Chemistry and Technology of the

Cosmetics and Toiletries Industry

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Chemistry and Technology of the

Cosmetics and Toiletries Industry Second edition

Edited by

D.F. WILLIAMS

Environment and Quality Assurance Manager Givaudan-Roure UK

Surrey UK

and

W.H. SCHMITT

Vice President, R&D Chesebro ugh Ponds, Inc

Connecticut USA

BLACKIE ACADEMIC &. PROFESSIONAL An Imprint of Chapman & Hall

London· Weinhelm . New York· Tokyo· Melbourne· Madras

Published by Blackie Academic & Professional, an imprint of Chapman & Hall, 2-6 Boundary Row, London SEt 8HN, UK

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First edition 1992 Second edition 1996

© Chapman & Hall 1992 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 1992

Typeset in 10/12 pt Times by AFS Image Setters (Glasgow) Ltd

ISBN-13 :978-94-0 10-7194-9 001: 1 0.1 007/978-94-009-1555-8

e-ISBN-13:978-94-009-1555-8

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Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 96--83684

00 Printed on permanent acid-free text paper, manufactured in accordance with ANSI! NISO Z39.48-1992

Contents

List of Contributors xiii Preface xv Preface to the first edition xvii

1 Raw materials 1 E. SPIESS

1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Basic surfactants 1

1.2.1 Alkyl ether sulfates I 1.2.2 Alkyl sulfates 4 1.2.3 a-Olefin sulfonates 5 1.2.4 Other basic surfactants 6

1.3 Mild anionic surfactants 6 1.3.1 Sulf osuccina tes 6 1.3.2 Cocoyl isethionates 7 1.3.3 Acyl amides 8 1.3.4 Alkyl ether carboxylates 8 1.3.5 Magnesium surfactants 9 1.3.6 Alkyl phosphates 9

1.4 Amphoteric surfactants 10 1.4.1 Alkyl betaines 10 1.4.2 Alkylamido betaines 11 1.4.3 Acylamphoglycinates and acylamphopropionates 11 1.4.4 Amine oxides 12

1.5 Non-ionic surfactants 13 1.5.1 Ethoxylated products 13 1.5.2 Alkyl polyglycosides 15

1.6 Cationic surfactants 15 1.6.1 Monoalkyl quaternaries 16 1.6.2 Dialkyl quaternaries 16 1.6.3 Trialkyl quaternaries 17 1.6.4 Benzyl quaternaries 18 1.6.5 Ester quaternaries 18 1.6.6 Ethoxylated quaternaries 18

1.7 Shampoo and bath additives 19 1.7.1 Thickeners 19 1.7.2 Foam stabilizers 20 1.7.3 Pearle scent agents 21 1.7.4 Conditioning agents 21 1.7.5 Emollients 21 1.7.6 Sequestering agents 22

1.8 Oil components 22 1.8.1 Mineral oil 22 1.8.2 Natural oils 23 1.8.3 Synthetic oils 24

vi CONTENTS

1.9 Waxes 26 1.9.1 Natural waxes 26 1.9.2 Synthetic waxes 27

1.10 Silicone oils 27 1.11 Cream bases 28

1.11.1 Fatty alcohols 28 1.11.2 Polyol esters 28 1.11.3 Fatty acids 29

1.12 Oil-in-water (O/W) emulsifiers 29 1.12.1 Anionic O/W emulsifiers 29 1.12.2 Cationic O/W emulsifiers 30 1.12.3 Non-ionic O/W emulsifiers 30 1.12.4 O/W stabilizers 30

1.13 Water-in-oil (W/O) emulsifiers 31 1.13.1 Single W / 0 emulsifiers 31 1.13.2 Lanolin derivatives 32 1.13.3 Absorption bases 32 1.13.4 W / 0 stabilizers 32

1.14 Humectants 33 1.15 Aerosol propellants 33

1.15.1 Hydrocarbons 33 1.15.2 Dimethyl ether 33

References 34

2 Hair-care products 36 J.J. SHIPP

2.1 Introduction 36 2.2 Hair: structure and chemistry 37

2.2.1 Structure of hair keratin 38 2.3 Shampoos 39

2.3.1 Detergents 40 2.3.2 Thickeners and foam stabilisers 45 2.3.3 Perfumes 49 2.3.4 Preservatives 49 2.3.5 Opacifiers and pearlisers 50 2.3.6 Conditioning agents 52 2.3.7 Colours and colour fading 55 2.3.8 Other additives 56

2.4 Conditioners 58 2.4.1 Cationic surfactants 60 2.4.2 Cationic polymers and other active ingredients 63 2.4.3 Bodying agents 66 2.4.4 Auxiliary emulsifiers 66 2.4.5 Oil components 66 2.4.6 Thickeners 67 2.4.7 Perfumes 67 2.4.8 Preservatives 68 2.4.9 Colours 68 2.4.10 Manufacture 68 2.4.11 Clear conditioners 68 2.4.12 Hair thickeners 69 2.4.13 Leave-on conditioners 69 2.4.14 'Hot oils', tonics and other conditioners 70

2.5 Styling aids 72 2.5.1 Hairsprays 72

2.6 Setting lotions 77

CONTENTS Vll

2.7 Other styling aids in spray form 78 2.8 Hair gels 79 2.9 Styling creams and glazes 82 2.10 Hair oils/brilliantines/pomades/styling waxes 83 2.11 Hair creams 83 2.12 Permanent waving 84

2.12.1 Neutralisation 88 2.13 Bleaches 89 2.14 Hair dyes 91

2.14.1 Temporary dyes 91 2.14.2 Semi-permanent colourants 92 2.14.3 Permanent hair dyes 93 2.14.4 Other hair dyes 97 2.14.5 Dye removers 97

2.15 Product evaluation and testing 98 2.15.1 Stability testing 98 2.15.2 Claims justification 99 2.15.3 Product safety 99

2.16 Summary 99 References 100

3 Skin-care products 104 W.H. SCHMITT

3.1 Introduction 104 3.2 Anatomy and physiology of the skin 104

3.2.1 Epidermis 106 3.2.2 Dermis 106 3.2.3 Skin color 108

3.3 Test methods 108 3.3.1 Efficacy testing 109

3.4 Formulation 112 3.4.1 Formula information 112 3.4.2 Consumer testing 113 3.4.3 Stability testing 114 3.4.4 Microbiological testing 115 3.4.5 Manufacturing trials 115 3.4.6 Safety testing 116 3.4.7 Regulatory and environmental requirements 116

3.5 Skin cleansers 117 3.5.1 Anhydrous oily cleansers 118 3.5.2 Water-in-oil emulsions: cold creams 118 3.5.3 Oil-in-water emulsions: cleansing milks 119 3.5.4 Fatted mild syndet foaming bars and cleansers 120 3.5.5 Super fatted bar soaps 121 3.5.6 Astringents I toners 121 3.5.7 Bar soaps 122 3.5.8 Particulate scrubs 122

3.6 Moisturizers 123 3.6.1 All-purpose creams 124 3.6.2 Hand and body lotions 125 3.6.3 Hand and body creams 126 3.6.4 Facial moisturizer lotions 126 3.6.5 Facial moisturizer creams: night creams 127

3.7 Anti-ageing products 128 3.8 Sunscreen products 130

3.8.1 Solar radiation 130

viii CONTENTS

3.8.2 Sunscreen chemicals 133 3.8.3 Testing 133 3.8.4 Sunscreen formulations 136

3.9 Acne 141 3.9.1 Sebaceous gland 141 3.9.2 Acne nomenclature 142 3.9.3 Acne grades 142 3.9.4 Treatment 143

3.10 Liposomes 144 References 145

4 Color cosmetics 149 J. CUNNINGHAM

4.1 Introduction 149 4.2 Lip color 149

4.2.1 Lipsticks 149 4.2.2 Lip glosses 156 4.2.3 Lip liners 157

4.3 Nail polish 159 4.3.1 Consumer expectations 159 4.3.2 Formulation 159 4.3.3 Manufacture 161

4.4 Face make-up 162 4.4.1 Consumer expectations 162 4.4.2 Face powders 163 4.4.3 Liquid foundations 168 4.4.4 Blushers 170

4.5 Eye make-up 171 4.5.1 Eyeshadow 171 4.5.2 Mascara 174 4.5.3 Eyeliners 177

4.6 Preservation 179 4.7 Color coating 180 4.8 General considerations 181 References 181 Further reading 181

5 Baby care 183 J.L. KNOWLTON

5.1 Introduction 183 5.2 Specific basic requirements for baby products 183 5.3 Product types and their presentation 184

5.3.1 Baby powders 184 5.3.2 Lotions and creams 186 5.3.3 Soaps 188 5.3.4 Hair products 188 5.3.5 Bath products 190 5.3.6 Moussed products 191 5.3.7 Wipes and tissues 192 5.3.8 Oils 192 5.3.9 Perfumes and colognes 193

5.4 Raw materials for baby products 194

CONTENTS IX

5.5 Developmental pathways 195 5.5.1 Formulation development 195 5.5.2 Practical requirements 195

5.6 Product evaluation 195 5.6.1 Laboratory evaluation 195 5.6.2 Mother and baby panels 196 5.6.3 Consumer research 196

5.7 Product safety requirement 197 5.8 Product preservation 198 5.9 Product stability 198 5.10 Manufacture and quality control 199

5.10.1 Manufacture 199 5.10.2 Quality control 200

References 200 Further reading 200

6 Afro products 201 J.F.L. CHESTER

6.1 Introduction 201 6.2 Hair structures 201 6.3 Skin characteristics 202 6.4 Hair products 203

6.4.1 Relaxing and restyling products 203 6.4.2 Hair pomades and grooming aids 216

6.5 Skin products 218 6.5.1 Raw material selection-factors for consideration 218 6.5.2 Emulsification systems 219

6.6 General practical considerations 224 Further reading 224

7 Dental products 225 M. PADER

7.1 Introduction 225 7.2 The human dentition and its environment 226

7.2.1 Teeth and associated oral structures 226 7.2.2 Saliva and crevicular fluid 226

7.3 Oral accretions and conditions 228 7.3.1 Dental pellicle 228 7.3.2 Dental plaque 228 7.3.3 Dental calculus (tartar) 231 7.3.4 Periodontal diseases 232 7.3.5 Dental stain 233 7.3.6 Dental hypersensitivity 234 7.3.7 Oral malodor 234

7.4 Oral-care products 235 7.4.1 Product categories 235 7.4.2 Toothpaste 235 7.4.3 Tooth powder 236 7.4.4 The toothbrush 236 7.4.5 Oral rinses 237 7.4.6 Mechanical devices 237

7.5 Consumer practices 237

X CONTENTS

7.6 Oral-care product marketing 239 7.6.1 Targeting consumer groups 239 7.6.2 Regulation of the industry 240 7.6.3 Product evaluation; support of marketing claims 242

7.7 Principles of product formulation 244 7.7.1 The toothbrush and other mechanical aids 244 7.7.2 Toothpaste formulation practice 246 7.7.3 Basic dentifrice ingredients 250 7.7.4 Type I versus Type II toothpastes 260 7.7.5 Dentifrice manufacture 261 7.7.6 Dentifrice packaging 262

7.8 Oral rinses 263 7.8.1 Function 263 7.8.2 Dosage forms and formulations 264 7.8.3 Pre-brushing dental rinse 265 7.8.4 Manufacture and packaging 265

7.9 Active agents 266 7.9.1 Anti-caries agents 266 7.9.2 Reduction in tooth hypersensitivity 266 7.9.3 Reduction of plaque and calculus and improvement in gingival

health 267 7.10 Specialty products 268

7.10.1 Tooth whiteners 268 7.10.2 Products for the edentulous 269

References 269

8 Perfumery 272 A. DALLIMORE

8.1 Introduction 272 8.2 Fragrance--a definition 272 8.3 Role of fragrance 272 8.4 Perfumery raw materials 273

8.4.1 Natural perfumery raw materials 273 8.4.2 Synthetic perfumery raw materials (aroma chemicals) 274

8.5 Development of a fragrance 276 8.5.1 The brief 276 8.5.2 The creative process 278 8.5.3 Evaluation and marketing of the new creation 281

8.6 The current market in fine fragrance 281 8.6.1 The trickle-down effect 282

8.7 Odour types 282 8.8 Technical performance of perfumes 283 8.9 Stability testing 285 8.10 Compounding 286 8.11 Quality control 286 8.12 Special additives 287 8.13 Glossary of odour descriptors 288 Further reading 289

9 Personal hygiene products 290 M.J. WILLCOX

9.1 Introduction 290 9.2 Soap and other solid bathing products 290

9.2.1 Toilet soaps 9.2.2 Shaving soaps

CONTENTS

9.2.3 Transparent/translucent soaps 9.2.4 Synthetic detergent/combination bars 9.2.5 Bath salts/bath crystals/bath cubes

9.3 Liquid bathing and showering products 9.3.1 FoaJ,Il baths 9.3.2 Bat4 oils 9.3.3 Shower gels 9.3.4 After-bath and after-shower conditioners

10 Antiperspirants and deodorants R. GIOVANNIELLO

10.1 Introduction 10.2 Regulations 10.3 Mechanism of sweating 10.4 Antiperspirant active properties

10.4.1 Basic aluminum chloride 10.4.2 Aluminum zirconium complexes

10.5 Clinical assessment 10.6 Formulary considerations

10.6.1 Performance 10.6.2 Cost 10.6.3 Esthetics

10.7 Formulations 10.7.1 Roll-on products 10.7.2 Stick products 10.7.3 Spray products

10.8 Deodorants 10.8.1 Odor control 10.8.2 Clinical assessment 10.8.3 Formulations

References Miscellaneous patent literature

11 Regulation of cosmetic products E.G. MURPHY and P.l. WILSON

11.1 Historical development 11.2 Self-regulation 11.3 Regulation in the United States

11.3.1 Federal regulation of cosmetics 11.3.2 Cosmetic composition 11.3.3 Cosmetic labeling 11.3.4 The relationship of cosmetic products to drugs 11.3.5 Regulation of cosmetics by other federal agencies 11.3.6 Cosmetics and the Consumer Product Safety Commission 11.3.7 Regulation of cosmetics by the states 11.3.8 Conclusion

11.4 Regulation in Europe 11.5 Regulation in Japan 11.6 Regulation in other countries 11.7 General considerations

11.7.1 Environmental impact

Xl

290 295 295 299 299 301 301 305 308 309

310

310 312 314 315 315 321 324 326 326 327 328 329 329 332 335 338 338 339 340 342 343

344

344 345 346 346 347 348 350 353 355 355 355 356 357 357 358 35R

xu CONTENTS

11. 7.2 Animal protection and rights 11. 7.3 Drug or cosmetic? Borderline products 11.7.4 Product liability

References

12 Quality W.E. DUPUY

12.1 Introduction to quality 12.2 Definition of quality 12.3 Inspection 12.4 Prevention 12.5 Total quality

12.5.1 Product design 12.5.2 Quality assurance 12.5.3 Manufacturing processes and technology 12.5.4 Cost of quality 12.5.5 Human and organisational aspects

12.6 The new thinking 12.7 Quality standards and guides

12.7.1 Links between ISO 9000 and total quality References Further reading

13 Environmental issues D.F. WILLIAMS

13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 13.9 13.10

Introduction Raw materials Energy Water Waste Packaging waste Eco labelling Volatile organic compounds Environmental management systems Sources of information 13.10.1 European Community 13.10.2 USA 13.10.3 UK

Appendices

Appendix I List of suppliers Appendix II Useful addresses

Index

358 358 359 359

362

362 362 363 364 365 367 369 369 370 370 373 373 374 377 377

378

378 379 379 380 380 380 381 381 382 382 383 384 384

385

385 387

389

Contributors

Mr J.F.L. Chester Conform Associates, 80 Broadacres, Carlton, Goole, East Yorkshire DN14 9NF, UK

Mr J. Cunningham Vice-President Technical Services, Cosmo1ab, 1100 Garrett Road, Lewisberg, Tennessee 37091, USA

Mr A. Dallimore Perfumery Director, Phoenix Fragrances Ltd, Unit 6, Fleming Close, Park Farm Industrial Estate, Welling­borough, Northants NN8 6UF, UK

Dr W.E. Dupuy Personnel and Total Quality Director, Rimme1 Inter­national, Carlton Road, Ashford, Kent, UK

Mr R. Giovanniello Vice President-Technical Director, Westwood Chem­ical Corporation, 46 Tower Drive, Middletown, NY 10940, USA

Mr. J.L. Knowlton Vice President, Research and Development, Justin­Avon, 326 Fifth Street, Wynberg, Johannesburg, Republic of South Africa

E.G. Murphy Esq. Bryan Cave LLP, 700 Thirteenth Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20005-3960, USA

Dr M. Pader President, Consumer Products Development Resources Inc., 1358 Sussex Road, Teaneck 07666, New Jersey, USA

Mr W.H. Schmitt Senior Vice President, Research and Development, Chesebrough Ponds USA Co., Trumbull Corporate Park, Merritt Boulevard, Trumbull, Connecticut 06611, USA

Mr J.J. Shipp Technical Director, Chester Laboratories Ltd, Unit 11, First Avenue, Deeside Industrial Park, C1wyd CH52NU, UK

Mr E. Spiess Sales Manager, Akzo Nobel Chemicals GmbH, Post­fach 100132, D-52301, Duren, Germany

Mr M.J. Willcox Technical Director, The Standard Soap Co. Ltd, Ashby de 1a Zouch, Leicestershire LE6 2HG, UK

xiv

Mr D.F. Williams

Dr P.J. Wilson

CONTRIBUTORS

Environment and Quality Assurance Manager, Givau­dan-Roure UK, Godstone Road, Whyteleafe, Surrey, UK

Adams, Wilson & Associates Ltd, 8 Queens Park Road, Chester CH4 7 AD, UK

Preface

This second edition has been designed to monitor the progress in develop­ment over the past few years and to build on the information given in the first edition.

It has been extensively revised and updated. My thanks go to all who have contributed to this work.

D.F.W. May 1996

Preface to the first edition

This book is the result of a group of development scientists feeling that there was an urgent need for a reference work that would assist chemists in understanding the science involved in the development of new products. The approach is to inform in a way that allows and encourages the reader to develop his or her own creativity in working with marketing colleagues on the introduction of new products.

Organised on a product category basis, emphasis is placed on formulation, selection of raw materials, and the technology of producing the products discussed. Performance considerations, safety, product liability and all aspects of quality are covered. Regulations governing the production and sale of cosmetic products internationally are described, and sources for updated information provided.

Throughout the book, reference is made to consumer pressure and environmental issues-concerns which the development scientist and his or her marketing counterpart ignore at their own, and their employer's peril. In recent years, many cosmetic fragrances and toiletry products have been converted from aerosols to mechanically press uri sed products or sprays, and these are described along with foam products such as hair conditioning mousses.

The information set out in the following pages has been acquired by the hard work and enthusiasm of a number of international authors who hold senior positions within the industry and it has been my privilege to work with William H. Schmitt in bringing together their accumulated knowledge. Information presented is given in good faith and the greatest possible care has been taken to ensure that it is correct. No warranty can, however, be given on fitness for a particular use or freedom from patent infringement. All the information given is for consideration, study and verification. It is hoped that the book will inspire newcomers to progress within, and advance, the industry that has provided me with a livelihood and much enjoyment over many years.

D.F.W.1992