vibrations and airborne sounds
Dragonfly larva Jet propulsion escape from predators, labia maskDragonfly adult Teeth, aerial speed and maneuverability, excellent eyesightBullet ant Painful sting, using long retractable syringe-like appendage
attached to the tip of its abdomen. Injects venom that is a neurotoxin that blocks the central nervous system so that prey has no control over relaxing or contracting its muscles. Sting is a most painful sting – like getting shot with a bullet.
Butterfly Migration and hibernationMonarch butterfly larvae ingest toxin from milkweed plantViceroy larvae ingest repugnant and bitter tasting salicylic acid from
leaves of willows and other trees in the genus SalixAssorted orange/copper butterflies (Family Nymphalidae, subfamily Heliconiina
larvae feed on poisonous plants (passifloraceae vines, fabaceae, violacaea).
Heliconiinae butterflies “orange complex”
See banded orange, red lacewings, Julia butterfly, gulf frilillary, tawny coaster
Owl butterfly Conspicuous ocelli (eyespots) on ventral side of wing resemble face of owl. A night-flying butterfly.
Blue Morpho Ocelli eyespots on camouflaged-brown ventral (underside) wings.
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Rest with wings closed, showing spots as they feed on fermenting fruit, tree sap, fungi and decomposed animals. Some have metallic, iridescent blue dorsal wings, others are white. Toxic because of what larvae eat. Mobbing behavior, stick together in groups to deter predators.
Antlion larvae Ambush strategy coupled with “sit and wait.” Larvae are master builders of shallow crater-like pitfall traps in sand. Wait at the bottom of pit, concealed. Sickle like jaws, often in a wide-opened position, protrude from sand.Sand easily gives way on the funnel-shaped walls when insect inadvertently falls in. Prey seized.Protective cocoon constructed of glistening crystals of quartz, mica and feldspar, cemented together with larval excrement look like rabbit pellets hidden in the sand.
Assorted beetles (Atlas, Elephant, etc.)
Strong, armament-like spiny horns. Strongest is Rhinoceros that can carry 850x its weight.
Luna Moth Evolve ears to hear bats ultrasonic sonar. May even jam the bat’s sonar
Stick Insect Camouflage, autotomy (if attacked, readily sheds limb, remains motionless, long spines on upper legs (male)
Leaf Insect CamouflageLeaf Butterfly Cryptic underside of wing, with ocelli
DRAFT 8 27 June 2010
Arthropods and HumansArthropods, especially insects and arachnids, impact humans in many ways, interactions that are mostly highly beneficial, but sometimes extremely harmful.
Food Crustaceans such as lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, and crab are widely eaten. Locusts, ants, termites, grasshoppers, and certain caterpillars are delicacies to some peoples. Insects are quite nutritious, high in protein and fat.Pollination About 2/3’s of all flowering plants are pollinated by insects. Fruit production would be almost impossible without bees.Pest control Many spiders and insects are the single most important natural factor in keeping pests in check. A spider, for example, eats 100 times its weight in insects and other “bugs” every year. Predatory insects, such as ladybird beetles, lacewings, hoverflies, and a variety of wasps that parasitize spiders and other insects, have been introduced as biological control agents in various intensely cultivated areas.Recycling and soil enrichment Insects, mites, myriapods, and some crustaceans (sow bugs) are important decomposers of leaf litter and wood. Dung beetles break down dung and return it to the soil. Closer to home, dermestid beetles are still prized as cleaners of flesh from animals bound for museum exhibits and collections. Useful products Honey bees not only produce honey, but also wax used for candles, polishes, oil, and sealing wax. The manufacture of silk from the cocoon of the silk moth Bombyx mori and related species has thrived for over 4,500 years. A scale insect (Lucifer lacca) provides us with shellac and natural varnishesIncreased medical understanding The study of stick and leaf insects has been useful to medicine in better understanding of limb regeneration and parthenogenesis. Investigations centering on the fruit fly Drosophila have been invaluable in studies of heredity and gene function.Pleasure Collectors have long prized arthropods, especially butterflies, moths, and beetles, for their variety and beauty.Painful, even deadly stings or bites A few spiders and scorpions have venom strong enough to be lethal, especially to the young or elderly. Some people are allergic to various spider, myriapod, and insect toxins. The most severe reactions include anaphylactic shock, which in extreme cases causes vomiting, circulatory collapse, coma, and death.Disease Carry pathogens that affect man and his domestic animals: yellow fever, West Nile virus, and malaria, the number one killer of humans in the world (all caused by mosquitoes), African sleeping sickness (tsetse fly), typhus (lice), bubonic plague (fleas), Rocky Mountain spotted fever and Lyme disease (ticks) are among the most serious. Crop damage Grasshoppers, bugs, aphids, cicadas, beetles and weevils, flies, moths and butterfly larvae are just a few of the organisms that cause billions of dollars of damage to plants annually. Plagues of locusts, which fortunately happen only sporadically, are famous from the Bible and Mormon history. Dutch elm disease, which has killed a large portion of elm trees in Europe and North America, is caused by a fungus carried by certain bark beetles.
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Specimen Descriptions
CheliceratesChelicerates form a distinct subphylum of arthropods that share a common ancestor. All have chelicerae, the front-most appendages that are modified into fangs or pincers. The three living chelicerate classes include mites, ticks, spiders and their relatives, horesehoe crabs, and sea spiders.
Scorpion Pandinus imperator and Aduras arizonensis (in alcohol)
Scorpions are characterized by an elongated body with segmented abdomen and tail ending in a bulb-shaped structure containing venom glands and a sharp, curved stinger. About 90 species in the U.S., most in the West.
Venom is used to stun or kill prey and in self-defense. Only about 20 species worldwide are known to have venom potent enough to be dangerous to humans. Only one highly venomous species is found in the U.S., over much of Arizona and in extreme southeastern California.
Scorpions feed on a variety of insects, spiders, centipedes, and other scorpions. Larger scorpions may take lizards, snakes, and mice. Eaten in turn by many animals, including tarantulas, lizards, birds, and a few mammals
Pedipalps are large and pincerlike; they are used for prey capture, defense, sensing the environment with specialized hairs, and mating.
Fertilized scorpion eggs develop within the mother, and young are born alive, looking like miniature adults. Immediately after birth, young climb onto mother’s back where they are protected as they grow. Average scorpion lives three to five years, though some known to live at least 10 – 15 years.
They breathe by means of book lungs; do not have tracheae. Scorpions, which originated in an aquatic environment, were among the first animals to
invade land. Terrestrial forms known from 425 million years ago.To notice Our specimen in alcohol, a male, is found in the Colorado and Sonoran Desert.
Diet is insects and mice. The venom is used more for sexual stimulation of the female than for predation.
Black Widow spiderLatrodectus sp.
Like all spiders, the black widow is venomous. Hollow, fanglike jaws (chelicerae) inject venom, which is used primarily to paralyze and kill prey, and only secondarily in defense.
The black widow is one of the few spiders with toxins strong enough to affect man. Venom is 15 times more potent than an equal amount of rattlesnake venom, but rarely fatal to healthy adults because of tiny quantity injected. More hazardous to small children and the elderly.
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Like most spiders, it has both book lungs and tracheae for respiration. Like all spiders, it possesses glands on the tip of the abdomen that produce silk, a
viscous fluid composed of protein. When drawn through spinnerets and brought in contact with air, silk hardens into strong fibers, used for burrows, webs, cocoons, and transport.To Notice
Our specimen is a female with characteristic shiny black body and red hourglass on abdomen. (Males are about half the size of females; their singular mission is to mate and they do not feed or bite. Females are known to kill and eat males after mating, but this behavior is more the exception than the rule.)
Compare the number of walking legs of spiders (8) and insects (6).
Brown Recluse spiderLoxosceles reclusa
The Brown Recluse carries a dorsal marking in the shape of a violin on the cephalothorax (the portion of the body to which the legs attach). Such a mark is not unique to the brown recluse as it is also evident on a few other spiders. The brown recluse is sometimes referred to as the violin or fiddleneck spider.
The name of the genus, Loxosceles, means "six eyes." The recluse has six eyes arranged in three pairs (most spiders have eight eyes), but this feature is difficult to see since they are too small to be seen with the naked eye.
It is not found in California. Native to the United States, the brown recluse spider lives in the central Midwest: Nebraska south to Texas and eastward to southernmost Ohio and north-central Georgia. It is a very common house spider in its native range.
Since the brown recluse is not aggressive, bites are rare; they bite only when threatened, but a bite can become a serious wound.
A large, South American spider with rosy-colored hair on its back and legs. Our rosy is a juvenile, so color is less pronounced. These spiders are considered to be one of the most docile tarantulas.
Tarantulas feed on beetles, moths, grasshoppers, other spiders, and occasionally small reptiles and amphibians. The rosy feeds on crickets, which it holds with its pedipalps and immobilizes with poison from fangs. Secreted enzymes begin the digestive process, enabling the spider to suck out the liquefied flesh of its prey.
Despite the animals’ size, tarantula bites are rarely serious, though they can be painful. The venom is not especially toxic to humans; however, some people may have a severe allergic reaction.
Our species is a burrowing spider; note that the terrarium has appropriate hiding places. Tarantulas are nocturnal so our specimen may be rather inactive during the day.
New World tarantulas have special hairs on their abdomen, which they are able to “throw.” With little barbs that imbed in soft tissue, these hairs provide an effective deterrent, especially if directed at the eyes of a predator. The rosy is fairly docile, and does not readily throw hairs.
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Female tarantulas are exceptionally long-lived. Though males usually die within months of mating, females may live up to 35 years.
To Notice Have visitors look at the fangs (chelicerae) on the underside of the preserved
tarantula.
DRAFT 8 31 June 2010
Myriapods
Myriapods form a subphylum having two classes, the Diplopoda (millipedes) and Chilopoda (centipedes), All living myriapods are terrestrial. Their head has a pair of antennae and three parts of appendages modified as mouthparts, including the jaw-like mandibles.
CentipedeSpecies unknown
Centipedes have a single pair of legs per segment, contrasted with its related class, the millipedes, which have two pairs of legs on most body segments.
Centipedes are carnivorous, and capture food by means of poison fangs, whereas most millipedes are herbivores and feed primarily on decaying vegetation with stout chewing jaws.
MillipedeSpecies unknown (live animal)
Unlike insects, millipedes do not have waxy coating on cuticle to prevent desiccation and lack closeable spiracles. As a result, they tend to live in moist areas and be more active at night.
Millipede young, which hatch from eggs, have the same body form as the adult, but fewer segments. Some individuals live 11 years or more.
Defenses of most millipedes include a strong exoskeleton impregnated with calcium carbonate and the ability to produce foul-smelling secretions and to roll into a ball or coil. A few can secrete strong poisons, such as cyanide! Our millipedes, happily, have a very mild secretion, and compare benignly to centipedes with their poison that is toxic to humans. Many centipede bites are quite painful.
InsectsSubclass InsectaThe only winged arthropods and the group with by far the largest number of species on earth. More than 70% of named species are insects! It is estimated that 10 quintillion – 10,000,000,000,000,000,000 – insects are alive at any one time! Occupy an amazing range of habitats, mostly terrestrial. Only about 3% of species are aquatic, almost all living in freshwater. Found nearly everywhere on land – in deserts where rain isn’t recorded for years at a time, above 22,000 feet on Mt. Everest, and on Antarctica.
Dragonflies and DamselfliesOrder Odonata
Along with mayflies, the group represents the most ancient flying insects, known from some 300 million years ago, when dragonfly-like insects reached a wingspan of almost 30”!
The term “Uniramia,” which is used in the HT Guidebook, is somewhat obsolete as a subphylum name, but it still may be used descriptively to group certain arthropods. This document uses the term “Myriapoda.”
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DragonflyOctogomphus specularis Dragonflies are truly the dragons of the air – fierce predators with superb aerial speed and
maneuverability. Dragonflies provide an important service in keeping pest populations down; mosquitoes and flies are favored prey.
A few dominant males able to hold a territory are most successful at mating with receptive females. Outlying males lurk on territorial edges, seizing females when they can.
Metamorphosis is simple, with larva passing through 9 – 15 stages depending on the species. Larvae are aquatic, breathing with gills, and so do not compete with terrestrial adults for
space and food. Opportunistic hunters, may feed on worms, snails, crustaceans, tadpoles, small fish, and all sorts of insects. Have stereoscopic vision to gauge distance.
Larvae capture prey by shooting out modified mouthparts called a “mask,” that, when not in use, fold under head and thorax. Can lie in wait or jet themselves along for offense or defense by means of forcing water from the rectal chamber and out the anus! To Notice:
Our species is a “Grappletail” type, common to California. Large compound eyes as well as three simple eyes. Some dragonflies have over
28,000 lenses/eye! Excellent eyesight guides these skillful hunters. Thorax unusually large to accommodate powerful wing muscles. Spines on legs used to capture prey. Wings held out horizontally at rest, thought to be a primitive condition.
Antlions and lacewingsOrder Neuroptera
Antlions are among the terrestrial families of this varied order. The adults are characterized by their delicate, many-veined pairs of wings.
Antlions
Vella fallax/ Glenurus sp. The two adults are from the American southwest, typical of the sandy, semi-arid to arid
habitat favored by ant lions. Larvae do not have an anus; they retain waste until the adult emerges. Adults do not feed; their sole function is reproduction. The name derives from the larvae, which are voracious predators with large, multi-toothed
jaws. Many species are known to dig pits in sand, concealing themselves at the bottom with only the jaws protruding. Any small insect that comes to the edge or inside is struck with sand “bullets,” aimed by the waiting larva, that devours the hapless victim when it tumbles downwards.
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Walking Sticks and Leaf InsectsOrder Phasmatodea
Stick InsectEurycantha horrida
It is a member of the walking stick family (Phasmatidae), world-class plant mimics. As name implies, the body is slender, cylindrical, and cryptically colored to resemble the twigs and branches on which the insects live.
This group often has knobs and bumps similar in shape and texture to the host plant. All walking sticks are herbivores; typically slow-moving, nocturnal. If disturbed, they
remain motionless, depending on cryptic coloration. Some walking sticks, when attacked, can separate legs from the body and regenerate
them with the next molt. Walking sticks are the only insect known to regenerate body parts. The group includes the longest insects in the world. One species reaches a length of
almost thirteen inches. Eurycantha species are mostly from Papua New Guinea. Body is typically covered with
small spines. Males have long spines on their upper leg used to jab attackers or fight with each other for females.
Leaf InsectPhyllium siccifolium Leaf insects are closely related to the stick insects. The group bears strong resemblance to leaves: abdomens are broad and flat and legs have
flanges and extensions, complete with leaf-like midrib and veins. Coloration is primarily green, brown, or yellow.
Like stick insects, they are mostly tropical and have incomplete metamorphosis. Eggs of many species are dropped to the ground and resemble seeds. Eggs eaten by ants; larvae and adults taken by birds.
Females of many species of stick and leaf insects are able to produce offspring, usually female, from unfertilized eggs.
BeetlesOrder Coeleoptera
The largest of insect orders, so far about 350,000 beetle species are known. One of every five animals on earth is a beetle! No wonder when asked what science could tell us of the Creator, British geneticist J. B. Haldane replied that He must have “an inordinate fondness for beetles”! The name coeloptera or “sheath wings” derives from sheath-like wing cases, called elytra, that provide protection to a second, underlying pair of more delicate flight wings. The elytra are not used to power flight, but help stabilize the beetle as it flies. Some beetles, such as various ground beetles, have lost the ability to fly.
Atlas BeetleChalcosoma atlas It is thought that it may be named after the Atlas Mountains in Greece. The Atlas Beetle is notable for its size and its horns. The male is larger than the female and usually two males will fight to mate with a female.
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Dung Beetlesspecies unknown
Dung beetles, as their name implies, feed on manure, often of large herbivores. Their service as scavengers and recyclers is extremely important. Dung beetles can eat more than their own weight in 24 hours!
Adults gather dung, often shaping it in round balls, sometimes much larger than the beetle itself, and roll it to a safe place for burial.
Female lays eggs in dung balls, which provide food and safety for the developing larvae. Scarabs were sacred to ancient Egyptians. One, a shiny black species, was thought to
symbolize the sun god, Ra, who rolled the sun across the sky each day.
Elephant Beetle Megasoma elaphas One of the largest beetles known; prized by collectors for its appearance and size. One of several beetles commonly called elephant beetles; belongs to the scarab family. Males use the spiny horns extending from head and thorax to grab rivals and turn them on
their backs. Body is covered with dense, microscopic yellow-brown hairs, especially thin on the wing
covers. Range of Central America to southern Mexico. Note sexual dimorphism; male larger and more armored than female.
Jewel Beetles various species
All, except the one in the top middle of the mount, are metallic wood-boring beetles (Family Buprestidae).
Colors are mostly brilliant, metallic green, red, or blue with stripes, bands, and spots. They have relatively flat bodies and short antennae.
The larvae feed on wood; adults on flowers, nectar, and pollen. They are found worldwide, especially in tropical regions. Some species have heat sensors that detect newly burned forest, prime egg-laying habitat! The smallest specimen is a dung beetle (Phanaeus sp.), a kind of scarab beetle. Scarabs tend
to be compact and heavy-bodied beetles, and possess distinctive antennae, which terminate in three flattened plates that, when pressed together, form a club shape.
Rhinoceros Beetle Heterogomphus chevrolati A beetle from Vietnam, closely related to the elephant beetle above. The larvae of elephant and rhinoceros beetles live and feed in dead trees. Heterogomphus chevrolati is a very large rhino whose body size can rival a medium size
atlas. This beetle comes from Costa Rica and neighboring countries in Central and South America. Imagos are not as voracious feeders as most dynastids but will accept some banana and apple slices. Fortunately for handling purposes this species does not have the large sharp claws of most rhinos.
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Butterflies and MothsOrder Lepidoptera
ButterfliesUnlike most moths, butterflies are usually brightly colored, active during the day, have clubbed rather than feathery antennae, and many rest with wings held together over the back. They do not spin silk for cocoons. Butterfly classification is very detailed and taxonomic ranks may divide species by subfamily, tribe, subgenus, or into subspecies.
Birdwing and Swallowtail Butterflies: Papilionidae “Birdwing” is the common name given to about 30 spectacular species known for their size
and strong, soaring flight. They belong to the swallowtail family (Papilionidae), perhaps the best-known and most popular group of butterflies. They are known for spectacular mating dances. Males are smaller and more strikingly colored than females.
Like most butterflies, birdwings can “taste” their environment with receptors on their tongues (proboscis) and on their legs. After mating, the female uses these senses to search for plants from a specific group of poisonous rainforest climbers (Aristolochia), commonly referred to as “Dutchman’s Pipe,” on which to lay eggs. Note: The Academy rainforest contains an Aristolochia vine, but no Swallowtail butterflies.
A birdwing species, Queen Alexandra’s Birdwing (not on cart), is the largest butterfly known. Until recently, the Alexandra was thought restricted to only a few valleys in Papua New Guinea (PNG). Though other populations have since been found, the Alexandra remains listed internationally and by the U.S. as a highly endangered species. In PNG, birdwings and other butterflies are “ranched” by villagers, encouraging them to preserve habitat and bringing in much needed income.Ornithoptera sp. The genus of birdwings commonly referred to as “green birdwings,” this species consists
of many described subspecies. The Cairns Birdwing is the national butterfly of Australia. Our tray of four specimens contains two males and two females.Troides sp. Another genus of the Troidini tribe of Papilioninae, they are typically black hindwinged
and silky yellow butterflies. Our large tray of Troides contains several species, showing both male and female, plus two
Ornithoptera specimens.Brush-footed Butterflies: NymphalidaeThis family of butterflies contains a dozen subfamilies, which are distributed throughout the world. Medium to large sized butterflies, they are characterized by a first pair of legs that have been reduced to small, brush-like structures containing some sensory functions. Although they may be brightly colored, their underwings are often dull or may contain mimic-like patterns, making them less visible to predators.
Monarch and Viceroy ButterfliesDanaus plexippus and Limenitis archippuus
They have world-wide distribution, but are found primarily in the Americas.
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The final yearly generation of North American monarchs migrates south in winter, sometimes traveling nearly 2,000 miles. They will return with warmer weather, mate, and die shortly thereafter.
Monarch adults feed on nectar; larvae are notable for their ability to feed on milkweeds and related plants, which have compounds that affect heart and kidneys, and normally defend them against herbivory. Monarch larvae are able to store and utilize these toxic substances for their own defense, and during metamorphosis, this protection is passed on to the adult. Both larvae and adults display warning coloration.To Notice
The Viceroy feeds on willow, poplar and cottonwood, which contain salicyclic acid, making them noxious to predators.
The Monarch larvae feed on milkweed plants, with the adult retaining the noxious glycosides of this plant.
The Monarch and the Viceroy butterflies have co-evolved to mimic similar colors and patterns, both gaining protection by confusing would-be predators (see Mullerian Mimicry, p. 16).
Leaf-like ButterfliesThese butterflies are noted for the remarkable resemblance of their underwings to dead leaves. They are also commonly referred to as “Oakleaf” or “Dead Leaf” butterflies.
Kallima sp. The bright patterns on top of wings give flashes of color for attraction of mates when in
flight. When settled on a tree with wings closed, showing only the undersides, the Kallima
looks remarkably like a dead leaf. Even the tail, which often rests on a twig, looks like a leaf stalk. Venation on the wings resembles a leaf mid-rib with its secondary veins.
Some species even have patches that resemble holes, tears, or fungal growths found on dead leaves!
Several species of Kallimas are found from New Guinea and Madagascar through much of south Asia and India.
Owl ButterflyCaligo sp.
Like all species of the genus Caligo, the owl butterfly is characterized by huge owl-like eyespots on the underside of hind wings.
Predators often attack eyes to disable prey. Caligos can lose an “eye” and live to fly another day. Not unusual to see an owl butterfly with a tear or void near or on an eyespot.
Found throughout South America north to Costa Rica.
Note: Owl butterflies are one of the types found in theAcademy Rainforest.
Blue Morpho ButterflyMorpho peleides Among the largest butterflies in the world, the blue morpho’s wingspan
can be from five to eight inches. The underside of the wings are mottled brown for
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camouflage, in contrast to the radiant blue found on the other side. Males tend to have brighter coloration.
This species can be found from Mexico through Central America and down to South America. It prefers warm, wet tropical habitats. Although they are commonly found in small numbers in clearings and streams, but they occasionally congregate in large numbers near the forest canopy.
Blue morphos, like most butterflies, feed on leaves and other plant matter as caterpillars but change to feeding on nectars and juices as adults. Their lifespan, on average, is about 115 days.
They are threatened throughout much of their range due to deforestation and over collecting from butterfly hunters. (see www.rainforest-alliance.org)To Notice
Blue morphos are one of the types found in our Rainforest
Painted Lady ButterflyVanessa cardui
Adults feed on the nectar of thistle and clover, among others. The Painted Lady is perhaps the most widely distributed butterfly species in the world.
Known worldwide with the exception of Australia and New Zealand. Adults mate about a week after emerging and live only two weeks or so. It is extremely fast flying and is known, like the monarch, for its long migrations. Some
populations travel from colder parts of North America to over-winter in Mexico; others migrate from northern Europe to the south, often as far as North Africa.
The Painted Lady is found in many habitats, but prefers brightly lighted and open environments.To Notice
Each butterfly, though of the same species, shows noticeable variations of shape, color, and pattern. Have visitors detect these differences as a lead into a discussion of the importance of genetic variation, both visible and invisible, to the process of natural selection.
MothsMost moths are nocturnal, though day-flying species are not uncommon. Usually moths can be distinguished by their plumose, or feathered, antennae, a characteristic often more noticeable in males. Moths also usually are more heavy bodied than butterflies, and many moths rest with wings folded, rooflike, over the back. Spin silk for cocoons.
Atlas MothAttacus atlas
The atlas moth is the largest moth in the world in terms of wing area, with wingspan up to twelve inches.
Cocoons of many species of saturniid moths have been used to produce silk, though they are not farmed like the commercial silk moth (Bombyx mori).
DRAFT 8 38 June 2010
It is found in Southeast Asia. Adult moths do not feed and so live only short time. Females give off a strong
pheromone (chemical) scent detected by the sensitive antennae of the male. After mating and laying eggs, both adults die within hours.To notice Feathery antennae of cart specimen are characteristic of males, less noticeable in
females. The finely branched structure increases surface area, improving the males’ ability to find females and mate.
Small, translucent “windows” on wing. Some think these moths have added protection by having image of angry snake’s head in corner of wing. Compare with birdwings to point out differences between moths and butterflies.
Luna MothActias luna
A beautiful species, it is widespread in North America. It has distinctive eyespots on all four wings and long, curving tails on hind wings. The adult Luna does not eat and lives only a few days; its sole function is reproduction. A Luna moth is featured prominently in Barbara Kingsolver’s Prodigal Summer.To Notice
The male has more feathery antennae than the female. As a chemical sensor, the more surface area, the more effective the antennae are in aiding the male in finding the female when she emits a chemical pheromone.
Silkworm MothBombyx mori
A unique species of moth that has been domesticated by humans for its silken cocoons. This silk has been cultivated in Asia for many centuries (sericulture).
No longer extant in the wild, these moths depend on humans to survive. During their caterpillar stage they feed almost exclusively on mulberry leaves. Adults have vestigial wings which are unable to support their body weight in flight. They also have difficulty feeding without human assistance, as they have largely vestigial mouthparts.
Like other moths and butterflies, silkworm moths undergo complete metamorphosis. They hatch from very small eggs into their larval form before spinning a silken cocoon and emerging as an adult in imago form. (see http://www.gadgetscience.com/tag/complete-metamorphosis/, http://bugguide.net)
Unique to the hemipterans are their mouthparts, where the mandibles and maxillae have evolved into a proboscis—a beak capable of piercing plant tissues and sucking out the liquids—typically sap.
Our specimens come from four different families
ANTS and BEESOrder Hymenoptera
Name means “membrane-winged,” and most have thin, transparent wings as adults. Insects with the most highly evolved social behavior (honey and bumble bees, paper wasps, and ants) belong to the group, but most are not socially organized. The suborder that includes wasps, ants, and bees is noted by the abdomen and thorax being separated by a narrow ”waist” and the ovipositor adapted for piercing or stinging.
AntsFamily Formicidae
A large familiar group; worldwide distribution, but most common in tropics and subtropics; more than 5,000 species known; all social in habit. Colonial living increases defense and makes specialization possible. Ants of different castes usually have distinct physical appearance. Soldiers are comparatively larger than the more generalized workers and can sport gigantic pincers and jaws for attacking enemies. Queen’s abdomen swells to enormous size to hold great quantities of eggs. Honey-storers also have expansive abdomens to hold reserves of nectar, like living storage tanks. Some individuals have exceptionally long life spans, some workers up to seven years, queens up to 15.
Different species exhibit varying life histories: some tunnel in and feed on dead wood, others hunt other insects or feed on carrion. Still others grow fungus for food or farm aphids, gently stroking their tiny captives to stimulate the production of “honeydew,” a sweet liquid excretion.
Communicate primarily by pheromones. At least a dozen different chemicals secreted from a dozen different bodily areas are known. Pheromones produce nest and food trails, govern feeding and reproductive behaviors, and signal danger. Ants are hard-wired to respond to these signals in predictable ways, and have been shown incapable of true learned behavior.
Bullet AntParaponera sp.
The bullet is among the largest ants, measuring 18-24 cms. It is found primarily in the Amazon basin and parts of Central America.
Though fortunately not particularly fast or aggressive toward humans, it has an extremely painful sting, like a bullet, the source of its common name.
The sting contains a neurotoxin and is the most painful sting of any invertebrate. The sting is said to be as painful as a sharp blow from a hammer! Venom can sometimes cause fever, respiratory problems, and, in rare case, death.
Their strong venom makes them formidable predators of other insects.
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Workers forage in the trees; nests are subterranean.To notice
It has a typical ant shape. “Bend” in antennae, characteristic of ants.
Anthropological NoteA Brazilian tribe named the Satere-Mawe use bullet ants in an initiation rite. Adolescent boys must go through this rite as an initiation into manhood.
Ants are collected by sticking soft palm fronds into their nests on the forest floor. The ants grab the fronds with their huge mandibles and are transferred to a bucket containing a natural sedative. While sedated, the ants are woven into a glove resembling a large oven mitt. The glove is made from leaves. The ants are positioned so that the jaws face outwards and the abdomen, which contains the stinger, is on the inside. About 400 ants are woven into each glove. When the ants regain consciousness the participants put on a glove and must wear it for 10 minutes in order to complete the ritual. In addition to pain, the neurotoxin can cause shaking, numbness, temporary paralysis and swelling. The pain and swelling of the hand can last up to 24 hours. The only protection afforded the participants is a coating of charcoal on their hand that is supposed to confuse the ants and inhibit their stinging. To fully complete the initiation the boys must go through this ritual a total of 20 times over the course of several months or even years.
ReferencesWeber N. A. (1939) The Sting of the Ant Paraponera clavata. Science, 89 127-128.
The Natural history of Bullet Ants, Randy C. Morgan, Associate Curator of Entomology. www.sasionline.org/antsfiles
Honey BeeApis mellifera
Common names:European Honey bee, common honey bee There are three types of bees ina colony:
Workers – Worker –most numerous, all are female and it’s does most of the work to maintain the hive.
Queen- only female to lay fertilized eggs (up to 200,000 each yr.
Drone-only function is to mate with queen, hatched from unfertilized egg and ALL are male.
Pollination: When a bee visits a flower, pollen becomes stuck to its body. When it flies to another flower some of the pollen grains fall off and pollinate the flower. Bees are responsible for pollinating many commercial crops like asparagus, citrus, coffee, nectarines, pears, strawberry, vanilla, lavender, cotton and many more!
The nest is primarily made of wax. Wax is produced by the bees, one drop at a time, from a gland on their abdomen.
The wax is formed into a latticework of hexagonal cells called comb. The cells are used to house young and for food storage
Honey is dehydrated nectar. 80% of nectar is water; the finished honey will have a water content of less than 18%.
Colony Collapse Disorder- Sudden disappearance of bees from their hive. - Possible causes include pesticides, parasites, malnutrition, or a virus.- Solutions: Create healthy habitat, Avoid insecticides , Purchase
organic produce
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Using DISPLAY ONLY Live Animals
PROTOCOLSUsing live animals on the public floor has become a highly popular activity at the Academy, but demonstrating live animals requires conformance to protocols that have been exactingly reviewed and vetted. Although the animals listed here are designated as “Display Only” – which means the animal is not touched by either the docent or the public – docents who choose to include a display-only animal in their presentations must have completed the training required to handle display-only animals. Please consult the Live Animal Program for its requirements.
The following instructions are based on the Academy’s Animal Handling Protocol for Public Programs.
Docents presenting Arthro/Ento specimens may take out display-only animals. Docents who take out display-only animals must be trained and approved for the species of
animal being taken out. Display-only animals are never to be removed from their containers. DTL’s should confirm that docents who take out live animals have met the requirements of
the Live Animal Program. No more than two live animals at a time may be taken onto the public floor. Docents must request that Academy docent staff fetch the selected display-only animal. Live animals may be displayed for no more than 60 minutes, including the time to set up the
cart and return the animal to the holding room. Docent must return the animal to docent staff, who will take the animal back to the holding room.
DISPLAY ONLY ANIMALS Four animals have been approved for display with this cart collection.
cockroaches darkling beetles millipedes tarantula
See the following pages for more detailed descriptions of these animals and suggestions for demonstrating them.
DRAFT 8 43 June 2010
DEMONSTRATION ANIMALS
Madagascar Hissing Cockroachaka Hissing Roach or HisserGromphadorhina portentosa
What is it? Hissing cockroach Cockroaches are insects with 3 pairs of legs. They go through incomplete metamorphosis and unlike most insects they do not have
wings and have only one pair of antennae. This cockroach is one of the largest species of cockroach, growing to 2-3" as adults and
weighing up to 0.8 oz (22.7 g.). A group of cockroaches is called a colony.
Where do they live? They are from the island of Madagascar off the African coast. They live on the forest floor, where they hide in leaf litter, detritus and rotting logs. They are more active at night.
What do they eat? They are herbivores, eat fruit or plant materials and do not inhabit human dwellings.
. How do they reproduce?
Males have thicker, hairier antennae and larger horns, and use them in fights with rivals. Rivals ram each other with their horns or abdomens and hiss loudly. Winning roaches seem to hiss more than losers. Females carry the egg case internally, and release the young nymphs only after the eggs have
hatched. They may bear as many as 60 nymph roaches. Parents and offspring will usually stay in close physical contact for extended periods.
How long do they live? Live 2 to 5 years in the wild.
.What's special?
They are excellent climbers and can scale smooth glass. A small colony can eat a large carrot in a single day. Hissing is part of the mating ritual and can also be used as an alarm cry. Unlike other insects which make sounds, their sound is produced by exhaling air through the
breathing tubes on their abdomen. A commensal mite lives on this species, and takes part in its host's food. They make good pets, as they can't fly, are not aggressive, and do not bite.
Text supplied by Rachael Bertone June 201044
DEMONSTRATION ANIMALS – Display Only
Darkling Beetleaka Stink Beetle, Clown Beetle
Family: Tenebrionidae, Eleodes genus
What is it? Darkling Beetle, an insectInsects have 1 pair of eyes,
3 main body regions (head, thorax, abdomen), 3 pairs of legs attached to the thorax.
The Tenebrionidae are the fifth largest family of beetles (Coleoptera). There are about 1300 species of darkling beetles in North America, most in the western
states. There are over 30,000 beetle species in North America, about 300,000 species
identified worldwide. This is nearly one third of all named insects!Characteristics of Darkling Beetles-Eleodes species
small to medium in size chewing mouthparts one pair of antennae most are dull brown or black wing covers (elytra) are fused, so can’t fly.
Where do they live? Found in nearly all habitats, except water. Particularly adapted to dry regions. Ground dwellers, active day and night. Most usually avoid hot places during the day.
What do they eat? Both larvae and adults are detritivores and scavengers, feeding on decaying fungi, leaves,
seeds and other organic matter. Some are stored grain pests, eating stored grain and livestock feed.
How do they reproduce? Females lay eggs in the soil Complete metamorphosis: egg, larvae, pupa, adult Larvae have 6 legs, are slender, light brown, wormlike. Larvae pupate in the soil. Emerge as adults.
How long do they live? They can live up to 15 years.
Predators? Predators are birds, reptiles, and amphibians, probably some mammals like skunks
Text supplied by Rachael Bertone June 201045
What's special? Unusual defensive behavior: Members of the genus Eleodes defend against predators by elevating their rear end,
appearing to be standing on their head. When threatened, they can emit a foul smelling fluid, which discourages their adversary. The fluid can leave brownish stains on your hands, but is not caustic to humans. This is why
they are called "stink beetles."
BENEFIT OF INSECTS Bees, butterflies and other insects pollinate wild plants and our crops.
Earwigs, beetles and other insect scavengers clean up the environment by eating decaying plants and animals. Nutrients are recycled back into the soil, helping future plants to grow.
Many species of carnivorous beetles, ants and wasps eat other harmful insects that damage or destroy our crops and spread disease.
Burrowing insects aerate and enrich the soil.
Insects are a source of food for animals, including humans.
Insects produce products used by people, including honey, beeswax, silk and dyes.
WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A BEETLE AND A BUG
Cassification Beetles are in the Order Coleoptera Bugs are in the Order Hemiptera
Appearance Beetles’ front wings meet in a straight line down their back. Bugs’ front wings rarely meet in an straight line down their back…look like an “X”.
Habits Beetles have chewing mouthparts, complete metamorphosis (4 stages). Bugs have sucking mouthparts, simple metamorphosis
Text supplied by Rachael Bertone June 201046
DEMONSTRATION ANIMALS-Display Only
MillipedeWhat is it? Millipedes are Arthropods, in the Subphylum Myriapoda, Class Diplopoda.
They are neither insects nor spiders. About 8,000 species have been described.
Body: Millipedes have two body sections, the head and a long, many segmented trunk. Most trunk segments have two pairs of legs. The first three segments have only one pair. They have chewing mouthparts, and, like insects, one pair of sensing antennae. A few species do not have eyes.
Segments: Depending on their age and species, there can be 7 to 100+ segments. Add more segments and legs as they molt.
Legs: hatchings (“baby”) millipedes have 7 or fewer body segments and only 3 pairs of legs. Record holder for most legs is a CA species, Illacme plenipes, with 375 pairs of legs. Can’t move very fast, even with all those legs. Molting: more segments & legs are added to the rear of the last segment when they molt.
Where do they live? They are powerful, slow-moving burrowers in soil and litter. Hide in soil, under rocks and in dark, moist places. Not tolerant of direct sunlight. Desert species stay deep underground during the day and only come out at night. Some have a waxy coating to reduce water loss.
What do they eat / predators? Detritivores- Eat decaying plant matter and convert it into soil.
In tropical environments where earthworms are often scarce, millipedes may be the major soil forming animals.
Prey of centipedes, spiders and predatory insects.
How do they reproduce? Sexes are separate. Fertilization takes place as the eggs are laid.
Up to 300 eggs laid singly or in small groups usually in the soil Simple metamorphosis – young hatch from eggs and look like mini adults. In most species, males have a modified pair of legs on the 7th or 8th trunk segment, which are
copulatory organs and serve to pick up and transfer sperm.
How long do they live? Some species can live up to 10 years.
Defense: Always wash your hands thoroughly after touching a millipede! No venomous jaw or claws. Many species secrete bad smelling and tasting defensive chemicals from glands located
along the sides of the trunk segments. The chemicals can stain skin brown and cause itching.
Some tropical species have toxins strong enough to cause blisters on human skin.
Text supplied by Rachael Bertone June 201047
If the toxin gets into the eyes it can cause inflammation of eyelids and/or the cornea. A European species makes a strong sedative, which puts attacking wolf spiders to sleep. One species of monkey uses the millipede “venom” as a kind of pesticide. First Aid: wash the area with lots of soap and water. Do NOT use alcohol! Symptoms usually go away within 24 hours
Other methods Posture: Many species can roll into a tight spiral or ball shape as defense against predators. Coloration: Most are blackish, but some have warning coloration, usually bright red,
orange or yellow, to advise predators that they are distasteful or pose some other threat. Light: Members of the California genus Motyxia produce bioluminescence, which may ward
off predators.
What's special? Size: the giant African Millipede can grow to 12 inches long. Age of group: oldest terrestrial animals on earth (425 mya).
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MILLIPEDES AND CENTIPEDES
Millipedes: Class Diplopoda Rounded body Slow moving Short antennae (usually 7 segments) Legs-short, under body, 2 pairs per trunk segment Don’t bite. No venomous jaws or claws Detritivores: eat dead and decaying plant material Reproductive organs open to the outside near the front end of the body
Centipedes: Class Chiplopoda Flattened body Fast moving Longer antennae (at least 12 segments) Legs- longer, to side, 1pair on most trunk segments Painful bite. Venom glands in claws on 1st legs produce poison. Aggressive predators Reproductive organs opening near back end of body
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MILLIPEDES AND OTHER ANIMALS
Millipedes may look like long insects but insects always have 3 segments and 6 legs. Some people mistake them for snakes, but snakes don’t have legs or hard bodies.
Text supplied by Rachael Bertone June 201048
DEMONSTRATION ANIMALS – Display Only
TarantulaFamily Theraphosidae, Aphonopelma genus
What is it? Tarantulas are large, hairy spiders. (Class Arachnida)
Body parts: Spiders have 2 main body parts (cephalothorax and abdomen), 8 legs are attached to the cephalothorax, Fangs (aka chelicerae) have poison glands
All spiders have venom, although not all venom is harmful to people. Both male and female tarantulas can give a painful bite when threatened, but do so
rarely and their venom is weaker than a bee's. Venom is used for defense and feeding (killing and liquifyng).
sucking mouthparts, spinnerets, no antennae
Molting: All spiders molt. They shed their external skeletons, replacing internal organs and regrowing lost appendages and body hair.
Once adulthood is reached, they usually do not molt often.
Size: Tarantulas are the heaviest spiders by weight. Leg span of female tarantulas may be up to 11 inches, depending on species. Males are smaller and more slender than adult females.
Where do tarantulas live? Generally, they are burrowers living in the ground, but they can climb. Common to arid places: desert and low-elevation chaparral habitats. During the day, hide in abandoned rodent burrows or tunnels they line with silk. Most are nocturnal predators, but may be active in late afternoon when it’s warm
What do they eat? All are carnivores, eat insects, frogs, toads, and mice. Probably small birds too.
They are considered beneficial predators. Prey is grabbed and almost immediately crushed in tarantula's powerful fangs. The tarantula mashes up (masticates) prey and digestive juices are released, liquefying
the prey. (Sort of like making “bug soup”!) Then the tarantula sucks up prey juices through its mouth parts. After a large meal, it may not need to eat for months.
What eats them? The primary enemies are Pepsis wasps. Female wasps sting and paralyze the spider, drag the spider to its burrow, and lay a single
egg on the spider’s body, then seal the burrow. When the egg hatches, the wasp larvae feed on the still living but immobile tarantula. (They
are eaten alive!)
Text supplied by Rachael Bertone June 201049
How do they reproduce? In the fall, males disperse, searching for females. Since spiders try to eat anything smaller and moving, the smaller male is in danger. Males spin a special web for depositing the sperm packet. Special bulbs (look like mini boxing gloves) on the pedipalps hold the sperm packet.
Pedipalps look like antennae but are not. When mating, he pushes her up and back using spurs located on the front legs, holds her
fangs away, then deposits sperm into her genital opening which fertilizes the eggs within her body. Then he tries to get away.
100-1,000 eggs are laid in the fall in a web sac, and guarded by the female. When they hatch, spiderlings disperse, and many are prey to other spiders or siblings. It takes about 10 years for a tarantula to reach sexual maturity
How long do they live? After adulthood, an average female lives up to 30 years. Males don’t live long after sexual maturity – around 6 months. But if they contact a strong,
hungry female, they won’t live even that long.
What's special? They have 2 pairs of “book lungs” which open to the outside by spiracles. They see with 8 eyes, although not well beyond 1-2 inches. (2.5-5 cm). Defensive behavior against vertebrate enemies:
Rubs hind legs over body, brushing irritating (urticating) hairs into an enemy's eyes or nose, which can cause itching on human skin. The rubbing can cause a bald spot on the abdomen of the tarantula. Hairs are replaced during the next molt. New World Tarantulas have those irritating hairs but relatively weak venom. Old World tarantulas (particularly from Africa) do not have urticating hairs but have more potent venom.
Venom is also used defensively. Don't use a web to catch prey, but may spin strands of silk at burrow openings to warn of
danger or potential prey near the entrance.There is interesting courtship behavior preceding mating
Text supplied by Rachael Bertone June 201050
Glossary
Species always begin with small letters, but if named from a proper name they are often capitalized.Genera and Species are printed in italic.
Various termsarthro: a jointcephala: (G) head cercus: (G) a tailchela a claw, footcole, as in Coleoptera: (G) a sheath wingdi, as in Diptea: two wings, or one pair of
wingshemi, as in Hemiptera: half, forewing wing is
membranous at tip, thickened at base; hind wing is membranous
hymen, as in Hymenoptera: membrane, as in membranous wings
lepi: a scalemeta: (G) between, with, after, back again;
change, boundary a turning post, morph form
morph: form (Metamorphosis = change in form)
neuron, as in Neuroptera (antlion): net (net-winged)
odon as in Odonata: tooth
ovipar: (L) egg-layinovi (um) an egg palp (L) touch, feelpharo : (G) a lighthouse phasm: an apparition, phantompher: (G) to carryphor: ( G) bear, carry, movement pter :(G) a wing, feather, finpheca: a case, box, chest, cup
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