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225 constructed upon 1 he model of the human organs of voice, the tongue, larynx, &c., being made of caoutchouc. The automaton is represented by a bearded Turk, and the articulations are produced by playing upon sixteen keys. We were quite surprised at being addressed by the au- tomaton, in words very distinctly articulated thus :- Please ex-cuse my slow e-nun-ci-a-tion." After giving various other illustrations of his vocal powers, the auto- maton sang « Hail Columbia," &c. As we were about leaving, he said, 11 Gen-tle-men, I thank you for your vis-it." -New York Jotirnnl of Medicine. CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY. IF the practice of medicine is to be redeemed from ’the reproach of uncertainty, which is at present .attached to it,-if, as a science, medicine is to rank with other departments of natural knowledge, it must be by having all its various branches advanced, without ex- ception. It is not sufficient that the most minute exami- nation of the tissues of the body, and its organs, by the most improved microscopes, should render our knowledge of morbid changes occurring in disease perfect. If we could attain to a complete interpretation of physical signs and the fullest etiology, still, without a knowledge of the elementary constitution of the materials of the ’body, of the aliments, of the chemical changes these aliments and materials undergo in the processes, of life, and ere they are cast out of the body in the excretions, our pathology must be essentially imperfect. Nay, it is Still necessary that we should study these excretions further, and trace the chemical changes they are subject to under the influence of remedial agents, and until they are resolved into such forms as they ultimately take after having served the purposes of the economy. And, more- over, parallel with our chemico-pathology must be our investigations into the nature and operations of remedial agents. It is, perhaps, not saying too much to aver that there is not a single agent employed in medicine about which there is not, at present, some point to be decided by a more elaborate chemistry. Scarcely is there one remedy, known to be such, save empirically, the effects of which on the chemical constitution of the fluids, of the solids, of the secretions, are not, almost, if not altogether, unknown. How could it be otherwise, since after all the investi- gations of chemists, the contents of the urine, even in its normal state, are yet by no means fully known? What do we know of it in disease? What, as influenced by the principal bodies administered as medicine-iodine, mer- cury, &c. ? ’? And, again, what is the state of our science which guides the preparation of remedies? A moment’s reflection upon these points must convince our readers that the great field of organic chemistry to which we are making .gigantic efforts to direct their attention, must repay, in its fruits, every exertion made to learn and to advance it. The preparation of remedies is certainly a humbler, but not a less useful branch of medicine, and it may, and must, claim its due share of interest in every medical man who takes an enlarged view of his subject. It is not beneath the most exalted man of science to study the nature of the substances which he prescribes, to have a guarantee, in his knowledge of pharmaceutical processes, that the mode of preparation of medicines ensures his remedies to be what he really designs ; and, moreover, there are so many who, right or wrong, still continue to make the immediate preparation of medicine, part of their daily avocations, that every species of information relating to their drugs and chemicals, which shall protect them from the imposition of fraudulent dealers, must,be acceptable. Under the head of CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY, we shall carefully collect all the facts made known throughout Europe relating to organic chemistry and pharmacy,-to food and its adulterations, —all improved processes for pre- paring remedies,-full accounts of new remedies and the authority upon which they are recommended. This will render a careful perusal of this department of THE LANCET not merely desirable, but imperative upon every practitioner and every one engaged in the preparation of medicines. EXTENSIVE ADULTERATION OF TEA BY THE CHINESE. Mr. Warrington, of Apothecaries’ Hall, has been lately engaged in an examination of tea. He finds that a most extensive system of adulteration is practised in China, since the very numerous specimens he has examined have been obtained from sources which renders the fact of their having actually been brought from China indisputable. Many samples are found not to contain a single grain of tea, being made up entirely of other leaves. Green teas are for the most part spurious, being manufactured out of I cheap black teas. This fraud seems to be accomplished with great dexterity, and with the greater care the higher the price of the green tea it is intended to imitate. From the common green teas the colouring-matter may be washed off by agitating the tea with cold-water and drying it, when it is at once converted into black tea without the leaf uncurling. On examining it with the microscope it is seen that a uniform whitish surface is given to it, by means of what appears to be Kaolin or porcelain clay, which, also, very conveniently adds to the weight; upon this a yellow substance, mixed with Prus- sian-blue, is dusted, hence the green colour, which may thus be rendered of any tint. Chemical examination detected the presence of sulphate of lime, Prussian- blue, and a vegetable yellow colouring-matter, probably turmeric.— Chemical Gazette. Surely the existence of this fraud ought to excite the immediate attention of the government, or is the interest of the manufacturers of Prussian-blue too deeply in- volved ? ANALYSIS OF BATH WATER. According to Mr. Noad, the temperature of the water, as it rises from the spring at the King’s bath, is 115° Fah.; the specific gravity 1002.4, water being 1001). From eighteen gallons 2140 grains of solid matter were obtained, equal to 14.87 grains per imperial pint. No iodine could be detected after careful evaporation of twenty gallons. A quart, evaporated to dryness, gave 29.9 solid matters, consisting of-
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constructed upon 1 he model of the human organs of voice,the tongue, larynx, &c., being made of caoutchouc. Theautomaton is represented by a bearded Turk, and thearticulations are produced by playing upon sixteen keys.We were quite surprised at being addressed by the au-tomaton, in words very distinctly articulated thus :-Please ex-cuse my slow e-nun-ci-a-tion." After givingvarious other illustrations of his vocal powers, the auto-maton sang « Hail Columbia," &c. As we were aboutleaving, he said, 11 Gen-tle-men, I thank you for yourvis-it." -New York Jotirnnl of Medicine.

CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.IF the practice of medicine is to be redeemed from

’the reproach of uncertainty, which is at present.attached to it,-if, as a science, medicine is to rank

with other departments of natural knowledge, it must beby having all its various branches advanced, without ex-ception. It is not sufficient that the most minute exami-nation of the tissues of the body, and its organs, by themost improved microscopes, should render our knowledgeof morbid changes occurring in disease perfect. If we

could attain to a complete interpretation of physicalsigns and the fullest etiology, still, without a knowledgeof the elementary constitution of the materials of the’body, of the aliments, of the chemical changes thesealiments and materials undergo in the processes, of life,and ere they are cast out of the body in the excretions,our pathology must be essentially imperfect. Nay, it isStill necessary that we should study these excretionsfurther, and trace the chemical changes they are subjectto under the influence of remedial agents, and until theyare resolved into such forms as they ultimately take afterhaving served the purposes of the economy. And, more-over, parallel with our chemico-pathology must be ourinvestigations into the nature and operations of remedialagents. It is, perhaps, not saying too much to aver thatthere is not a single agent employed in medicine aboutwhich there is not, at present, some point to be decidedby a more elaborate chemistry. Scarcely is there oneremedy, known to be such, save empirically, the effectsof which on the chemical constitution of the fluids, of thesolids, of the secretions, are not, almost, if not altogether,unknown.

How could it be otherwise, since after all the investi-gations of chemists, the contents of the urine, even in itsnormal state, are yet by no means fully known? Whatdo we know of it in disease? What, as influenced by theprincipal bodies administered as medicine-iodine, mer-cury, &c. ? ’? And, again, what is the state of our sciencewhich guides the preparation of remedies? A moment’sreflection upon these points must convince our readers thatthe great field of organic chemistry to which we are making.gigantic efforts to direct their attention, must repay, in itsfruits, every exertion made to learn and to advance it.The preparation of remedies is certainly a humbler, butnot a less useful branch of medicine, and it may, and

must, claim its due share of interest in every medical manwho takes an enlarged view of his subject. It is not

beneath the most exalted man of science to study thenature of the substances which he prescribes, to have aguarantee, in his knowledge of pharmaceutical processes,that the mode of preparation of medicines ensures hisremedies to be what he really designs ; and, moreover,there are so many who, right or wrong, still continue

to make the immediate preparation of medicine, part oftheir daily avocations, that every species of informationrelating to their drugs and chemicals, which shall protect

them from the imposition of fraudulent dealers, must,beacceptable.Under the head of CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY, we

shall carefully collect all the facts made known throughoutEurope relating to organic chemistry and pharmacy,-tofood and its adulterations, —all improved processes for pre-paring remedies,-full accounts of new remedies and theauthority upon which they are recommended. This willrender a careful perusal of this department of THE

LANCET not merely desirable, but imperative upon everypractitioner and every one engaged in the preparation ofmedicines.

EXTENSIVE ADULTERATION OF TEA BY THE CHINESE.

Mr. Warrington, of Apothecaries’ Hall, has been latelyengaged in an examination of tea. He finds that a mostextensive system of adulteration is practised in China,since the very numerous specimens he has examined havebeen obtained from sources which renders the fact of their

having actually been brought from China indisputable.Many samples are found not to contain a single grain oftea, being made up entirely of other leaves. Green teasare for the most part spurious, being manufactured out of

I cheap black teas. This fraud seems to be accomplishedwith great dexterity, and with the greater care the higherthe price of the green tea it is intended to imitate.From the common green teas the colouring-matter maybe washed off by agitating the tea with cold-water anddrying it, when it is at once converted into black teawithout the leaf uncurling. On examining it with the

microscope it is seen that a uniform whitish surface isgiven to it, by means of what appears to be Kaolin orporcelain clay, which, also, very conveniently adds to theweight; upon this a yellow substance, mixed with Prus-sian-blue, is dusted, hence the green colour, which maythus be rendered of any tint. Chemical examinationdetected the presence of sulphate of lime, Prussian-

blue, and a vegetable yellow colouring-matter, probablyturmeric.— Chemical Gazette.

Surely the existence of this fraud ought to excite theimmediate attention of the government, or is the interestof the manufacturers of Prussian-blue too deeply in-volved ?

ANALYSIS OF BATH WATER.

According to Mr. Noad, the temperature of the water,as it rises from the spring at the King’s bath, is 115° Fah.;the specific gravity 1002.4, water being 1001). From

eighteen gallons 2140 grains of solid matter were obtained,equal to 14.87 grains per imperial pint. No iodine couldbe detected after careful evaporation of twenty gallons.A quart, evaporated to dryness, gave 29.9 solid matters,

consisting of-

226

HIPPURIC ACID, A CONSTANT CONSTITUENT OF NORMAL

HUMAN URINE.

Experiments made in the laboratory at Giessen uponthe urine of numerous individuals, during six months,have proved this important fact. Urine is evaporated bythe water-bath to the consistence of syrup, and 1-20th of

strong hydrochloric acid added. The mixture is thenshaken with ether, which dissolves the hippuric acid.If the ethereal solution should not readily separate a fewdrops of alcohol effects the separation. In such case thedecanted fluid must be agitated with water to remove theurea taken up by the alcohol. The ethereal solution

yields crystals of hippuric acid upon evaporation. When I

urine becomes stale it is found to contain benzoic acidinstead of hippuric acid. Proust long ago found benzoicacid in stale urine, but if this is evaporated without the ’’,addition of potash most of the benzoic acid escapes invapour.

Hippuric acid was originally discovered by Liebig, in ’,the fresh urine of herbivorous animals, and its conver-sion into benzoic acid, as the urine became stale, ob-served. Dr. Prout suggested that hippuric acid mightexist in the urine of infants, but he did not detect it. Ureshowed that when benzoic acid is taken into the stomachit shows itself as hippuric acid in the urine.

The formula of hippuric acid is Cl8 N H8 O5+aq.That of benzoic acid is.... C14 Hs 0,+aq-

which shows the relation between these acids, and ex-

plains these transformations.BUTYRIC ACID NOT FORMED IN URINE BY PUTREFACTION.

Upon evaporating putrid urine, adding hydrochloricacid, and distilling, a pungent fluid is obtained, whichwas said to contain butyric acid. Professor Liebig hasproved that it is a mixture of benzoic and acetic acids.He formed acetates of lead and other bases with thisacetic acid, and subjected them to analysis, so that nodoubt remains upon this subject. The discovery of lacticacid by Berzelius has led subsequent observers to supposethey had found lactic acid, when acetic acid resultedfrom their experiments; and hence it has been thoughtthat lactic acid is far more abundantly distributed in theanimal economy than it is in truth.—Archiv. der Pharm.,March, 1844.

ARTIFICIAL ORGANIC BASES.

Dr. A. W. Hofman, in a paper published in the Philo-sophical Magazine, has made a most elaborate investiga-tion into the basic substances found in the naphtha ofcoal gas. The very close analogy of constitution be-tween certain of these gases with the vegetable alkaloids,renders their physiological effects a matter of the greatestinterest ; nay, these effects and that analogy seem towarrant the extraordinary anticipation that all the vege-table alkaloids, morphine, quinine, veratrine, &c. may erelong be made by some artificial process.

Dr. H. says of cyanol, one of these artificial bases, Leeches are killed by immersion in a watery solution.I injected into the throat of a rabbit about 0.5 gram. ofcyanol, mixed with three times as much water; in a fewminutes violent spasms ensued, accompanied by difficultand slow breathing, and complete prostration of all

power; the pupil of the eye was dilated. On shakingthe floor the rabbit was seized with violent spasmodiccontractions, similar to those produced on narcotised

frogs. Twenty-four hours after, it had not recovered;the breathing was still ’slow, and the mucous membraneof the mouth highly inflamed." When cyanol is appliedto the eye of an animal the pupil contracts violently.

Another of these bases, leucol, was injected in the samemanner into the throat of a rabbit, but it did not pro-duce spasms. The animal, after throwing back its headconvulsively, was seized with a total prostration ofall strength, which lasted some hours. The next day ithad perfectly recovered. Further experiments are beingmade upon the physiological effects of these bases byProfessor Rau and others.

NEW METHOD OF PREPARING BENZOIC ACID.

This method is by Professor Wfihier. Benzoin is dis-solved with heat in about an equal volume of highly rec-tified alcohol, and fuming hydrochloric acid added tothe hot solution, until it begins to precipitate. Thewhole is then distilled. Benzoic ether passes over.

When the mass in the retort becomes too thick let it coola little; add hot water, and again distil, as long as anyether comes over. The water poured off from the resinwhile boiling hot, deposits benzoic acid on cooling. Thedistillate is digested with caustic potash until the benzoicether is decomposed, heated to the boiling point, andsaturated with hydrochloric acid. Benzoic acid separateson cooling. It has the odour of the sublimed acid. Bythis process the total amount of acid contained in theresin is obtained. -Liebig-’s Annalen, Feb. 1814.

A TASTELESS WORM MEDICINE.

" SANTONINE." - This vegetable principle, preparedfrom the semen contra vermes, a substance importedfrom the east, and long kept in the shops on the con-tinent, in very general use as a vermifuge, may bemade into lozenges, and seems worthy the attention ofEnglish practitioners. Semen contra, as it is called, .

consists of the unexpanded flowers of several species ofartemesia, mixed, perhaps, occasionally with seeds. Theinvestigations of chemists have shown that its compositionis sufficiently uniform to warrant its retention and study.An essential oil, of a strong odour and flavour, was longsince prepared from it and employed as a vermifuge. Thistasteless principle, santonine, was discovered by Kahlerand Alms, and studied by Trommsdorf, jun. This prin-ciple is now recommended on good authority as a remedyfor worms, especially lumbricales, in this form. Take

Santonine, one drachmSugar, five ounces;Gum trariacantla, half a drachm. Make into 144

lozenges; of these a child may take from five to tendaily, or santonine may be given in powder with sugar.The occurrence of intestinal worms in children is said

to be far more common in the rural parts of France thanin Paris. We believe the same to be the case in the

country districts of England as compared with the metro-polis.

NEW FORM FOR STEEL WINE.

M. SOUBERAN recommends the following formula : -Tartrate ofprotoxide of iron, eight grains;Tartaric acid. eight grains ;White wine, twenty ounces.

Rub the tartrate of iron and tartaric acid well togetherin a porcelain or glass mortar, add the white wine, andfilter. It is quite obvious that the old form for preparingsteel wine is most uncertain and variable in strength,depending upon the acidity of the wine employed(although left out of the last edition of the London Phar-macopoeia, it is nevertheless in daily use in this country).M. Beral recommends the wine to be agitated with a littlehydrate of peroxide of iron and filtered before adding thefilings in the old form. To prepare the tartrate, decom-pose one equivalent of protosulphate of iron with oneequivalent of neutral tartrate of potass, wash the precipi-tate on a strainer, press it strongly, and dry it over awater bath.—Journal de Fharmacie.

It is obvious that a large amount of water must beused in preparing this tartrate, else sulphate of potass willbe precipitated with the tartrate of iron. Perhaps thetannate of iron which M. Beral, wishes to get rid of, wasthe active agent in the old form of steel wine.MODE OF DETECTING THE ADULTERATION OF VINEGAR

WITH SULPHURIC ACID.

Fecula, or starch, is recommended as the best and mostsimple test for the discovery of this cheat. It is well

227

known" that dilute sulphuric acid, by aid of heat, con-verts fecula first into dextrine, and, if the heat be conti-nued, into glucose, or grape-sugar. It then loses the pro-perty of turning blue with iodine." In the first case thisreagent colours it of a vinous violet; in the second thereis no colouration at all. A specimen of pure vinegar andanother of the suspected fluid being taken, to each asmall portion of fecula is added, and heat applied forabout ten minutes. On then testing « these two liquorsseparately by tincture of iodine, in pure vinegar, thecolouration is blue, as usual, and in the other it presentsa violet tint, which approaches vinous red. If the ebul-lition of vinegar be continued, and if the testing be re-peated with a small quantity, the colouration seems tobecome more and more vinous, whilst that of pure vine-gar always remains the same. Finally, after twenty orthirty minutes’ boiling, the adulterated vinegar is no

longer coloured by iodine." —Chemist.ANALYSIS OF THE BLOOD IN A CASE OF LEAD COLIC.

Having been charged with the analysis of a certainquantity of blood, taken from a subject attacked withlead colic, Professor Cozzi sought to ascertain whetherthis liquid contained salts or oxides of lead, and whetherthese substances were combined with all the proximateprinciples of the blood, or only with some of them. Hedetected the presence of a salt and an oxide of this metal,and he found, moreover, that, instead of being combinedwith the hsematosin and the fibrin, they entered intocombination with the albumen. This analysis, whichsupports the theories already published by Schuebler,Berzelius, Lassaigne, and Taddei, is the first by whichwe have been made acquainted with which of the

proximate principles of the blood lead really enters intocombination. The analyses made by Chevalier and

Brichetau, of the urine of white lead-makers attackedwith lead-colic, showed that these urines contained saltsof lead.-Chemist.

THE LANCET.LONDON, SATURDAY, MAY 11TH, 1844.

CLINICAL LECTURES IN LONDON ANDPARIS.

IN another page our readers will find a letter from a

student in medicine on the subject of clinical lectures.We have inserted it with pleasure, as we know that it

conveys the feelings of the great mass of his fellow

students, and because it also embodies the opinions sooften expressed by us in THE LANCET. The practice of

giving clinical lectures is of the very first importance inmedical instruction, and we consider it an opprobrium tothe medical profession in Great Britain that it should beso utterly neglected. It is an undeniable fact that were

it not for the apprenticeship system, which gives to

students a certain knowledge of disease before they com-mence Ic Ni alking the hospitals," and thus enables themto blunder at the meaning of what they see, it would benext to impossible for them to acquire even an imperfectknowledge of disease from hospital practice, conductedas it is in London. This is more especially the case in

the" medical" wards of the hospitals. In surgical casesthe disease is patent, visible, on the surface, as it were,and a student with a tolerable amount of book-knowledgeand a certain degree of perspicuity, may contrive to

partly understand what he sees, even if the surgeon, whoought to be his instructor, is silent. But with medical

cases it is far different; to the uninitiated student all is

hidden, all is mystery, and unle3s a thread be afforded to

guide his steps through the mazes of the scientific

labyrinth, he remains bewildered, and acquires no realknowledge of the profession which he is to pursue in afterlife. The result, as might be expected, is that the prac-tice of the physicians who silently go through their wards,merely replying to questions asked, or occasionallymaking a remark if some case of peculiar interest pre-sents itself, is followed lazily, if not with disgust, and

principally with a view to the obtaining of the " certifi-cate," which, under the present system of things, is

indispensable.,

In France, the immense value of clinical lectures, as ameans of instruction, is fully understood, and they aremade the pivot on which the whole system of medicaleducation turns. The Paris hospitals are all THROWN

OPEN to the students indiscriminately, in order that theymay be able to follow the practice of various physiciansand surgeons, and, by comparing the results they observe,form their own opinions on medical subjects. There are

nine clinical professors, all of whom are named byconcours, and receive 4001. a year from the Faculty ofMedicine. Of these nine, four are professors of medicine,four of surgery, and one of midwifery. They are bound

to lecture at least three times a week, immediately aftervisiting their patients, during six months of each year.Most of them, however, voluntarily lecture every day,Sundays and Thursdays excepted, during the ten monthsthat the Faculty is open. Whether they lecture or not,however, they are obliged, like all the other hospitalsurgeons and physicians, to go through their wards everymorning, between the hours of six and ten.

In addition to these, the regularly-paid 11 Cliniques,"any hospital surgeon or physician who chooses, is allowedto give clinical lectures gratuitously to his immediate

pupils (dressers, &c.), and to any students or medical

practitioners who may think proper to attend his

visit. Many avail themselves of this permission, asa means of increasing their own knowledge, of pre-

paring themselves for future concoicrs, and of acquiringpopularity and scientific renown. Some of these unpaidlecturers assemble at their « cliniques" as many, or evenmore, auditors than the most favoured of the paid pro-

fessors, as, for instance, Louis, GENDRIN, MALGAIGNE,GIBERT, CAZENAVE, JOBERT, &c. &c. Nor are these all

the means of cliniccl instruction open to students. The

house-surgeons and house-physicians, who are named by ’

coaacours for a period of three or four years, and whose

duty it is to visit the patients every afternoon, are allowedto take round with them four or five private pupils,-towhom they give practical and personal instruction at thebedside of the patient. As they avail themselves exten-sively of this permission, their labours, for which they ’are remunerated by their pupils, may be said to form an

important feature in the clinical instruction afforded bythe Paris schools.

It is the extent to which clinical lecturing is carried in

Paris by the hospital medical functionaries, and the

facilities which are everywhere afforded to all parties ’by


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