Chemistry guideFirst assessment 2016
Chemistry guideFirst assessment 2016
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International Baccalaureate, Baccalauréat International and Bachillerato Internacional are registered trademarks of the International Baccalaureate Organization.
Diploma ProgrammeChemistry guide
Published February 2014Updated February 2015
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© International Baccalaureate Organization 2014
Chemistry guide
Contents
Introduction 1
Purpose of this document 1
The Diploma Programme 2
Nature of science 6
Nature of chemistry 13
Aims 18
Assessment objectives 19
Syllabus 20
Syllabus outline 20
Approaches to the teaching of chemistry 22
Syllabus content 27
Assessment 167
Assessment in the Diploma Programme 167
Assessment outline—SL 169
Assessment outline—HL 170
External assessment 171
Internal assessment 173
The group 4 project 185
Appendices 190
Glossary of command terms 190
Bibliography 193
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Introduction
Purpose of this document
This publication is intended to guide the planning, teaching and assessment of the subject in schools. Subject teachers are the primary audience, although it is expected that teachers will use the guide to inform students and parents about the subject.
This guide can be found on the subject page of the online curriculum centre (OCC) at http://occ.ibo.org, a password-protected IB website designed to support IB teachers. It can also be purchased from the IB store at http://store.ibo.org.
Additional resourcesAdditional publications such as teacher support materials, subject reports, internal assessment guidance and grade descriptors can also be found on the OCC. Past examination papers as well as markschemes can be purchased from the IB store.
Teachers are encouraged to check the OCC for additional resources created or used by other teachers. Teachers can provide details of useful resources, for example: websites, books, videos, journals or teaching ideas.
AcknowledgmentThe IB wishes to thank the educators and associated schools for generously contributing time and resources to the production of this guide.
First assessment 2016
Chemistry guide22
Introduction
The Diploma Programme
The Diploma Programme is a rigorous pre-university course of study designed for students in the 16 to 19 age range. It is a broad-based two-year course that aims to encourage students to be knowledgeable and inquiring, but also caring and compassionate. There is a strong emphasis on encouraging students to develop intercultural understanding, open-mindedness, and the attitudes necessary for them to respect and evaluate a range of points of view.
The Diploma Programme modelThe course is presented as six academic areas enclosing a central core (see figure 1). It encourages the concurrent study of a broad range of academic areas. Students study two modern languages (or a modern language and a classical language), a humanities or social science subject, a science, mathematics and one of the creative arts. It is this comprehensive range of subjects that makes the Diploma Programme a demanding course of study designed to prepare students effectively for university entrance. In each of the academic areas students have flexibility in making their choices, which means they can choose subjects that particularly interest them and that they may wish to study further at university.
Figure 1Diploma Programme model
The Diploma Programme
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Choosing the right combinationStudents are required to choose one subject from each of the six academic areas, although they can, instead of an arts subject, choose two subjects from another area. Normally, three subjects (and not more than four) are taken at higher level (HL), and the others are taken at standard level (SL). The IB recommends 240 teaching hours for HL subjects and 150 hours for SL. Subjects at HL are studied in greater depth and breadth than at SL.
At both levels, many skills are developed, especially those of critical thinking and analysis. At the end of the course, students’ abilities are measured by means of external assessment. Many subjects contain some element of coursework assessed by teachers.
The core of the Diploma Programme modelAll Diploma Programme students participate in the three course elements that make up the core of the model. Theory of knowledge (TOK) is a course that is fundamentally about critical thinking and inquiry into the process of knowing rather than about learning a specific body of knowledge. The TOK course examines the nature of knowledge and how we know what we claim to know. It does this by encouraging students to analyse knowledge claims and explore questions about the construction of knowledge. The task of TOK is to emphasize connections between areas of shared knowledge and link them to personal knowledge in such a way that an individual becomes more aware of his or her own perspectives and how they might differ from others.
Creativity, action, service (CAS) is at the heart of the Diploma Programme. The emphasis in CAS is on helping students to develop their own identities, in accordance with the ethical principles embodied in the IB mission statement and the IB learner profile. It involves students in a range of activities alongside their academic studies throughout the Diploma Programme. The three strands of CAS are Creativity (arts and other experiences that involve creative thinking), Action (physical exertion contributing to a healthy lifestyle) and Service (an unpaid and voluntary exchange that has a learning benefit for the student). Possibly, more than any other component in the Diploma Programme, CAS contributes to the IB’s mission to create a better and more peaceful world through intercultural understanding and respect.
The extended essay, including the world studies extended essay, offers the opportunity for IB students to investigate a topic of special interest, in the form of a 4,000-word piece of independent research. The area of research undertaken is chosen from one of the students’ Diploma Programme subjects, or in the case of the interdisciplinary world studies essay, two subjects, and acquaints them with the independent research and writing skills expected at university. This leads to a major piece of formally presented, structured writing, in which ideas and findings are communicated in a reasoned and coherent manner, appropriate to the subject or subjects chosen. It is intended to promote high-level research and writing skills, intellectual discovery and creativity. As an authentic learning experience it provides students with an opportunity to engage in personal research on a topic of choice, under the guidance of a supervisor.
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Approaches to teaching and approaches to learningApproaches to teaching and learning across the Diploma Programme refer to deliberate strategies, skills and attitudes which permeate the teaching and learning environment. These approaches and tools, intrinsically linked with the learner profile attributes, enhance student learning and assist student preparation for the Diploma Programme assessment and beyond. The aims of approaches to teaching and learning in the Diploma Programme are to:
• empower teachers as teachers of learners as well as teachers of content
• empower teachers to create clearer strategies for facilitating learning experiences in which students are more meaningfully engaged in structured inquiry and greater critical and creative thinking
• promote both the aims of individual subjects (making them more than course aspirations) and linking previously isolated knowledge (concurrency of learning)
• encourage students to develop an explicit variety of skills that will equip them to continue to be actively engaged in learning after they leave school, and to help them not only obtain university admission through better grades but also prepare for success during tertiary education and beyond
• enhance further the coherence and relevance of the students’ Diploma Programme experience
• allow schools to identify the distinctive nature of an IB Diploma Programme education, with its blend of idealism and practicality.
The five approaches to learning (developing thinking skills, social skills, communication skills, self-management skills and research skills) along with the six approaches to teaching (teaching that is inquiry-based, conceptually focused, contextualized, collaborative, differentiated and informed by assessment) encompass the key values and principles that underpin IB pedagogy.
The IB mission statement and the IB learner profileThe Diploma Programme aims to develop in students the knowledge, skills and attitudes they will need to fulfill the aims of the IB, as expressed in the organization’s mission statement and the learner profile. Teaching and learning in the Diploma Programme represent the reality in daily practice of the organization’s educational philosophy.
Academic honestyAcademic honesty in the Diploma Programme is a set of values and behaviours informed by the attributes of the learner profile. In teaching, learning and assessment, academic honesty serves to promote personal integrity, engender respect for the integrity of others and their work, and ensure that all students have an equal opportunity to demonstrate the knowledge and skills they acquire during their studies.
All coursework—including work submitted for assessment—is to be authentic, based on the student’s individual and original ideas with the ideas and work of others fully acknowledged. Assessment tasks that require teachers to provide guidance to students or that require students to work collaboratively must be completed in full compliance with the detailed guidelines provided by the IB for the relevant subjects.
For further information on academic honesty in the IB and the Diploma Programme, please consult the IB publications Academic honesty (2011), The Diploma Programme: From principles into practice (2009) and General regulations: Diploma Programme (2011). Specific information regarding academic honesty as it pertains to external and internal assessment components of this Diploma Programme subject can be found in this guide.
The Diploma Programme
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Acknowledging the ideas or work of another personCoordinators and teachers are reminded that candidates must acknowledge all sources used in work submitted for assessment. The following is intended as a clarification of this requirement.
Diploma Programme candidates submit work for assessment in a variety of media that may include audio-visual material, text, graphs, images and/or data published in print or electronic sources. If a candidate uses the work or ideas of another person the candidate must acknowledge the source using a standard style of referencing in a consistent manner. A candidate’s failure to acknowledge a source will be investigated by the IB as a potential breach of regulations that may result in a penalty imposed by the IB final award committee.
The IB does not prescribe which style(s) of referencing or in-text citation should be used by candidates; this is left to the discretion of appropriate faculty/staff in the candidate’s school. The wide range of subjects, three response languages and the diversity of referencing styles make it impractical and restrictive to insist on particular styles. In practice, certain styles may prove most commonly used, but schools are free to choose a style that is appropriate for the subject concerned and the language in which candidates’ work is written. Regardless of the reference style adopted by the school for a given subject, it is expected that the minimum information given includes: name of author, date of publication, title of source, and page numbers as applicable.
Candidates are expected to use a standard style and use it consistently so that credit is given to all sources used, including sources that have been paraphrased or summarized. When writing text candidates must clearly distinguish between their words and those of others by the use of quotation marks (or other method, such as indentation) followed by an appropriate citation that denotes an entry in the bibliography. If an electronic source is cited, the date of access must be indicated. Candidates are not expected to show faultless expertise in referencing, but are expected to demonstrate that all sources have been acknowledged. Candidates must be advised that audio-visual material, text, graphs, images and/or data published in print or in electronic sources that is not their own must also attribute the source. Again, an appropriate style of referencing/citation must be used.
Learning diversity and learning support requirementsSchools must ensure that equal access arrangements and reasonable adjustments are provided to candidates with learning support requirements that are in line with the IB documents Candidates with assessment access requirements and Learning diversity in the International Baccalaureate programmes: Special educational needs within the IB programmes.
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Introduction
Nature of science
The Nature of science (NOS) is an overarching theme in the biology, chemistry and physics courses. This section, titled Nature of science, is in the biology, chemistry and physics guides to support teachers in their understanding of what is meant by the nature of science. The “Nature of science” section of the guide provides a comprehensive account of the nature of science in the 21st century. It will not be possible to cover in this document all the themes in detail in the three science courses, either for teaching or assessment.
It has a paragraph structure (1.1, 1.2, etc) to link the significant points made to the syllabus (landscape pages) references on the NOS. The NOS parts in the subject-specific sections of the guide are examples of a particular understanding. The NOS statement(s) above every sub-topic outline how one or more of the NOS themes can be exemplified through the understandings, applications and skills in that sub-topic. These are not a repeat of the NOS statements found below but an elaboration of them in a specific context. See the section on “Format of the syllabus”.
Technology
Although this section is about the nature of science, the interpretation of the word technology is important, and the role of technology emerging from and contributing to science needs to be clarified. In today’s world, the words science and technology are often used interchangeably, however, historically this is not the case. Technology emerged before science, and materials were used to produce useful and decorative artefacts long before there was an understanding of why materials had different properties that could be used for different purposes. In the modern world the reverse is the case: an understanding of the underlying science is the basis for technological developments. These new technologies in their turn drive developments in science.
Despite their mutual dependence they are based on different values: science on evidence, rationality and the quest for deeper understanding; technology on the practical, the appropriate and the useful with an increasingly important emphasis on sustainability.
1. What is science and what is the scientific endeavour?1.1. The underlying assumption of science is that the universe has an independent, external reality
accessible to human senses and amenable to human reason.
1.2. Pure science aims to come to a common understanding of this external universe; applied science and engineering develop technologies that result in new processes and products. However, the boundaries between these fields are fuzzy.
1.3. Scientists use a wide variety of methodologies which, taken together, make up the process of science. There is no single “scientific method”. Scientists have used, and do use, different methods at different times to build up their knowledge and ideas but they have a common understanding about what makes them all scientifically valid.
1.4. This is an exciting and challenging adventure involving much creativity and imagination as well as exacting and detailed thinking and application. Scientists also have to be ready for unplanned, surprising, accidental discoveries. The history of science shows this is a very common occurrence.
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1.5. Many scientific discoveries have involved flashes of intuition and many have come from speculation or simple curiosity about particular phenomena.
1.6. Scientists have a common terminology and a common reasoning process, which involves using deductive and inductive logic through analogies and generalizations. They share mathematics, the language of science, as a powerful tool. Indeed, some scientific explanations only exist in mathematical form.
1.7. Scientists must adopt a skeptical attitude to claims. This does not mean that they disbelieve everything, but rather that they suspend judgment until they have a good reason to believe a claim to be true or false. Such reasons are based on evidence and argument.
1.8. The importance of evidence is a fundamental common understanding. Evidence can be obtained by observation or experiment. It can be gathered by human senses, primarily sight, but much modern science is carried out using instrumentation and sensors that can gather information remotely and automatically in areas that are too small, or too far away, or otherwise beyond human sense perception. Improved instrumentation and new technology have often been the drivers for new discoveries. Observations followed by analysis and deduction led to the Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe and to the theory of evolution by natural selection. In these cases, no controlled experiments were possible. Disciplines such as geology and astronomy rely strongly on collecting data in the field, but all disciplines use observation to collect evidence to some extent. Experimentation in a controlled environment, generally in laboratories, is the other way of obtaining evidence in the form of data, and there are many conventions and understandings as to how this is to be achieved.
1.9. This evidence is used to develop theories, generalize from data to form laws and propose hypotheses. These theories and hypotheses are used to make predictions that can be tested. In this way theories can be supported or opposed and can be modified or replaced by new theories.
1.10. Models, some simple, some very complex, based on theoretical understanding, are developed to explain processes that may not be observable. Computer-based mathematical models are used to make testable predictions, which can be especially useful when experimentation is not possible. Models tested against experiments or data from observations may prove inadequate, in which case they may be modified or replaced by new models.
1.11. The outcomes of experiments, the insights provided by modelling and observations of the natural world may be used as further evidence for a claim.
1.12. The growth in computing power has made modelling much more powerful. Models, usually mathematical, are now used to derive new understandings when no experiments are possible (and sometimes when they are). This dynamic modelling of complex situations involving large amounts of data, a large number of variables and complex and lengthy calculations is only possible as a result of increased computing power. Modelling of the Earth’s climate, for example, is used to predict or make a range of projections of future climatic conditions. A range of different models have been developed in this field and results from different models have been compared to see which models are most accurate. Models can sometimes be tested by using data from the past and used to see if they can predict the present situation. If a model passes this test, we gain confidence in its accuracy.
1.13. Both the ideas and the processes of science can only occur in a human context. Science is carried out by a community of people from a wide variety of backgrounds and traditions, and this has clearly influenced the way science has proceeded at different times. It is important to understand, however, that to do science is to be involved in a community of inquiry with certain common principles, methodologies, understandings and processes.
Nature of science
Chemistry guide8
2. The understanding of science2.1. Theories, laws and hypotheses are concepts used by scientists. Though these concepts are connected,
there is no progression from one to the other. These words have a special meaning in science and it is important to distinguish these from their everyday use.
2.2. Theories are themselves integrated, comprehensive models of how the universe, or parts of it, work. A theory can incorporate facts and laws and tested hypotheses. Predictions can be made from the theories and these can be tested in experiments or by careful observations. Examples are the germ theory of disease or atomic theory.
2.3. Theories generally accommodate the assumptions and premises of other theories, creating a consistent understanding across a range of phenomena and disciplines. Occasionally, however, a new theory will radically change how essential concepts are understood or framed, impacting other theories and causing what is sometimes called a “paradigm shift” in science. One of the most famous paradigm shifts in science occurred when our idea of time changed from an absolute frame of reference to an observer-dependent frame of reference within Einstein’s theory of relativity. Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection also changed our understanding of life on Earth.
2.4. Laws are descriptive, normative statements derived from observations of regular patterns of behaviour. They are generally mathematical in form and can be used to calculate outcomes and to make predictions. Like theories and hypotheses, laws cannot be proven. Scientific laws may have exceptions and may be modified or rejected based on new evidence. Laws do not necessarily explain a phenomenon. For example, Newton’s law of universal gravitation tells us that the force between two masses is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them, and allows us to calculate the force between masses at any distance apart, but it does not explain why masses attract each other. Also, note that the term law has been used in different ways in science, and whether a particular idea is called a law may be partly a result of the discipline and time period at which it was developed.
2.5. Scientists sometimes form hypotheses—explanatory statements about the world that could be true or false, and which often suggest a causal relationship or a correlation between factors. Hypotheses can be tested by both experiments and observations of the natural world and can be supported or opposed.
2.6. To be scientific, an idea (for example, a theory or hypothesis) must focus on the natural world and natural explanations and must be testable. Scientists strive to develop hypotheses and theories that are compatible with accepted principles and that simplify and unify existing ideas.
2.7. The principle of Occam’s razor is used as a guide to developing a theory. The theory should be as simple as possible while maximizing explanatory power.
2.8. The ideas of correlation and cause are very important in science. A correlation is a statistical link or association between one variable and another. A correlation can be positive or negative and a correlation coefficient can be calculated that will have a value between +1, 0 and -1. A strong correlation (positive or negative) between one factor and another suggests some sort of causal relationship between the two factors but more evidence is usually required before scientists accept the idea of a causal relationship. To establish a causal relationship, ie one factor causing another, scientists need to have a plausible scientific mechanism linking the factors. This strengthens the case that one causes the other, eg smoking and lung cancer. This mechanism can be tested in experiments.
2.9. The ideal situation is to investigate the relationship between one factor and another while controlling all other factors in an experimental setting; however, this is often impossible and scientists, especially in biology and medicine, use sampling, cohort studies and case control studies to strengthen their understanding of causation when experiments (such as double blind tests and clinical trials) are not possible. Epidemiology in the field of medicine involves the statistical analysis of data to discover possible correlations when little established scientific knowledge is available or the circumstances are too difficult to control entirely. Here, as in other fields, mathematical analysis of probability also plays a role.
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3. The objectivity of science3.1. Data is the lifeblood of scientists and may be qualitative or quantitative. It can be obtained purely from
observations or from specifically designed experiments, remotely using electronic sensors or by direct measurement. The best data for making accurate and precise descriptions and predictions is often quantitative and amenable to mathematical analysis. Scientists analyse data and look for patterns, trends and discrepancies, attempting to discover relationships and establish causal links. This is not always possible, so identifying and classifying observations and artefacts (eg types of galaxies or fossils) is still an important aspect of scientific work.
3.2. Taking repeated measurements and large numbers of readings can improve reliability in data collection. Data can be presented in a variety of formats such as linear and logarithmic graphs that can be analysed for, say, direct or inverse proportion or for power relationships.
3.3. Scientists need to be aware of random errors and systematic errors, and use techniques such as error bars and lines of best fit on graphs to portray the data as realistically and honestly as possible. There is a need to consider whether outlying data points should be discarded or not.
3.4. Scientists need to understand the difference between errors and uncertainties, accuracy and precision, and need to understand and use the mathematical ideas of average, mean, mode, median, etc. Statistical methods such as standard deviation and chi-squared tests are often used. It is important to be able to assess how accurate a result is. A key part of the training and skill of scientists is in being able to decide which technique is appropriate in different circumstances.
3.5. It is also very important for scientists to be aware of the cognitive biases that may impact experimental design and interpretation. The confirmation bias, for example, is a well-documented cognitive bias that urges us to find reasons to reject data that is unexpected or does not conform to our expectations or desires, and to perhaps too readily accept data that agrees with these expectations or desires. The processes and methodologies of science are largely designed to account for these biases. However, care must always be taken to avoid succumbing to them.
3.6. Although scientists cannot ever be certain that a result or finding is correct, we know that some scientific results are very close to certainty. Scientists often speak of “levels of confidence” when discussing outcomes. The discovery of the existence of a Higgs boson is such an example of a “level of confidence”. This particle may never be directly observable, but to establish its “existence” particle physicists had to pass the self-imposed definition of what can be regarded as a discovery—the 5-sigma “level of certainty”—or about a 0.00003% chance that the effect is not real based on experimental evidence.
3.7. In recent decades, the growth in computing power, sensor technology and networks has allowed scientists to collect large amounts of data. Streams of data are downloaded continuously from many sources such as remote sensing satellites and space probes and large amounts of data are generated in gene sequencing machines. Experiments in CERN’s Large Hadron Collider regularly produce 23 petabytes of data per second, which is equivalent to 13.3 years of high definition TV content per second.
3.8. Research involves analysing large amounts of this data, stored in databases, looking for patterns and unique events. This has to be done using software which is generally written by the scientists involved. The data and the software may not be published with the scientific results but would be made generally available to other researchers.
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4. The human face of science4.1. Science is highly collaborative and the scientific community is composed of people working in science,
engineering and technology. It is common to work in teams from many disciplines so that different areas of expertise and specializations can contribute to a common goal that is beyond one scientific field. It is also the case that how a problem is framed in the paradigm of one discipline might limit possible solutions, so framing problems using a variety of perspectives, in which new solutions are possible, can be extremely useful.
4.2. Teamwork of this sort takes place with the common understanding that science should be open-minded and independent of religion, culture, politics, nationality, age and gender. Science involves the free global interchange of information and ideas. Of course, individual scientists are human and may have biases and prejudices, but the institutions, practices and methodologies of science help keep the scientific endeavour as a whole unbiased.
4.3. As well as collaborating on the exchange of results, scientists work on a daily basis in collaborative groups on a small and large scale within and between disciplines, laboratories, organizations and countries, facilitated even more by virtual communication. Examples of large-scale collaboration include:
– The Manhattan project, the aim of which was to build and test an atomic bomb. It eventually employed more than 130,000 people and resulted in the creation of multiple production and research sites that operated in secret, culminating in the dropping of two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
– The Human Genome Project (HGP), which was an international scientific research project set up to map the human genome. The $3-billion project beginning in 1990 produced a draft of the genome in 2000. The sequence of the DNA is stored in databases available to anyone on the internet.
– The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), organized under the auspices of The United Nations, is officially composed of about 2,500 scientists. They produce reports summarizing the work of many more scientists from all around the world.
– CERN, the European Organization for Nuclear Research, an international organization set up in 1954, is the world’s largest particle physics laboratory. The laboratory, situated in Geneva, employs about 2,400 people and shares results with 10,000 scientists and engineers covering over 100 nationalities from 600 or more universities and research facilities.
All the above examples are controversial to some degree and have aroused emotions amongst scientists and the public.
4.4. Scientists spend a considerable amount of time reading the published results of other scientists. They publish their own results in scientific journals after a process called peer review. This is when the work of a scientist or, more usually, a team of scientists is anonymously and independently reviewed by several scientists working in the same field who decide if the research methodologies are sound and if the work represents a new contribution to knowledge in that field. They also attend conferences to make presentations and display posters of their work. Publication of peer-reviewed journals on the internet has increased the efficiency with which the scientific literature can be searched and accessed. There are a large number of national and international organizations for scientists working in specialized areas within subjects.
4.5. Scientists often work in areas, or produce findings, that have significant ethical and political implications. These areas include cloning, genetic engineering of food and organisms, stem cell and reproductive technologies, nuclear power, weapons development (nuclear, chemical and biological), transplantation of tissue and organs and in areas that involve testing on animals (see IB animal experimentation policy). There are also questions involving intellectual property rights and
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the free exchange of information that may impact significantly on a society. Science is undertaken in universities, commercial companies, government organizations, defence agencies and international organizations. Questions of patents and intellectual property rights arise when work is done in a protected environment.
4.6. The integrity and honest representation of data is paramount in science—results should not be fixed or manipulated or doctored. To help ensure academic honesty and guard against plagiarism, all sources are quoted and appropriate acknowledgment made of help or support. Peer review and the scrutiny and skepticism of the scientific community also help achieve these goals.
4.7. All science has to be funded and the source of the funding is crucial in decisions regarding the type of research to be conducted. Funding from governments and charitable foundations is sometimes for pure research with no obvious direct benefit to anyone whereas funding from private companies is often for applied research to produce a particular product or technology. Political and economic factors often determine the nature and extent of the funding. Scientists often have to spend time applying for research grants and have to make a case for what they want to research.
4.8. Science has been used to solve many problems and improve man’s lot, but it has also been used in morally questionable ways and in ways that inadvertently caused problems. Advances in sanitation, clean water supplies and hygiene led to significant decreases in death rates but without compensating decreases in birth rates this led to huge population increases with all the problems of resources, energy and food supplies that entails. Ethical discussions, risk-benefit analyses, risk assessment and the precautionary principle are all parts of the scientific way of addressing the common good.
5. Scientific literacy and the public understanding of science5.1. An understanding of the nature of science is vital when society needs to make decisions involving
scientific findings and issues. How does the public judge? It may not be possible to make judgments based on the public’s direct understanding of a science, but important questions can be asked about whether scientific processes were followed and scientists have a role in answering such questions.
5.2. As experts in their particular fields, scientists are well placed to explain to the public their issues and findings. Outside their specializations, they may be no more qualified than ordinary citizens to advise others on scientific issues, although their understanding of the processes of science can help them to make personal decisions and to educate the public as to whether claims are scientifically credible.
5.3. As well as comprising knowledge of how scientists work and think scientific literacy involves being aware of faulty reasoning. There are many cognitive biases/fallacies of reasoning to which people are susceptible (including scientists) and these need to be corrected whenever possible. Examples of these are the confirmation bias, hasty generalizations, post hoc ergo propter hoc (false cause), the straw man fallacy, redefinition (moving the goal posts), the appeal to tradition, false authority and the accumulation of anecdotes being regarded as evidence.
5.4. When such biases and fallacies are not properly managed or corrected, or when the processes and checks and balances of science are ignored or misapplied, the result is pseudoscience. Pseudoscience is the term applied to those beliefs and practices which claim to be scientific but do not meet or follow the standards of proper scientific methodologies, ie they lack supporting evidence or a theoretical framework, are not always testable and hence falsifiable, are expressed in a non-rigorous or unclear manner and often fail to be supported by scientific testing.
5.5. Another key issue is the use of appropriate terminology. Words that scientists agree on as being scientific terms will often have a different meaning in everyday life and scientific discourse with the public needs to take this into account. For example, a theory in everyday use means a hunch or
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speculation, but in science an accepted theory is a scientific idea that has produced predictions that have been thoroughly tested in many different ways. An aerosol is just a spray can to the general public, but in science it is a suspension of solid or liquid particles in a gas.
5.6. Whatever the field of science—whether it is in pure research, applied research or in engineering new technology—there is boundless scope for creative and imaginative thinking. Science has achieved a great deal but there are many, many unanswered questions to challenge future scientists.
The flow chart below is part of an interactive flow chart showing the scientific process of inquiry in practice. The interactive version can be found at “How science works: The flowchart”. Understanding Science. University of California Museum of Paleontology. 1 February 2013 <http://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/scienceflowchart>.
Supportive, contradictory, surprisingor inconclusive data may...
Developtechnology
Addresssocietal issues
Satisfycuriosity
Solve everydayproblems
Buildknowledge
Informpolicy
Makingobservations
Askingquestions
Findinginspiration
Exploring theliterature
Sharing dataand ideas
...oppose ahypothesis.
Discussion withcolleagues
Feedback andpeer review
Coming upwith new
questions/ideas
Publication
Replication
Theorybuilding
EXPLORATIONAND DISCOVERY
COMMUNITYANALYSIS AND
FEEDBACK
BENEFITS ANDOUTCOMES
TESTINGIDEAS
Gathering data
Interpreting data
New technology
Curiosity
Practical problem
Personal motivation
Surprising observation
Serendipity
Hypotheses Expectedresults/observations
Actualresults/observations
...support ahypothesis.
... inspirerevised/newhypothesis.
... inspirerevised
assumptions.
How science works
www.understandingscience.org© 2008 The University of California Museum of Paleontology, Berkeley, and the Regents of the University of California
Figure 2Pathways to scientific discovery
Chemistry guide 1313
Introduction
Nature of chemistry
Chemistry is an experimental science that combines academic study with the acquisition of practical and investigational skills. It is often called the central science, as chemical principles underpin both the physical environment in which we live and all biological systems. Apart from being a subject worthy of study in its own right, chemistry is a prerequisite for many other courses in higher education, such as medicine, biological science and environmental science, and serves as useful preparation for employment.
Earth, water, air and fire are often said to be the four classical elements. They have connections with Hinduism and Buddhism. The Greek philosopher Plato was the first to call these entities elements. The study of chemistry has changed dramatically from its origins in the early days of alchemists, who had as their quest the transmutation of common metals into gold. Although today alchemists are not regarded as being true scientists, modern chemistry has the study of alchemy as its roots. Alchemists were among the first to develop strict experimentation processes and laboratory techniques. Robert Boyle, often credited with being the father of modern chemistry, began experimenting as an alchemist.
Despite the exciting and extraordinary development of ideas throughout the history of chemistry, certain things have remained unchanged. Observations remain essential at the very core of chemistry, and this sometimes requires decisions about what to look for. The scientific processes carried out by the most eminent scientists in the past are the same ones followed by working chemists today and, crucially, are also accessible to students in schools. The body of scientific knowledge has grown in size and complexity, and the tools and skills of theoretical and experimental chemistry have become so specialized, that it is difficult (if not impossible) to be highly proficient in both areas. While students should be aware of this, they should also know that the free and rapid interplay of theoretical ideas and experimental results in the public scientific literature maintains the crucial link between these fields.
The Diploma Programme chemistry course includes the essential principles of the subject but also, through selection of an option, allows teachers some flexibility to tailor the course to meet the needs of their students. The course is available at both standard level (SL) and higher level (HL), and therefore accommodates students who wish to study chemistry as their major subject in higher education and those who do not.
At the school level both theory and experiments should be undertaken by all students. They should complement one another naturally, as they do in the wider scientific community. The Diploma Programme chemistry course allows students to develop traditional practical skills and techniques and to increase facility in the use of mathematics, which is the language of science. It also allows students to develop interpersonal skills, and digital technology skills, which are essential in 21st century scientific endeavour and are important life-enhancing, transferable skills in their own right.
Teaching approachThere are a variety of approaches to the teaching of chemistry. By its very nature, chemistry lends itself to an experimental approach, and it is expected that this will be reflected throughout the course.
The order in which the syllabus is arranged is not the order in which it should be taught, and it is up to individual teachers to decide on an arrangement that suits their circumstances. Sections of the option material may be taught within the core or the additional higher level (AHL) material if desired, or the option material can be taught as a separate unit.
Nature of chemistry
Chemistry guide14
Science and the international dimensionScience itself is an international endeavour—the exchange of information and ideas across national boundaries has been essential to the progress of science. This exchange is not a new phenomenon but it has accelerated in recent times with the development of information and communication technologies. Indeed, the idea that science is a Western invention is a myth—many of the foundations of modern-day science were laid many centuries before by Arabic, Indian and Chinese civilizations, among others. Teachers are encouraged to emphasize this contribution in their teaching of various topics, perhaps through the use of timeline websites. The scientific method in its widest sense, with its emphasis on peer review, open-mindedness and freedom of thought, transcends politics, religion, gender and nationality. Where appropriate within certain topics, the syllabus details sections in the group 4 guides contain links illustrating the international aspects of science.
On an organizational level, many international bodies now exist to promote science. United Nations bodies such as UNESCO, UNEP and WMO, where science plays a prominent part, are well known, but in addition there are hundreds of international bodies representing every branch of science. The facilities for large-scale research in, for example, particle physics and the Human Genome Project are expensive, and only joint ventures involving funding from many countries allow this to take place. The data from such research is shared by scientists worldwide. Group 4 teachers and students are encouraged to access the extensive websites and databases of these international scientific organizations to enhance their appreciation of the international dimension.
Increasingly there is a recognition that many scientific problems are international in nature and this has led to a global approach to research in many areas. The reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change are a prime example of this. On a practical level, the group 4 project (which all science students must undertake) mirrors the work of real scientists by encouraging collaboration between schools across the regions.
The power of scientific knowledge to transform societies is unparalleled. It has the potential to produce great universal benefits, or to reinforce inequalities and cause harm to people and the environment. In line with the IB mission statement, group 4 students need to be aware of the moral responsibility of scientists to ensure that scientific knowledge and data are available to all countries on an equitable basis and that they have the scientific capacity to use this for developing sustainable societies.
Students’ attention should be drawn to sections of the syllabus with links to international-mindedness. Examples of issues relating to international-mindedness are given within sub-topics in the syllabus content. Teachers could also use resources found on the Global Engage website (http://globalengage.ibo.org).
Distinction between SL and HLGroup 4 students at standard level (SL) and higher level (HL) undertake a common core syllabus, a common internal assessment (IA) scheme and have some overlapping elements in the option studied. They are presented with a syllabus that encourages the development of certain skills, attributes and attitudes, as described in the “Assessment objectives” section of this guide.
While the skills and activities of group 4 science subjects are common to students at both SL and HL, students at HL are required to study some topics in greater depth, in the additional higher level (AHL) material and in the common options. The distinction between SL and HL is one of breadth and depth.
Nature of chemistry
Chemistry guide 15
Prior learningPast experience shows that students will be able to study a group 4 science subject at SL successfully with no background in, or previous knowledge of, science. Their approach to learning, characterized by the IB learner profile attributes, will be significant here.
However, for most students considering the study of a group 4 subject at HL, while there is no intention to restrict access to group 4 subjects, some previous exposure to formal science education would be necessary. Specific topic details are not specified but students who have undertaken the IB Middle Years Programme (MYP) or studied an equivalent national science qualification or a school-based science course would be well prepared for an HL subject.
Links to the Middle Years ProgrammeStudents who have undertaken the MYP science, design and mathematics courses will be well prepared for group 4 subjects. The alignment between MYP science and Diploma Programme group 4 courses allows for a smooth transition for students between programmes. The concurrent planning of the new group 4 courses and MYP: Next chapter (both launched in 2014) has helped develop a closer alignment.
Scientific inquiry is central to teaching and learning science in the MYP. It enables students to develop a way of thinking and a set of skills and processes that, while allowing them to acquire and use knowledge, equip them with the capabilities to tackle, with confidence, the internal assessment component of group 4 subjects. The vision of MYP sciences is to contribute to the development of students as 21st century learners. A holistic sciences programme allows students to develop and utilize a mixture of cognitive abilities, social skills, personal motivation, conceptual knowledge and problem-solving competencies within an inquiry-based learning environment (Rhoton 2010). Inquiry aims to support students’ understanding by providing them with opportunities to independently and collaboratively investigate relevant issues through both research and experimentation. This forms a firm base of scientific understanding with deep conceptual roots for students entering group 4 courses.
In the MYP, teachers make decisions about student achievement using their professional judgment, guided by criteria that are public, precise and known in advance, ensuring that assessment is transparent. The IB describes this approach as “criterion-related”—a philosophy of assessment that is neither “norm-referenced” (where students must be compared to each other and to an expected distribution of achievement) nor “criterion-referenced” (where students must master all strands of specific criteria at lower achievement levels before they can be considered to have achieved the next level). It is important to emphasize that the single most important aim of MYP assessment (consistent with the PYP and DP) is to support curricular goals and encourage appropriate student learning. Assessments are based upon evaluating course aims and objectives and, therefore, effective teaching to the course requirements also ensures effective teaching for formal assessment requirements. Students need to understand what the assessment expectations, standards and practices are and these should all be introduced early and naturally in teaching, as well as in class and homework activities. Experience with criterion-related assessment greatly assists students entering group 4 courses with understanding internal assessment requirements.
MYP science is a concept-driven curriculum, aimed at helping the learner construct meaning through improved critical thinking and the transfer of knowledge. At the top level are key concepts which are broad, organizing, powerful ideas that have relevance within the science course but also transcend it, having relevance in other subject groups. These key concepts facilitate both disciplinary and interdisciplinary learning as well as making connections with other subjects. While the key concepts provide breadth, the related concepts in MYP science add depth to the programme. The related concept can be considered to be the big idea of the unit which brings focus and depth and leads students towards the conceptual understanding.
Nature of chemistry
Chemistry guide16
Across the MYP, there are 16 key concepts, with the three highlighted below as the focus for MYP science.
The key concepts across the MYP curriculum
Aesthetics Change Communication Communities
Connections Creativity Culture Development
Form Global interactions Identity Logic
Perspective Relationships SystemsTime, place and space
MYP students may in addition undertake an optional onscreen concept-based assessment as further preparation for Diploma Programme science courses.
Science and theory of knowledgeThe theory of knowledge (TOK) course (first assessment 2015) engages students in reflection on the nature of knowledge and on how we know what we claim to know. The course identifies eight ways of knowing: reason, emotion, language, sense perception, intuition, imagination, faith and memory. Students explore these means of producing knowledge within the context of various areas of knowledge: the natural sciences, the social sciences, the arts, ethics, history, mathematics, religious knowledge systems and indigenous knowledge systems. The course also requires students to make comparisons between the different areas of knowledge, reflecting on how knowledge is arrived at in the various disciplines, what the disciplines have in common, and the differences between them.
TOK lessons can support students in their study of science, just as the study of science can support students in their TOK course. TOK provides a space for students to engage in stimulating wider discussions about questions such as what it means for a discipline to be a science, or whether there should be ethical constraints on the pursuit of scientific knowledge. It also provides an opportunity for students to reflect on the methodologies of science, and how these compare to the methodologies of other areas of knowledge. It is now widely accepted that there is no one scientific method, in the strict Popperian sense. Instead, the sciences utilize a variety of approaches in order to produce explanations for the behaviour of the natural world. The different scientific disciplines share a common focus on utilizing inductive and deductive reasoning, on the importance of evidence, and so on. Students are encouraged to compare and contrast these methods with the methods found in, for example, the arts or in history.
In this way there are rich opportunities for students to make links between their science and TOK courses. One way in which science teachers can help students to make these links to TOK is by drawing students’ attention to knowledge questions which arise from their subject content. Knowledge questions are open-ended questions about knowledge, and include questions such as:
• How do we distinguish science from pseudoscience?
• When performing experiments, what is the relationship between a scientist’s expectation and their perception?
• How does scientific knowledge progress?
• What is the role of imagination and intuition in the sciences?
• What are the similarities and differences in methods in the natural sciences and the human sciences?
Nature of chemistry
Chemistry guide 17
Examples of relevant knowledge questions are provided throughout this guide within the sub-topics in the syllabus content. Teachers can also find suggestions of interesting knowledge questions for discussion in the “Areas of knowledge” and “Knowledge frameworks” sections of the TOK guide. Students should be encouraged to raise and discuss such knowledge questions in both their science and TOK classes.
Chemistry guide1818
Introduction
Aims
Group 4 aimsThrough studying biology, chemistry or physics, students should become aware of how scientists work and communicate with each other. While the scientific method may take on a wide variety of forms, it is the emphasis on a practical approach through experimental work that characterizes these subjects.
The aims enable students, through the overarching theme of the Nature of science, to:
1. appreciate scientific study and creativity within a global context through stimulating and challenging opportunities
2. acquire a body of knowledge, methods and techniques that characterize science and technology
3. apply and use a body of knowledge, methods and techniques that characterize science and technology
4. develop an ability to analyse, evaluate and synthesize scientific information
5. develop a critical awareness of the need for, and the value of, effective collaboration and communication during scientific activities
6. develop experimental and investigative scientific skills including the use of current technologies
7. develop and apply 21st century communication skills in the study of science
8. become critically aware, as global citizens, of the ethical implications of using science and technology
9. develop an appreciation of the possibilities and limitations of science and technology
10. develop an understanding of the relationships between scientific disciplines and their influence on other areas of knowledge.
Chemistry guide 1919
Introduction
Assessment objectives
The assessment objectives for biology, chemistry and physics reflect those parts of the aims that will be formally assessed either internally or externally. These assessments will centre upon the nature of science. It is the intention of these courses that students are able to fulfill the following assessment objectives:
1. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of:
a. facts, concepts, and terminology
b. methodologies and techniques
c. communicating scientific information.
2. Apply:
a. facts, concepts, and terminology
b. methodologies and techniques
c. methods of communicating scientific information.
3. Formulate, analyse and evaluate:
a. hypotheses, research questions and predictions
b. methodologies and techniques
c. primary and secondary data
d. scientific explanations.
4. Demonstrate the appropriate research, experimental, and personal skills necessary to carry out insightful and ethical investigations.
Chemistry guide2020
Syllabus
Syllabus outline
Syllabus component Recommended teaching hours
SL HL
Core1. Stoichiometric relationships
2. Atomic structure
3. Periodicity
4. Chemical bonding and structure
5. Energetics/thermochemistry
6. Chemical kinetics
7. Equilibrium
8. Acids and bases
9. Redox processes
10. Organic chemistry
11. Measurement and data processing
9513.5
6
6
13.5
9
7
4.5
6.5
8
11
10
Additional higher level (AHL)12. Atomic structure
13. The periodic table—the transition metals
14. Chemical bonding and structure
15. Energetics/thermochemistry
16. Chemical kinetics
17. Equilibrium
18. Acids and bases
19. Redox processes
20. Organic chemistry
21. Measurement and analysis
602
4
7
7
6
4
10
6
12
2
OptionA. Materials
B. Biochemistry
C. Energy
D. Medicinal chemistry
1515
15
15
15
2525
25
25
25
Syllabus outline
Chemistry guide 21
Syllabus component Recommended teaching hours
SL HL
Practical scheme of workPractical activities
Individual investigation (internal assessment—IA)
Group 4 project
4020
10
10
6040
10
10
Total teaching hours 150 240
The recommended teaching time is 240 hours to complete HL courses and 150 hours to complete SL courses as stated in the document General regulations: Diploma Programme (2011) (page 4, Article 8.2).
Chemistry guide2222
Syllabus
Approaches to the teaching of chemistry
Format of the syllabusThe format of the syllabus section of the group 4 guides is the same for each subject physics, chemistry and biology. This new structure gives prominence and focus to the teaching and learning aspects.
Topics or optionsTopics are numbered and options are indicated by a letter. For example, “Topic 6: Chemical kinetics”, or “Option D: Medicinal chemistry”.
Sub-topicsSub-topics are numbered as follows, “6.1 Collision theory and rates of reaction”. Further information and guidance about possible teaching times are contained in the teacher support materials.
Each sub-topic begins with an essential idea. The essential idea is an enduring interpretation that is considered part of the public understanding of science. This is followed by a section on the “Nature of science”. This gives specific examples in context illustrating some aspects of the nature of science. These are linked directly to specific references in the “Nature of Science” section of the guide to support teachers in their understanding of the general theme to be addressed.
Under the overarching Nature of Science theme there are two columns. The f irst column lists “Understandings”, which are the main general ideas to be taught. There follows an “Applications and skills” section that outlines the specific applications and skills to be developed from the understandings. A “Guidance” section gives information about the limits and constraints and the depth of treatment required for teachers and examiners. The contents of the “Nature of Science” section above the two columns and contents of the first column are all legitimate items for assessment. In addition, some assessment of international-mindedness in science, from the content of the second column, will take place as in the previous course.
The second column gives suggestions to teachers about relevant references to international-mindedness. It also gives examples of TOK knowledge questions (see Theory of knowledge guide published 2013) that can be used to focus students’ thoughts on the preparation of the TOK prescribed essay. The “Links” section may link the sub-topic to other parts of the subject syllabus, to other Diploma Programme subject guides or to real-world applications. Finally, the “Aims” section refers to how specific group 4 aims are being addressed in the sub-topic.
Approaches to the teaching of chemistry
Chemistry guide 23
Format of the guideTopic 1: <Title>
Essential idea: This lists the essential idea for each sub-topic.
1.1 Sub-topic
Nature of Science: Relates the sub-topic to the overarching theme of Nature of Science.
Understandings:
• This section will provide specifics of the content requirements for each sub-topic.
Applications and skills:
• The content of this section gives details of how students are to apply the understandings. For example, these applications could involve demonstrating mathematical calculations or practical skills.
Guidance:
• This section will provide specifics and give constraints to the requirements for the understandings and applications and skills.
• This section will also include links to specific sections in the data booklet.
International-mindedness:
• Ideas that teachers can easily integrate into the delivery of their lessons.
Theory of knowledge:
• Examples of TOK knowledge questions.
Utilization: (including syllabus and cross-curricular links)
• Links to other topics within the Chemistry guide, to a variety of real-world applications and to other Diploma Programme courses.
Aims:
• Links to the group 4 subject aims.
Group 4 experimental skillsI hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand.
(Confucius)
Integral to the experience of students in any of the group 4 courses is their experience in the classroom, laboratory, or in the field. Practical activities allow students to interact directly with natural phenomena and secondary data sources. These experiences provide the students with the opportunity to design investigations, collect data, develop manipulative skills, analyse results, collaborate with peers and evaluate and communicate their findings. Experiments can be used to introduce a topic, investigate a phenomenon or allow students to consider and examine questions and curiosities.
By providing students with the opportunity for hands-on experimentation, they are carrying out some of the same processes that scientists undertake. Experimentation allows students to experience the nature of scientific thought and investigation. All scientific theories and laws begin with observations.
It is important that students are involved in an inquiry-based practical programme that allows for the development of scientific inquiry. It is not enough for students just to be able to follow directions and to simply replicate a given experimental procedure; they must be provided with the opportunities for genuine inquiry. Developing scientific inquiry skills will give students the ability to construct an explanation based on reliable evidence and logical reasoning. Once developed, these higher order thinking skills will enable students to be lifelong learners and scientifically literate.
Approaches to the teaching of chemistry
Chemistry guide24
A school’s practical scheme of work should allow students to experience the full breadth and depth of the course including the option. This practical scheme of work must also prepare students to undertake the individual investigation that is required for the internal assessment. The development of students’ manipulative skills should involve them being able to follow instructions accurately and demonstrate the safe, competent and methodical use of a range of techniques and equipment.
The “Applications and skills” section of the syllabus lists specific lab skills, techniques and experiments that students must experience at some point during their study of their group 4 course. Other recommended lab skills, techniques and experiments are listed in the “Aims” section of the subject-specific syllabus pages. Aim 6 of the group 4 subjects directly relates to the development of experimental and investigative skills.
Mathematical requirementsAll Diploma Programme chemistry students should be able to:
• perform the basic arithmetic functions: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
• carry out calculations involving means, decimals, fractions, percentages, ratios, approximations and reciprocals
• use standard notation (for example, 3.6 × 106)
• use direct and inverse proportion
• solve simple algebraic equations
• plot graphs (with suitable scales and axes) including two variables that show linear and non-linear relationships
• interpret graphs, including the significance of gradients, changes in gradients, intercepts and areas
• interpret data presented in various forms (for example, bar charts, histograms and pie charts).
Data bookletThe data booklet must be viewed as an integral part of the chemistry programme. It should be used throughout the delivery of the course and not just reserved for use during the external assessments. The data booklet contains useful equations, constants, data, structural formulas and tables of information. In the “Syllabus content” section of the subject guide, explicit links provide direct references to information in the data booklet which will allow students to become familiar with its use and contents. It is suggested that the data booklet be used for all in-class study and school-based assessments.
For both SL and HL external assessments, the data booklet cannot be used for paper 1, but candidates are provided with a copy of the periodic table given in section 6 of that booklet. Clean copies of the data booklet must be made available to both SL and HL candidates for papers 2 and 3.
Use of information communication technology The use of information communication technology (ICT) is encouraged throughout all aspects of the course in relation to both the practical programme and day-to-day classroom activities. Teachers should make use of the ICT pages of the teacher support materials.
Approaches to the teaching of chemistry
Chemistry guide 25
Planning your courseThe syllabus as provided in the subject guide is not intended to be a teaching order. Instead it provides detail of what must be covered by the end of the course. A school should develop a scheme of work that best works for its students. For example, the scheme of work could be developed to match available resources, to take into account student prior learning and experience, or in conjunction with other local requirements.
HL teachers may choose to teach the core and AHL topics at the same time or teach them in a spiral fashion, by teaching the core topics in year one of the course and revisiting the core topics through the delivery of the AHL topics in year two of the course. The option topic could be taught as a stand-alone topic or could be integrated into the teaching of the core and/or AHL topics.
However the course is planned, adequate time must be provided for examination revision. Time must also be given for students to reflect on their learning experience and their growth as learners.
The IB learner profileThe chemistry course contributes to the development of attributes of the IB learner profile. By following the course, students will have engaged with the attributes of the IB learner profile. For example, the requirements of the internal assessment provide opportunities for students to develop every aspect of the profile. For each attribute of the learner profile, a number of references from the Group 4 courses are given below.
Learner profile attribute
Biology, chemistry and physics
Inquirers Aims 2 and 6
Practical work and internal assessment
Knowledgeable Aims 1 and 10, international-mindedness links
Practical work and internal assessment
Thinkers Aims 3 and 4, Theory of knowledge links
Practical work and internal assessment
Communicators Aims 5 and 7, external assessment
Practical work and internal assessment
Principled Aims 8 and 9
Practical work and internal assessment. Ethical behaviour/practice (Ethical practice poster, IB animal experimentation policy), academic honesty
Open-minded Aims 8 and 9, International-mindedness links
Practical work and internal assessment, the group 4 project
Caring Aims 8 and 9
Practical work and internal assessment, the group 4 project, ethical behaviour/practice (Ethical practice poster, IB animal experimentation policy)
Approaches to the teaching of chemistry
Chemistry guide26
Learner profile attribute
Biology, chemistry and physics
Risk-takers Aims 1 and 6
Practical work and internal assessment, the group 4 project
Balanced Aims 8 and 10
Practical work and internal assessment, the group 4 project and fieldwork
Reflective Aims 5 and 9
Practical work and internal assessment, the group 4 project
Chemistry guide 2727
Syllabus
Syllabus content
Recommended teaching hours
Core 95 hours
Topic 1: Stoichiometric relationships 13.5
1.1 Introduction to the particulate nature of matter and chemical change
1.2 The mole concept
1.3 Reacting masses and volumes
Topic 2: Atomic structure 6
2.1 The nuclear atom
2.2 Electron configuration
Topic 3: Periodicity 6
3.1 Periodic table
3.2 Periodic trends
Topic 4: Chemical bonding and structure 13.5
4.1 Ionic bonding and structure
4.2 Covalent bonding
4.3 Covalent structures
4.4 Intermolecular forces
4.5 Metallic bonding
Topic 5: Energetics/thermochemistry 9
5.1 Measuring energy changes
5.2 Hess’s Law
5.3 Bond enthalpies
Topic 6: Chemical kinetics 7
6.1 Collision theory and rates of reaction
Topic 7: Equilibrium 4.5
7.1 Equilibrium
Syllabus content
Chemistry guide28
Recommended teaching hours
Topic 8: Acids and bases 6.5
8.1 Theories of acids and bases
8.2 Properties of acids and bases
8.3 The pH scale
8.4 Strong and weak acids and bases
8.5 Acid deposition
Topic 9: Redox processes 8
9.1 Oxidation and reduction
9.2 Electrochemical cells
Topic 10: Organic chemistry 11
10.1 Fundamentals of organic chemistry
10.2 Functional group chemistry
Topic 11: Measurement and data processing 10
11.1 Uncertainties and errors in measurement and results
11.2 Graphical techniques
11.3 Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds
Additional higher level (AHL) 60 hours
Topic 12: Atomic structure 2
12.1 Electrons in atoms
Topic 13: The periodic table—the transition metals 4
13.1 First-row d-block elements
13.2 Coloured complexes
Topic 14: Chemical bonding and structure 7
14.1 Covalent bonding and electron domain and molecular geometries
14.2 Hybridization
Topic 15: Energetics/thermochemistry 7
15.1 Energy cycles
15.2 Entropy and spontaneity
Syllabus content
Chemistry guide 29
Recommended teaching hours
Topic 16: Chemical kinetics 6
16.1 Rate expression and reaction mechanism
16.2 Activation energy
Topic 17: Equilibrium 4
17.1 The equilibrium law
Topic 18: Acids and bases 10
18.1 Lewis acids and bases
18.2 Calculations involving acids and bases
18.3 pH curves
Topic 19: Redox processes 6
19.1 Electrochemical cells
Topic 20: Organic chemistry 12
20.1 Types of organic reactions
20.2 Synthetic routes
20.3 Stereoisomerism
Topic 21: Measurement and analysis 2
21.1 Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds
Options 15 hours (SL)/25 hours (HL)A: Materials Core topicsA.1 Materials science introduction
A.2 Metals and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectroscopy
A.3 Catalysts
A.4 Liquid crystals
A.5 Polymers
A.6 Nanotechnology
A.7 Environmental impact—plastics
Syllabus content
Chemistry guide30
Additional higher level topicsA.8 Superconducting metals and X-ray crystallography (HL only)
A.9 Condensation polymers (HL only)
A.10 Environmental impact—heavy metals (HL only)
B: BiochemistryCore topicsB.1 Introduction to biochemistry
B.2 Proteins and enzymes
B.3 Lipids
B.4 Carbohydrates
B.5 Vitamins
B.6 Biochemistry and the environment
Additional higher level topicsB.7 Proteins and enzymes (HL only)
B.8 Nucleic acids (HL only)
B.9 Biological pigments (HL only)
B.10 Stereochemistry in biomolecules (HL only)
C: EnergyCore topicsC.1 Energy sources
C.2 Fossil fuels
C.3 Nuclear fusion and fission
C.4 Solar energy
C.5 Environmental impact—global warming
Additional higher level topicsC.6 Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries and fuel cells (HL only)
C.7 Nuclear fusion and nuclear fission (HL only)
C.8 Photovoltaic and dye-sensitized solar cells (HL only)
D: Medicinal chemistryCore topicsD.1 Pharmaceutical products and drug action
D.2 Aspirin and penicillin
D.3 Opiates
D.4 pH regulation of the stomach
Syllabus content
Chemistry guide 31
D.5 Anti-viral medications
D.6 Environmental impact of some medications
Additional higher level topicsD.7 Taxol—a chiral auxiliary case study (HL only)
D.8 Nuclear medicine (HL only)
D.9 Drug detection and analysis (HL only)
Topic 1: Stoichiometric relationships
Chemistry guide32
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ypes
of r
eact
ions
.
• N
ames
of t
he c
hang
es o
f sta
te—
mel
ting,
free
zing
, vap
oriz
atio
n (e
vapo
ratio
n an
d bo
iling
), co
nden
satio
n, s
ublim
atio
n an
d de
posi
tion—
shou
ld b
e co
vere
d.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• C
hem
ical
sym
bols
and
equ
atio
ns a
re in
tern
atio
nal,
enab
ling
effe
ctiv
e co
mm
unic
atio
n am
ongs
t sci
entis
ts w
ithou
t nee
d fo
r tra
nsla
tion.
• IU
PA
C (I
nter
natio
nal U
nion
of P
ure
and
App
lied
Che
mis
try) i
s th
e w
orld
au
thor
ity in
dev
elop
ing
stan
dard
ized
nom
encl
atur
e fo
r bot
h or
gani
c an
d in
orga
nic
com
poun
ds.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• C
hem
ical
equ
atio
ns a
re th
e “la
ngua
ge” o
f che
mis
try. H
ow d
oes
the
use
of
univ
ersa
l lan
guag
es h
elp
and
hind
er th
e pu
rsui
t of k
now
ledg
e?
• Th
e di
scov
ery
of o
xyge
n, w
hich
ove
rturn
ed th
e ph
logi
ston
theo
ry o
f co
mbu
stio
n, is
an
exam
ple
of a
par
adig
m s
hift.
How
doe
s sc
ient
ific
know
ledg
e pr
ogre
ss?
Util
izat
ion:
• R
efrig
erat
ion
and
how
it is
rela
ted
to th
e ch
ange
s of
sta
te.
• A
tom
eco
nom
y.
• Fr
eeze
-dry
ing
of fo
ods.
Core Topi
c 1:
Sto
ichi
omet
ric re
latio
nshi
ps
13.5
hou
rs
Topic 1: Stoichiometric relationships
Chemistry guide 33
1.1
Intr
oduc
tion
to th
e pa
rtic
ulat
e na
ture
of m
atte
r and
che
mic
al c
hang
e
• Th
e te
rm “l
aten
t hea
t” is
not
requ
ired.
• N
ames
and
sym
bols
of e
lem
ents
are
in th
e da
ta b
ookl
et in
sec
tion
5.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 4.
1—de
duct
ion
of fo
rmul
ae o
f ion
ic c
ompo
unds
To
pic
5.1—
enth
alpy
cyc
le re
actio
n; s
tand
ard
stat
e of
an
elem
ent o
r com
poun
d
Topi
c 6.
1—ki
netic
theo
ry
Topi
c 8.
2—ne
utra
lizat
ion
reac
tions
To
pic
10.2
—co
mbu
stio
n re
actio
ns
Opt
ion
A.4
—liq
uid
crys
tals
Aim
s:
• A
im 8
: The
neg
ativ
e en
viro
nmen
tal i
mpa
cts
of re
frige
ratio
n an
d ai
r co
nditi
onin
g sy
stem
s ar
e si
gnifi
cant
. The
use
of C
FCs
as re
frige
rant
s ha
s be
en a
maj
or c
ontri
buto
r to
ozon
e de
plet
ion.
Topic 1: Stoichiometric relationships
Chemistry guide34
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he m
ole
mak
es it
pos
sibl
e to
cor
rela
te th
e nu
mbe
r of p
artic
les
with
the
mas
s th
at c
an b
e m
easu
red.
1.2
The
mol
e co
ncep
t
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Con
cept
s—th
e co
ncep
t of t
he m
ole
deve
lope
d fro
m th
e re
late
d co
ncep
t of “
equi
vale
nt w
eigh
t” in
the
early
19t
h ce
ntur
y. (2
.3)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• Th
e m
ole
is a
fixe
d nu
mbe
r of p
artic
les
and
refe
rs to
the
amou
nt, n
, of
subs
tanc
e.
• M
asse
s of
ato
ms
are
com
pare
d on
a s
cale
rela
tive
to 12
C a
nd a
re e
xpre
ssed
as
rela
tive
atom
ic m
ass
(Ar)
and
rela
tive
form
ula/
mol
ecul
ar m
ass
(Mr).
• M
olar
mas
s (M
) has
the
units
g m
ol-1
.
• Th
e em
piric
al fo
rmul
a an
d m
olec
ular
form
ula
of a
com
poun
d gi
ve th
e si
mpl
est
ratio
and
the
actu
al n
umbe
r of a
tom
s pr
esen
t in
a m
olec
ule
resp
ectiv
ely.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• C
alcu
latio
n of
the
mol
ar m
asse
s of
ato
ms,
ions
, mol
ecul
es a
nd fo
rmul
a un
its.
• S
olut
ion
of p
robl
ems
invo
lvin
g th
e re
latio
nshi
ps b
etw
een
the
num
ber o
f pa
rticl
es, t
he a
mou
nt o
f sub
stan
ce in
mol
es a
nd th
e m
ass
in g
ram
s.
• In
terc
onve
rsio
n of
the
perc
enta
ge c
ompo
sitio
n by
mas
s an
d th
e em
piric
al
form
ula.
• D
eter
min
atio
n of
the
mol
ecul
ar fo
rmul
a of
a c
ompo
und
from
its
empi
rical
fo
rmul
a an
d m
olar
mas
s.
• O
btai
ning
and
usi
ng e
xper
imen
tal d
ata
for d
eriv
ing
empi
rical
form
ulas
from
re
actio
ns in
volv
ing
mas
s ch
ange
s.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
e S
I sys
tem
(Sys
tèm
e In
tern
atio
nal d
’Uni
tés)
refe
rs to
the
met
ric s
yste
m o
f m
easu
rem
ent,
base
d on
sev
en b
ase
units
.
• Th
e In
tern
atio
nal B
urea
u of
Wei
ghts
and
Mea
sure
s (B
IPM
acc
ordi
ng to
its
Fren
ch in
itial
s) is
an
inte
rnat
iona
l sta
ndar
ds o
rgan
izat
ion,
whi
ch a
ims
to
ensu
re u
nifo
rmity
in th
e ap
plic
atio
n of
SI u
nits
aro
und
the
wor
ld.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• Th
e m
agni
tude
of A
voga
dro’
s co
nsta
nt is
bey
ond
the
scal
e of
our
eve
ryda
y ex
perie
nce.
How
doe
s ou
r eve
ryda
y ex
perie
nce
limit
our i
ntui
tion?
Util
izat
ion:
• S
toic
hiom
etric
cal
cula
tions
are
fund
amen
tal t
o ch
emic
al p
roce
sses
in
rese
arch
and
indu
stry
, for
exa
mpl
e in
the
food
, med
ical
, pha
rmac
eutic
al a
nd
man
ufac
turin
g in
dust
ries.
• Th
e m
olar
vol
ume
for c
ryst
allin
e so
lids
is d
eter
min
ed b
y th
e te
chni
que
of X
-ra
y cr
ysta
llogr
aphy
.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 2.
1—th
e sc
ale
of a
tom
s an
d th
eir c
ompo
nent
par
ticle
s
Topi
cs 4
.1, 4
.3 a
nd 4
.5—
latti
ce s
truct
ure
of io
nic
com
poun
ds, m
olec
ular
stru
ctur
e of
cov
alen
t com
poun
ds a
nd m
etal
lic la
ttice
To
pics
5.1
and
15.
2—st
anda
rd e
ntha
lpy
and
entro
py c
hang
es d
efin
ed p
er m
ole
Topi
c 19
.1—
mol
e ra
tios
of p
rodu
cts
in e
lect
roly
sis
Topic 1: Stoichiometric relationships
Chemistry guide 35
1.2
The
mol
e co
ncep
t
Gui
danc
e:
• Th
e va
lue
of th
e A
voga
dro’
s co
nsta
nt (L
or N
A) is
giv
en in
the
data
boo
klet
in
sect
ion
2 an
d w
ill b
e gi
ven
for p
aper
1 q
uest
ions
.
• Th
e ge
nera
lly u
sed
unit
of m
olar
mas
s (g
mol
-1) is
a d
eriv
ed S
I uni
t.
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e pe
rcen
t mas
s of
hyd
rate
s, b
urni
ng o
f m
agne
sium
or c
alcu
latin
g A
voga
dro’
s nu
mbe
r.
• A
im 7
: Dat
a lo
gger
s ca
n be
use
d to
mea
sure
mas
s ch
ange
s du
ring
reac
tions
.
Topic 1: Stoichiometric relationships
Chemistry guide36
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: M
ole
ratio
s in
che
mic
al e
quat
ions
can
be
used
to c
alcu
late
reac
ting
ratio
s by
mas
s an
d ga
s vo
lum
e.
1.3
Rea
ctin
g m
asse
s an
d vo
lum
es
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Mak
ing
care
ful o
bser
vatio
ns a
nd o
btai
ning
evi
denc
e fo
r sci
entif
ic th
eorie
s—A
voga
dro'
s in
itial
hyp
othe
sis.
(1.8
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• R
eact
ants
can
be
eith
er li
miti
ng o
r exc
ess.
• Th
e ex
perim
enta
l yie
ld c
an b
e di
ffere
nt fr
om th
e th
eore
tical
yie
ld.
• A
voga
dro’
s la
w e
nabl
es th
e m
ole
ratio
of r
eact
ing
gase
s to
be
dete
rmin
ed
from
vol
umes
of t
he g
ases
.
• Th
e m
olar
vol
ume
of a
n id
eal g
as is
a c
onst
ant a
t spe
cifie
d te
mpe
ratu
re a
nd
pres
sure
.
• Th
e m
olar
con
cent
ratio
n of
a s
olut
ion
is d
eter
min
ed b
y th
e am
ount
of s
olut
e an
d th
e vo
lum
e of
sol
utio
n.
• A
sta
ndar
d so
lutio
n is
one
of k
now
n co
ncen
tratio
n.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• S
olut
ion
of p
robl
ems
rela
ting
to re
actin
g qu
antit
ies,
lim
iting
and
exc
ess
reac
tant
s, th
eore
tical
, exp
erim
enta
l and
per
cent
age
yiel
ds.
• C
alcu
latio
n of
reac
ting
volu
mes
of g
ases
usi
ng A
voga
dro’
s la
w.
• S
olut
ion
of p
robl
ems
and
anal
ysis
of g
raph
s in
volv
ing
the
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
tem
pera
ture
, pre
ssur
e an
d vo
lum
e fo
r a fi
xed
mas
s of
an
idea
l gas
.
• S
olut
ion
of p
robl
ems
rela
ting
to th
e id
eal g
as e
quat
ion.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
e S
I uni
t of p
ress
ure
is th
e P
asca
l (P
a), N
m-2
, but
man
y ot
her u
nits
rem
ain
in c
omm
on u
sage
in d
iffer
ent c
ount
ries.
The
se in
clud
e at
mos
pher
e (a
tm),
mill
imet
res
of m
ercu
ry (m
m H
g), T
orr,
bar a
nd p
ound
s pe
r squ
are
inch
(psi
). Th
e ba
r (10
5 Pa)
is n
ow w
idel
y us
ed a
s a
conv
enie
nt u
nit,
as it
is v
ery
clos
e to
1
atm
. The
SI u
nit f
or v
olum
e is
m3 ,
alth
ough
litre
is a
com
mon
ly u
sed
unit.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• A
ssig
ning
num
bers
to th
e m
asse
s of
the
chem
ical
ele
men
ts h
as a
llow
ed
chem
istry
to d
evel
op in
to a
phy
sica
l sci
ence
. Why
is m
athe
mat
ics
so e
ffect
ive
in d
escr
ibin
g th
e na
tura
l wor
ld?
• Th
e id
eal g
as e
quat
ion
can
be d
educ
ed fr
om a
sm
all n
umbe
r of a
ssum
ptio
ns
of id
eal b
ehav
iour
. Wha
t is
the
role
of r
easo
n, p
erce
ptio
n, in
tuiti
on a
nd
imag
inat
ion
in th
e de
velo
pmen
t of s
cien
tific
mod
els?
Util
izat
ion:
• G
as v
olum
e ch
ange
s du
ring
chem
ical
reac
tions
are
resp
onsi
ble
for t
he
infla
tion
of a
ir ba
gs in
veh
icle
s an
d ar
e th
e ba
sis
of m
any
othe
r exp
losi
ve
reac
tions
, suc
h as
the
deco
mpo
sitio
n of
TN
T (tr
initr
otol
uene
).
• Th
e co
ncep
t of p
erce
ntag
e yi
eld
is v
ital i
n m
onito
ring
the
effic
ienc
y of
in
dust
rial p
roce
sses
.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 4.
4—in
term
olec
ular
forc
es
Topi
c 5.
1—ca
lcul
atio
ns o
f mol
ar e
ntha
lpy
chan
ges
Topic 1: Stoichiometric relationships
Chemistry guide 37
1.3
Rea
ctin
g m
asse
s an
d vo
lum
es
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
devi
atio
n of
real
gas
es fr
om id
eal b
ehav
iour
at l
ow
tem
pera
ture
and
hig
h pr
essu
re.
• O
btai
ning
and
usi
ng e
xper
imen
tal v
alue
s to
cal
cula
te th
e m
olar
mas
s of
a g
as
from
the
idea
l gas
equ
atio
n.
• S
olut
ion
of p
robl
ems
invo
lvin
g m
olar
con
cent
ratio
n, a
mou
nt o
f sol
ute
and
volu
me
of s
olut
ion.
• U
se o
f the
exp
erim
enta
l met
hod
of ti
tratio
n to
cal
cula
te th
e co
ncen
tratio
n of
a
solu
tion
by re
fere
nce
to a
sta
ndar
d so
lutio
n.
Gui
danc
e:
• V
alue
s fo
r the
mol
ar v
olum
e of
an
idea
l gas
are
giv
en in
the
data
boo
klet
in
sect
ion
2.
• Th
e id
eal g
as e
quat
ion,
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃=𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛 , a
nd th
e va
lue
of th
e ga
s co
nsta
nt (R
) are
gi
ven
in th
e da
ta b
ookl
et in
sec
tions
1 a
nd 2
.
• U
nits
of c
once
ntra
tion
to in
clud
e: g
dm
-3, m
ol d
m-3
and
par
ts p
er m
illio
n (p
pm).
• Th
e us
e of
squ
are
brac
kets
to d
enot
e m
olar
con
cent
ratio
n is
requ
ired.
Topi
c 9.
1—re
dox
titra
tions
To
pic
17.1
—eq
uilib
rium
cal
cula
tions
To
pic
18.2
—ac
id-b
ase
titra
tions
To
pic
21.1
and
A.8
—X-
ray
crys
tallo
grap
hy
Phy
sics
topi
c 3.
2—Id
eal g
as la
w
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
enta
l des
ign
coul
d in
clud
e ex
cess
and
lim
iting
reac
tant
s.
Exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e gr
avim
etric
det
erm
inat
ion
by p
reci
pita
tion
of a
n in
solu
ble
salt.
• A
im 7
: Dat
a lo
gger
s ca
n be
use
d to
mea
sure
tem
pera
ture
, pre
ssur
e an
d vo
lum
e ch
ange
s in
reac
tions
or t
o de
term
ine
the
valu
e of
the
gas
cons
tant
, R.
• A
im 8
: The
uni
t par
ts p
er m
illio
n, p
pm, i
s co
mm
only
use
d in
mea
surin
g sm
all
leve
ls o
f pol
luta
nts
in fl
uids
. Thi
s un
it is
con
veni
ent f
or c
omm
unic
atin
g ve
ry
low
con
cent
ratio
ns, b
ut is
not
a fo
rmal
SI u
nit.
Topic 2: Atomic structure
Chemistry guide38
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he m
ass
of a
n at
om is
con
cent
rate
d in
its
min
ute,
pos
itive
ly c
harg
ed n
ucle
us.
2.1
The
nucl
ear a
tom
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Evi
denc
e an
d im
prov
emen
ts in
inst
rum
enta
tion—
alph
a pa
rticl
es w
ere
used
in th
e de
velo
pmen
t of t
he n
ucle
ar m
odel
of t
he a
tom
that
was
firs
t pro
pose
d by
Rut
herfo
rd.
(1.8
)
Par
adig
m s
hifts
—th
e su
bato
mic
par
ticle
theo
ry o
f mat
ter r
epre
sent
s a
para
digm
shi
ft in
sci
ence
that
occ
urre
d in
the
late
180
0s. (
2.3)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• A
tom
s co
ntai
n a
posi
tivel
y ch
arge
d de
nse
nucl
eus
com
pose
d of
pro
tons
and
ne
utro
ns (n
ucle
ons)
.
• N
egat
ivel
y ch
arge
d el
ectro
ns o
ccup
y th
e sp
ace
outs
ide
the
nucl
eus.
• Th
e m
ass
spec
trom
eter
is u
sed
to d
eter
min
e th
e re
lativ
e at
omic
mas
s of
an
elem
ent f
rom
its
isot
opic
com
posi
tion.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• U
se o
f the
nuc
lear
sym
bol n
otat
ion
𝑋𝑋 𝑍𝑍𝐴𝐴 to
ded
uce
the
num
ber o
f pro
tons
, ne
utro
ns a
nd e
lect
rons
in a
tom
s an
d io
ns.
• C
alcu
latio
ns in
volv
ing
non-
inte
ger r
elat
ive
atom
ic m
asse
s an
d ab
unda
nce
of
isot
opes
from
giv
en d
ata,
incl
udin
g m
ass
spec
tra.
Gui
danc
e:
• R
elat
ive
mas
ses
and
char
ges
of th
e su
bato
mic
par
ticle
s sh
ould
be
know
n,
actu
al v
alue
s ar
e gi
ven
in s
ectio
n 4
of th
e da
ta b
ookl
et. T
he m
ass
of th
e el
ectro
n ca
n be
con
side
red
negl
igib
le.
• S
peci
fic e
xam
ples
of i
soto
pes
need
not
be
lear
ned.
• Th
e op
erat
ion
of th
e m
ass
spec
trom
eter
is n
ot re
quire
d.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Is
otop
e en
richm
ent u
ses
phys
ical
pro
perti
es to
sep
arat
e is
otop
es o
f ura
nium
, an
d is
em
ploy
ed in
man
y co
untri
es a
s pa
rt of
nuc
lear
ene
rgy
and
wea
ponr
y pr
ogra
mm
es.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• R
icha
rd F
eynm
an: “
If al
l of s
cien
tific
kno
wle
dge
wer
e to
be
dest
roye
d an
d on
ly o
ne s
ente
nce
pass
ed o
n to
the
next
gen
erat
ion,
I be
lieve
it is
that
all
thin
gs a
re m
ade
of a
tom
s.” A
re th
e m
odel
s an
d th
eorie
s w
hich
sci
entis
ts
crea
te a
ccur
ate
desc
riptio
ns o
f the
nat
ural
wor
ld, o
r are
they
prim
arily
use
ful
inte
rpre
tatio
ns fo
r pre
dict
ion,
exp
lana
tion
and
cont
rol o
f the
nat
ural
wor
ld?
• N
o su
bato
mic
par
ticle
s ca
n be
(or w
ill b
e) d
irect
ly o
bser
ved.
Whi
ch w
ays
of
know
ing
do w
e us
e to
inte
rpre
t ind
irect
evi
denc
e, g
aine
d th
roug
h th
e us
e of
te
chno
logy
?
Util
izat
ion:
• R
adio
isot
opes
are
use
d in
nuc
lear
med
icin
e fo
r dia
gnos
tics,
trea
tmen
t and
re
sear
ch, a
s tra
cers
in b
ioch
emic
al a
nd p
harm
aceu
tical
rese
arch
, and
as
“che
mic
al c
lock
s” in
geo
logi
cal a
nd a
rcha
eolo
gica
l dat
ing.
• P
ET
(pos
itron
em
issi
on to
mog
raph
y) s
cann
ers
give
thre
e-di
men
sion
al im
ages
of
trac
er c
once
ntra
tion
in th
e bo
dy, a
nd c
an b
e us
ed to
det
ect c
ance
rs.
Topi
c 2:
Ato
mic
str
uctu
re
6 ho
urs
Core
Topic 2: Atomic structure
Chemistry guide 39
2.1
The
nucl
ear a
tom
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
cs 1
1.3,
21.
1 an
d op
tions
D.8
and
D.9
—N
MR
O
ptio
ns C
.3 a
nd C
.7—
nucl
ear f
issi
on
Opt
ion
D.8
—nu
clea
r med
icin
e
Aim
s:
• A
im 7
: Sim
ulat
ions
of R
uthe
rford
’s g
old
foil
expe
rimen
t can
be
unde
rtake
n.
• A
im 8
: Rad
ionu
clid
es c
arry
dan
gers
to h
ealth
due
to th
eir i
oniz
ing
effe
cts
on
cells
.
Topic 2: Atomic structure
Chemistry guide40
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he e
lect
ron
conf
igur
atio
n of
an
atom
can
be
dedu
ced
from
its
atom
ic n
umbe
r.
2.2
Elec
tron
con
figur
atio
n
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Dev
elop
men
ts in
sci
entif
ic re
sear
ch fo
llow
impr
ovem
ents
in a
ppar
atus
—th
e us
e of
ele
ctric
ity a
nd m
agne
tism
in T
hom
son’
s ca
thod
e ra
ys.(1
.8)
Theo
ries
bein
g su
pers
eded
—qu
antu
m m
echa
nics
is a
mon
g th
e m
ost c
urre
nt m
odel
s of
the
atom
. (1.
9)
Use
theo
ries
to e
xpla
in n
atur
al p
heno
men
a—lin
e sp
ectra
exp
lain
ed b
y th
e Bo
hr m
odel
of t
he a
tom
. (2.
2)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• Em
issi
on s
pect
ra a
re p
rodu
ced
whe
n ph
oton
s ar
e em
itted
from
ato
ms
as
exci
ted
elec
trons
retu
rn to
a lo
wer
ene
rgy
leve
l.
• Th
e lin
e em
issi
on s
pect
rum
of h
ydro
gen
prov
ides
evi
denc
e fo
r the
exi
sten
ce
of e
lect
rons
in d
iscr
ete
ener
gy le
vels
, whi
ch c
onve
rge
at h
ighe
r ene
rgie
s.
• Th
e m
ain
ener
gy le
vel o
r she
ll is
giv
en a
n in
tege
r num
ber,
n, a
nd c
an h
old
a m
axim
um n
umbe
r of e
lect
rons
, 2n2 .
• A
mor
e de
taile
d m
odel
of t
he a
tom
des
crib
es th
e di
visi
on o
f the
mai
n en
ergy
le
vel i
nto
s, p
, d a
nd f
sub-
leve
ls o
f suc
cess
ivel
y hi
gher
ene
rgie
s.
• Su
b-le
vels
con
tain
a fi
xed
num
ber o
f orb
itals
, reg
ions
of s
pace
whe
re th
ere
is
a hi
gh p
roba
bilit
y of
find
ing
an e
lect
ron.
• Ea
ch o
rbita
l has
a d
efin
ed e
nerg
y st
ate
for a
giv
en e
lect
roni
c co
nfig
urat
ion
and
chem
ical
env
ironm
ent a
nd c
an h
old
two
elec
trons
of o
ppos
ite s
pin.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
escr
iptio
n of
the
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
colo
ur, w
avel
engt
h, fr
eque
ncy
and
ener
gy a
cros
s th
e el
ectro
mag
netic
spe
ctru
m.
• D
istin
ctio
n be
twee
n a
cont
inuo
us s
pect
rum
and
a li
ne s
pect
rum
.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
e Eu
rope
an O
rgan
izat
ion
for N
ucle
ar R
esea
rch
(CER
N) i
s ru
n by
its
Euro
pean
mem
ber s
tate
s (2
0 st
ates
in 2
013)
, with
invo
lvem
ents
from
sc
ient
ists
from
man
y ot
her c
ount
ries.
It o
pera
tes
the
wor
ld’s
larg
est p
artic
le
phys
ics
rese
arch
cen
tre, i
nclu
ding
par
ticle
acc
eler
ator
s an
d de
tect
ors
used
to
stud
y th
e fu
ndam
enta
l con
stitu
ents
of m
atte
r.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• H
eise
nber
g’s
Unc
erta
inty
Prin
cipl
e st
ates
that
ther
e is
a th
eore
tical
lim
it to
the
prec
isio
n w
ith w
hich
we
can
know
the
mom
entu
m a
nd th
e po
sitio
n of
a
parti
cle.
Wha
t are
the
impl
icat
ions
of t
his
for t
he li
mits
of h
uman
kno
wle
dge?
• “O
ne a
im o
f the
phy
sica
l sci
ence
s ha
s be
en to
giv
e an
exa
ct p
ictu
re o
f the
m
ater
ial w
orld
. One
ach
ieve
men
t ...
has
been
to p
rove
that
this
aim
is
unat
tain
able
.” —
Jaco
b Br
onow
ski.
Wha
t are
the
impl
icat
ions
of t
his
clai
m fo
r th
e as
pira
tions
of n
atur
al s
cien
ces
in p
artic
ular
and
for k
now
ledg
e in
gen
eral
?
Util
izat
ion:
• Ab
sorp
tion
and
emis
sion
spe
ctra
are
wid
ely
used
in a
stro
nom
y to
ana
lyse
lig
ht fr
om s
tars
.
• At
omic
abs
orpt
ion
spec
trosc
opy
is a
ver
y se
nsiti
ve m
eans
of d
eter
min
ing
the
pres
ence
and
con
cent
ratio
n of
met
allic
ele
men
ts.
Topic 2: Atomic structure
Chemistry guide 41
2.2
Elec
tron
con
figur
atio
n
• D
escr
iptio
n of
the
emis
sion
spe
ctru
m o
f the
hyd
roge
n at
om, i
nclu
ding
the
rela
tions
hips
bet
wee
n th
e lin
es a
nd e
nerg
y tra
nsiti
ons
to th
e fir
st, s
econ
d an
d th
ird e
nerg
y le
vels
.
• R
ecog
nitio
n of
the
shap
e of
an
s at
omic
orb
ital a
nd th
e p x
, py a
nd p
z at
omic
or
bita
ls.
• A
pplic
atio
n of
the
Auf
bau
prin
cipl
e, H
und’
s ru
le a
nd th
e Pa
uli e
xclu
sion
pr
inci
ple
to w
rite
elec
tron
conf
igur
atio
ns fo
r ato
ms
and
ions
up
to Z
= 3
6.
Gui
danc
e:
• D
etai
ls o
f the
ele
ctro
mag
netic
spe
ctru
m a
re g
iven
in th
e da
ta b
ookl
et in
se
ctio
n 3.
• Th
e na
mes
of t
he d
iffer
ent s
erie
s in
the
hydr
ogen
line
em
issi
on s
pect
rum
are
no
t req
uire
d.
• Fu
ll el
ectro
n co
nfig
urat
ions
(eg
1s2 2
s2 2p6 3
s2 3p4 )
and
con
dens
ed e
lect
ron
conf
igur
atio
ns (e
g [N
e] 3
s2 3p4 )
sho
uld
be c
over
ed.
Orb
ital d
iagr
ams
shou
ld b
e us
ed to
repr
esen
t the
cha
ract
er a
nd re
lativ
e en
ergy
of
orbi
tals
. Orb
ital d
iagr
ams
refe
r to
arro
w-in
-box
dia
gram
s, s
uch
as th
e on
e gi
ven
belo
w.
• Th
e el
ectro
n co
nfig
urat
ions
of C
r and
Cu
as e
xcep
tions
sho
uld
be c
over
ed.
• Fi
rew
orks
—em
issi
on s
pect
ra.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
cs 3
.1 a
nd 3
.2—
perio
dici
ty
Topi
c 4.
1—de
duct
ion
of fo
rmul
ae o
f ion
ic c
ompo
unds
To
pic
6.1—
Max
wel
l–B
oltz
man
n di
strib
utio
n as
a p
roba
bilit
y de
nsity
func
tion
Phy
sics
topi
c 7.
1 an
d op
tion
D.2
—st
ella
r cha
ract
eris
tics
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Em
issi
on s
pect
ra c
ould
be
obse
rved
usi
ng d
isch
arge
tube
s of
diff
eren
t ga
ses
and
a sp
ectro
scop
e. F
lam
e te
sts
coul
d be
use
d to
stu
dy s
pect
ra.
Topic 3: Periodicity
Chemistry guide42
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he a
rran
gem
ent o
f ele
men
ts in
the
perio
dic
tabl
e he
lps
to p
redi
ct th
eir e
lect
ron
conf
igur
atio
n.
3.1
Perio
dic
tabl
e
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Obt
ain
evid
ence
for s
cien
tific
theo
ries
by m
akin
g an
d te
stin
g pr
edic
tions
bas
ed o
n th
em—
scie
ntis
ts o
rgan
ize
subj
ects
bas
ed o
n st
ruct
ure
and
func
tion;
the
perio
dic
tabl
e is
a
key
exam
ple
of th
is. E
arly
mod
els
of th
e pe
riodi
c ta
ble
from
Men
dele
ev, a
nd la
ter M
osel
ey, a
llow
ed fo
r the
pre
dict
ion
of p
rope
rties
of e
lem
ents
that
had
not
yet
bee
n di
scov
ered
. (1.
9)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• Th
e pe
riodi
c ta
ble
is a
rrang
ed in
to fo
ur b
lock
s as
soci
ated
with
the
four
sub
-le
vels
—s,
p, d
, and
f.
• Th
e pe
riodi
c ta
ble
cons
ists
of g
roup
s (v
ertic
al c
olum
ns) a
nd p
erio
ds (h
oriz
onta
l ro
ws)
.
• Th
e pe
riod
num
ber (
n) is
the
oute
r ene
rgy
leve
l tha
t is
occu
pied
by
elec
trons
.
• Th
e nu
mbe
r of t
he p
rinci
pal e
nerg
y le
vel a
nd th
e nu
mbe
r of t
he v
alen
ce
elec
trons
in a
n at
om c
an b
e de
duce
d fro
m it
s po
sitio
n on
the
perio
dic
tabl
e.
• Th
e pe
riodi
c ta
ble
show
s th
e po
sitio
ns o
f met
als,
non
-met
als
and
met
allo
ids.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
educ
tion
of th
e el
ectro
n co
nfig
urat
ion
of a
n at
om fr
om th
e el
emen
t’s p
ositi
on
on th
e pe
riodi
c ta
ble,
and
vic
e ve
rsa.
Gui
danc
e:
• Th
e te
rms
alka
li m
etal
s, h
alog
ens,
nob
le g
ases
, tra
nsiti
on m
etal
s, la
ntha
noid
s an
d ac
tinoi
ds s
houl
d be
kno
wn.
• Th
e gr
oup
num
berin
g sc
hem
e fro
m g
roup
1 to
gro
up 1
8, a
s re
com
men
ded
by
IUP
AC
, sho
uld
be u
sed.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
e de
velo
pmen
t of t
he p
erio
dic
tabl
e to
ok m
any
year
s an
d in
volv
ed s
cien
tists
fro
m d
iffer
ent c
ount
ries
build
ing
upon
the
foun
datio
ns o
f eac
h ot
her’s
wor
k an
d id
eas.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• W
hat r
ole
did
indu
ctiv
e an
d de
duct
ive
reas
onin
g pl
ay in
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f the
pe
riodi
c ta
ble?
Wha
t rol
e do
es in
duct
ive
and
dedu
ctiv
e re
ason
ing
have
in
scie
nce
in g
ener
al?
Util
izat
ion:
• O
ther
sci
entif
ic s
ubje
cts
also
use
the
perio
dic
tabl
e to
und
erst
and
the
stru
ctur
e an
d re
activ
ity o
f ele
men
ts a
s it
appl
ies
to th
eir o
wn
disc
iplin
es.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 2.
2—el
ectro
n co
nfig
urat
ion
Aim
s:
• A
im 3
: App
ly th
e or
gani
zatio
n of
the
perio
dic
tabl
e to
und
erst
and
gene
ral
trend
s in
pro
perti
es.
• A
im 4
: Be
able
to a
naly
se d
ata
to e
xpla
in th
e or
gani
zatio
n of
the
elem
ents
.
• A
im 6
: Be
able
to re
cogn
ize
phys
ical
sam
ples
or i
mag
es o
f com
mon
ele
men
ts.
Topi
c 3:
Per
iodi
city
6
hour
s
Core
Topic 3: Periodicity
Chemistry guide 43
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: E
lem
ents
sho
w tr
ends
in th
eir p
hysi
cal a
nd c
hem
ical
pro
perti
es a
cros
s pe
riods
and
dow
n gr
oups
.
3.2
Perio
dic
tren
ds
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Look
ing
for p
atte
rns—
the
posi
tion
of a
n el
emen
t in
the
perio
dic
tabl
e al
low
s sc
ient
ists
to m
ake
accu
rate
pre
dict
ions
of i
ts p
hysi
cal a
nd c
hem
ical
pro
perti
es. T
his
give
s sc
ient
ists
the
abili
ty to
syn
thes
ize
new
sub
stan
ces
base
d on
the
expe
cted
reac
tivity
of e
lem
ents
. (3.
1)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• V
ertic
al a
nd h
oriz
onta
l tre
nds
in th
e pe
riodi
c ta
ble
exis
t for
ato
mic
radi
us, i
onic
ra
dius
, ion
izat
ion
ener
gy, e
lect
ron
affin
ity a
nd e
lect
rone
gativ
ity.
• Tr
ends
in m
etal
lic a
nd n
on-m
etal
lic b
ehav
iour
are
due
to th
e tre
nds
abov
e.
• O
xide
s ch
ange
from
bas
ic th
roug
h am
phot
eric
to a
cidi
c ac
ross
a p
erio
d.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• P
redi
ctio
n an
d ex
plan
atio
n of
the
met
allic
and
non
-met
allic
beh
avio
ur o
f an
elem
ent b
ased
on
its p
ositi
on in
the
perio
dic
tabl
e.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
sim
ilarit
ies
and
diffe
renc
es in
the
prop
ertie
s of
ele
men
ts in
th
e sa
me
grou
p, w
ith re
fere
nce
to a
lkal
i met
als
(gro
up 1
) and
hal
ogen
s (g
roup
17
).
• C
onst
ruct
ion
of e
quat
ions
to e
xpla
in th
e pH
cha
nges
for r
eact
ions
of N
a 2O
, M
gO, P
4O10
, and
the
oxid
es o
f nitr
ogen
and
sul
fur w
ith w
ater
.
Gui
danc
e:
• O
nly
exam
ples
of g
ener
al tr
ends
acr
oss
perio
ds a
nd d
own
grou
ps a
re re
quire
d.
For i
oniz
atio
n en
ergy
the
disc
ontin
uitie
s in
the
incr
ease
acr
oss
a pe
riod
shou
ld
be c
over
ed.
• G
roup
tren
ds s
houl
d in
clud
e th
e tre
atm
ent o
f the
reac
tions
of a
lkal
i met
als
with
w
ater
, alk
ali m
etal
s w
ith h
alog
ens
and
halo
gens
with
hal
ide
ions
.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• In
dust
rializ
atio
n ha
s le
d to
the
prod
uctio
n of
man
y pr
oduc
ts th
at c
ause
glo
bal
prob
lem
s w
hen
rele
ased
into
the
envi
ronm
ent.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• Th
e pr
edic
tive
pow
er o
f Men
dele
ev’s
Per
iodi
c Ta
ble
illus
trate
s th
e “ri
sk-ta
king
” na
ture
of s
cien
ce. W
hat i
s th
e de
mar
catio
n be
twee
n sc
ient
ific
and
pseu
dosc
ient
ific
clai
ms?
• Th
e P
erio
dic
Tabl
e is
an
exce
llent
exa
mpl
e of
cla
ssifi
catio
n in
sci
ence
. How
do
es c
lass
ifica
tion
and
cate
goriz
atio
n he
lp a
nd h
inde
r the
pur
suit
of
know
ledg
e?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 2.
2—an
omal
ies
in fi
rst i
oniz
atio
n en
ergy
val
ues
can
be c
onne
cted
to s
tabi
lity
in e
lect
ron
conf
igur
atio
n
Topi
c 8.
5—pr
oduc
tion
of a
cid
rain
Aim
s:
• A
ims
1 an
d 8:
Wha
t is
the
glob
al im
pact
of a
cid
depo
sitio
n?
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ent w
ith c
hem
ical
tren
ds d
irect
ly in
the
labo
rato
ry o
r thr
ough
the
use
of te
ache
r dem
onst
ratio
ns.
• A
im 6
: The
use
of t
rans
ition
met
al io
ns a
s ca
taly
sts
coul
d be
inve
stig
ated
.
• A
im 7
: Per
iodi
c tre
nds
can
be s
tudi
ed w
ith th
e us
e of
com
pute
r dat
abas
es.
Topic 4: Chemical bonding and structure
Chemistry guide44
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: Io
nic
com
poun
ds c
onsi
st o
f ion
s he
ld to
geth
er in
latti
ce s
truct
ures
by
ioni
c bo
nds.
4.1
Ioni
c bo
ndin
g an
d st
ruct
ure
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Use
theo
ries
to e
xpla
in n
atur
al p
heno
men
a—m
olte
n io
nic
com
poun
ds c
ondu
ct e
lect
ricity
but
sol
id io
nic
com
poun
ds d
o no
t. Th
e so
lubi
lity
and
mel
ting
poin
ts o
f ion
ic
com
poun
ds c
an b
e us
ed to
exp
lain
obs
erva
tions
. (2.
2)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• P
ositi
ve io
ns (c
atio
ns) f
orm
by
met
als
losi
ng v
alen
ce e
lect
rons
.
• N
egat
ive
ions
(ani
ons)
form
by
non-
met
als
gain
ing
elec
trons
.
• Th
e nu
mbe
r of e
lect
rons
lost
or g
aine
d is
det
erm
ined
by
the
elec
tron
conf
igur
atio
n of
the
atom
.
• Th
e io
nic
bond
is d
ue to
ele
ctro
stat
ic a
ttrac
tion
betw
een
oppo
site
ly c
harg
ed
ions
.
• U
nder
nor
mal
con
ditio
ns, i
onic
com
poun
ds a
re u
sual
ly s
olid
s w
ith la
ttice
st
ruct
ures
.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
educ
tion
of th
e fo
rmul
a an
d na
me
of a
n io
nic
com
poun
d fro
m it
s co
mpo
nent
io
ns, i
nclu
ding
pol
yato
mic
ions
.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
phys
ical
pro
perti
es o
f ion
ic c
ompo
unds
(vol
atili
ty, e
lect
rical
co
nduc
tivity
and
sol
ubili
ty) i
n te
rms
of th
eir s
truct
ure.
Gui
danc
e:
• S
tude
nts
shou
ld b
e fa
mili
ar w
ith th
e na
mes
of t
hese
pol
yato
mic
ions
: NH
4+ ,
OH
- , N
O3- ,
HC
O3- ,
CO
32-, S
O42-
and
PO
43-.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• G
ener
al ru
les
in c
hem
istry
(lik
e th
e oc
tet r
ule)
ofte
n ha
ve e
xcep
tions
. How
m
any
exce
ptio
ns h
ave
to e
xist
for a
rule
to c
ease
to b
e us
eful
?
• W
hat e
vide
nce
do y
ou h
ave
for t
he e
xist
ence
of i
ons?
Wha
t is
the
diffe
renc
e be
twee
n di
rect
and
indi
rect
evi
denc
e?
Util
izat
ion:
• Io
nic
liqui
ds a
re e
ffici
ent s
olve
nts
and
elec
troly
tes
used
in e
lect
ric p
ower
so
urce
s an
d gr
een
indu
stria
l pro
cess
es.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 3.
2—pe
riodi
c tre
nds
Topi
c 21
.1 a
nd O
ptio
n A
.8—
use
of X
-ray
crys
tallo
grap
hy in
stru
ctur
al d
eter
min
atio
ns
Phy
sics
topi
c 5.
1—el
ectro
stat
ics
Aim
s:
• A
im 3
: Use
nam
ing
conv
entio
ns to
nam
e io
nic
com
poun
ds.
• A
im 6
: Stu
dent
s co
uld
inve
stig
ate
com
poun
ds b
ased
on
thei
r bon
d ty
pe a
nd
prop
ertie
s or
obt
ain
sodi
um c
hlor
ide
by s
olar
eva
pora
tion.
• A
im 7
: Com
pute
r sim
ulat
ion
coul
d be
use
d to
obs
erve
cry
stal
latti
ce s
truct
ures
.
Topi
c 4:
Che
mic
al b
ondi
ng a
nd s
truc
ture
13
.5 h
ours
Core
Topic 4: Chemical bonding and structure
Chemistry guide 45
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: C
oval
ent c
ompo
unds
form
by
the
shar
ing
of e
lect
rons
.
4.2.
Cov
alen
t bon
ding
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Look
ing
for t
rend
s an
d di
scre
panc
ies—
com
poun
ds c
onta
inin
g no
n-m
etal
s ha
ve d
iffer
ent p
rope
rties
than
com
poun
ds th
at c
onta
in n
on-m
etal
s an
d m
etal
s. (2
.5)
Use
theo
ries
to e
xpla
in n
atur
al p
heno
men
a—Le
wis
intro
duce
d a
clas
s of
com
poun
ds w
hich
sha
re e
lect
rons
. Pau
ling
used
the
idea
of e
lect
rone
gativ
ity to
exp
lain
une
qual
sh
arin
g of
ele
ctro
ns. (
2.2)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• A
cov
alen
t bon
d is
form
ed b
y th
e el
ectro
stat
ic a
ttrac
tion
betw
een
a sh
ared
pai
r of
ele
ctro
ns a
nd th
e po
sitiv
ely
char
ged
nucl
ei.
• S
ingl
e, d
oubl
e an
d tri
ple
cova
lent
bon
ds in
volv
e on
e, tw
o an
d th
ree
shar
ed
pairs
of e
lect
rons
resp
ectiv
ely.
• B
ond
leng
th d
ecre
ases
and
bon
d st
reng
th in
crea
ses
as th
e nu
mbe
r of s
hare
d el
ectro
ns in
crea
ses.
• B
ond
pola
rity
resu
lts fr
om th
e di
ffere
nce
in e
lect
rone
gativ
ities
of t
he b
onde
d at
oms.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
educ
tion
of th
e po
lar n
atur
e of
a c
oval
ent b
ond
from
ele
ctro
nega
tivity
val
ues.
Gui
danc
e:
• B
ond
pola
rity
can
be s
how
n ei
ther
with
par
tial c
harg
es, d
ipol
es o
r vec
tors
.
• E
lect
rone
gativ
ity v
alue
s ar
e gi
ven
in th
e da
ta b
ookl
et in
sec
tion
8.
Util
izat
ion:
• M
icro
wav
es—
cook
ing
with
pol
ar m
olec
ules
.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 10
.1—
orga
nic
mol
ecul
es
Aim
s:
• A
im 3
: Use
nam
ing
conv
entio
ns to
nam
e co
vale
ntly
bon
ded
com
poun
ds.
Topic 4: Chemical bonding and structure
Chemistry guide46
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: L
ewis
(ele
ctro
n do
t) st
ruct
ures
sho
w th
e el
ectro
n do
mai
ns in
the
vale
nce
shel
l and
are
use
d to
pre
dict
mol
ecul
ar s
hape
.
4.3
Cov
alen
t str
uctu
res
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Sci
entis
ts u
se m
odel
s as
repr
esen
tatio
ns o
f the
real
wor
ld—
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f the
mod
el o
f mol
ecul
ar s
hape
(VS
EPR
) to
expl
ain
obse
rvab
le p
rope
rties
. (1.
10)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• Le
wis
(ele
ctro
n do
t) st
ruct
ures
sho
w a
ll th
e va
lenc
e el
ectro
ns in
a c
oval
ently
bo
nded
spe
cies
.
• Th
e “o
ctet
rule
” ref
ers
to th
e te
nden
cy o
f ato
ms
to g
ain
a va
lenc
e sh
ell w
ith a
to
tal o
f 8 e
lect
rons
.
• S
ome
atom
s, li
ke B
e an
d B
, mig
ht fo
rm s
tabl
e co
mpo
unds
with
inco
mpl
ete
octe
ts o
f ele
ctro
ns.
• R
eson
ance
stru
ctur
es o
ccur
whe
n th
ere
is m
ore
than
one
pos
sibl
e po
sitio
n fo
r a
doub
le b
ond
in a
mol
ecul
e.
• S
hape
s of
spe
cies
are
det
erm
ined
by
the
repu
lsio
n of
ele
ctro
n pa
irs a
ccor
ding
to
VS
EP
R th
eory
.
• C
arbo
n an
d si
licon
form
gia
nt c
oval
ent/n
etw
ork
cova
lent
stru
ctur
es.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
educ
tion
of L
ewis
(ele
ctro
n do
t) st
ruct
ure
of m
olec
ules
and
ions
sho
win
g al
l va
lenc
e el
ectro
ns fo
r up
to fo
ur e
lect
ron
pairs
on
each
ato
m.
• Th
e us
e of
VS
EPR
theo
ry to
pre
dict
the
elec
tron
dom
ain
geom
etry
and
the
mol
ecul
ar g
eom
etry
for s
peci
es w
ith tw
o, th
ree
and
four
ele
ctro
n do
mai
ns.
• P
redi
ctio
n of
bon
d an
gles
from
mol
ecul
ar g
eom
etry
and
pre
senc
e of
non
-bo
ndin
g pa
irs o
f ele
ctro
ns.
• P
redi
ctio
n of
mol
ecul
ar p
olar
ity fr
om b
ond
pola
rity
and
mol
ecul
ar g
eom
etry
.
• D
educ
tion
of re
sona
nce
stru
ctur
es, e
xam
ples
incl
ude
but a
re n
ot li
mite
d to
C
6H6,
CO
32- a
nd O
3.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• D
oes
the
need
for r
eson
ance
stru
ctur
es d
ecre
ase
the
valu
e or
val
idity
of L
ewis
(e
lect
ron
dot)
theo
ry?
Wha
t crit
eria
do
we
use
in a
sses
sing
the
valid
ity o
f a
scie
ntifi
c th
eory
?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Opt
ion
A.7
—bi
odeg
rada
bilit
y of
pla
stic
s B
iolo
gy to
pic
2.3—
3-D
stru
ctur
e of
mol
ecul
es a
nd re
latin
g st
ruct
ure
to fu
nctio
n
Aim
s:
• A
im 7
: Com
pute
r sim
ulat
ions
cou
ld b
e us
ed to
mod
el V
SEP
R s
truct
ures
.
Topic 4: Chemical bonding and structure
Chemistry guide 47
4.3
Cov
alen
t str
uctu
res
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
prop
ertie
s of
gia
nt c
oval
ent c
ompo
unds
in te
rms
of th
eir
stru
ctur
es.
Gui
danc
e:
• Th
e te
rm “e
lect
ron
dom
ain”
sho
uld
be u
sed
in p
lace
of “
nega
tive
char
ge
cent
re”.
• E
lect
ron
pairs
in a
Lew
is (e
lect
ron
dot)
stru
ctur
e ca
n be
sho
wn
as d
ots,
cr
osse
s, a
das
h or
any
com
bina
tion.
• A
llotro
pes
of c
arbo
n (d
iam
ond,
gra
phite
, gra
phen
e, C
60 b
uckm
inst
erfu
llere
ne)
and
SiO
2 sho
uld
be c
over
ed.
• C
oord
inat
e co
vale
nt b
onds
sho
uld
be c
over
ed.
Topic 4: Chemical bonding and structure
Chemistry guide48
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he p
hysi
cal p
rope
rties
of m
olec
ular
sub
stan
ces
resu
lt fro
m d
iffer
ent t
ypes
of f
orce
s be
twee
n th
eir m
olec
ules
.
4.4
Inte
rmol
ecul
ar fo
rces
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Obt
ain
evid
ence
for s
cien
tific
theo
ries
by m
akin
g an
d te
stin
g pr
edic
tions
bas
ed o
n th
em—
Lond
on (d
ispe
rsio
n) fo
rces
and
hyd
roge
n bo
ndin
g ca
n be
use
d to
exp
lain
spe
cial
in
tera
ctio
ns. F
or e
xam
ple,
mol
ecul
ar c
oval
ent c
ompo
unds
can
exi
st in
the
liqui
d an
d so
lid s
tate
s. T
o ex
plai
n th
is, t
here
mus
t be
attra
ctiv
e fo
rces
bet
wee
n th
eir p
artic
les
whi
ch a
re s
igni
fican
tly g
reat
er th
an th
ose
that
cou
ld b
e at
tribu
ted
to g
ravi
ty. (
2.2)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• In
term
olec
ular
forc
es in
clud
e Lo
ndon
(dis
pers
ion)
forc
es, d
ipol
e-di
pole
forc
es
and
hydr
ogen
bon
ding
.
• Th
e re
lativ
e st
reng
ths
of th
ese
inte
ract
ions
are
Lon
don
(dis
pers
ion)
forc
es <
di
pole
-dip
ole
forc
es <
hyd
roge
n bo
nds.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls
• D
educ
tion
of th
e ty
pes
of in
term
olec
ular
forc
e pr
esen
t in
subs
tanc
es, b
ased
on
thei
r stru
ctur
e an
d ch
emic
al fo
rmul
a.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
phys
ical
pro
perti
es o
f cov
alen
t com
poun
ds (v
olat
ility
, el
ectri
cal c
ondu
ctiv
ity a
nd s
olub
ility
) in
term
s of
thei
r stru
ctur
e an
d in
term
olec
ular
forc
es.
Gui
danc
e:
• Th
e te
rm “L
ondo
n (d
ispe
rsio
n) fo
rces
” ref
ers
to in
stan
tane
ous
indu
ced
dipo
le-
indu
ced
dipo
le fo
rces
that
exi
st b
etw
een
any
atom
s or
gro
ups
of a
tom
s an
d sh
ould
be
used
for n
on-p
olar
ent
ities
. The
term
“van
der
Waa
ls” i
s an
incl
usiv
e te
rm, w
hich
incl
udes
dip
ole–
dipo
le, d
ipol
e-in
duce
d di
pole
and
Lon
don
(dis
pers
ion)
forc
es.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• Th
e na
ture
of t
he h
ydro
gen
bond
is th
e to
pic
of m
uch
disc
ussi
on a
nd th
e cu
rrent
def
initi
on fr
om th
e IU
PA
C g
ives
six
crit
eria
whi
ch s
houl
d be
use
d as
ev
iden
ce fo
r the
occ
urre
nce
of h
ydro
gen
bond
ing.
How
doe
s a
spec
ializ
ed
voca
bula
ry h
elp
and
hind
er th
e gr
owth
of k
now
ledg
e?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Opt
ion
A.5
—us
ing
plas
ticiz
ers
Opt
ion
A.7
—co
ntro
lling
bio
degr
adab
ility
O
ptio
n B
.3—
mel
ting
poin
ts o
f cis
-/tra
ns- f
ats
Bio
logy
topi
cs 2
.2, 2
.3, 2
.4 a
nd 2
.6—
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
inte
rmol
ecul
ar fo
rces
to w
ork
with
mol
ecul
es in
the
body
Aim
s:
• A
im 7
: Com
pute
r sim
ulat
ions
cou
ld b
e us
ed to
sho
w in
term
olec
ular
forc
es
inte
ract
ions
.
Topic 4: Chemical bonding and structure
Chemistry guide 49
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: M
etal
lic b
onds
invo
lve
a la
ttice
of c
atio
ns w
ith d
eloc
aliz
ed e
lect
rons
.
4.5
Met
allic
bon
ding
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Use
theo
ries
to e
xpla
in n
atur
al p
heno
men
a—th
e pr
oper
ties
of m
etal
s ar
e di
ffere
nt fr
om c
oval
ent a
nd io
nic
subs
tanc
es a
nd th
is is
due
to th
e fo
rmat
ion
of n
on-d
irect
iona
l bo
nds
with
a “s
ea” o
f del
ocal
ized
ele
ctro
ns. (
2.2)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• A
met
allic
bon
d is
the
elec
trost
atic
attr
actio
n be
twee
n a
latti
ce o
f pos
itive
ions
an
d de
loca
lized
ele
ctro
ns.
• Th
e st
reng
th o
f a m
etal
lic b
ond
depe
nds
on th
e ch
arge
of t
he io
ns a
nd th
e ra
dius
of t
he m
etal
ion.
• A
lloys
usu
ally
con
tain
mor
e th
an o
ne m
etal
and
hav
e en
hanc
ed p
rope
rties
.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• E
xpla
natio
n of
ele
ctric
al c
ondu
ctiv
ity a
nd m
alle
abili
ty in
met
als.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
tren
ds in
mel
ting
poin
ts o
f met
als.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
prop
ertie
s of
allo
ys in
term
s of
non
-dire
ctio
nal b
ondi
ng.
Gui
danc
e:
• Tr
ends
sho
uld
be li
mite
d to
s- a
nd p
-blo
ck e
lem
ents
.
• E
xam
ples
of v
ario
us a
lloys
sho
uld
be c
over
ed.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
e av
aila
bilit
y of
met
al re
sour
ces,
and
the
mea
ns to
ext
ract
them
, var
ies
grea
tly in
diff
eren
t cou
ntrie
s, a
nd is
a fa
ctor
in d
eter
min
ing
natio
nal w
ealth
. As
tech
nolo
gies
dev
elop
, the
dem
ands
for d
iffer
ent m
etal
s ch
ange
and
car
eful
st
rate
gies
are
nee
ded
to m
anag
e th
e su
pply
of t
hese
fini
te re
sour
ces.
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Opt
ion
A.6
—us
e of
met
als
in n
anot
echn
olog
y
Bio
logy
topi
c 2.
2—w
ater
Aim
s:
• A
im 1
: Glo
bal i
mpa
ct o
f val
ue o
f pre
ciou
s m
etal
s an
d th
eir e
xtra
ctio
n pr
oces
ses
and
loca
tions
.
• A
im 7
: Com
pute
r sim
ulat
ions
cou
ld b
e us
ed to
vie
w e
xam
ples
of m
etal
lic
bond
ing.
Topic 5: Energetics/thermochemistry
Chemistry guide50
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he e
ntha
lpy
chan
ges
from
che
mic
al re
actio
ns c
an b
e ca
lcul
ated
from
thei
r effe
ct o
n th
e te
mpe
ratu
re o
f the
ir su
rroun
ding
s.
5.1
Mea
surin
g en
ergy
cha
nges
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Fund
amen
tal p
rinci
ple—
cons
erva
tion
of e
nerg
y is
a fu
ndam
enta
l prin
cipl
e of
sci
ence
. (2.
6)
Mak
ing
care
ful o
bser
vatio
ns—
mea
sura
ble
ener
gy tr
ansf
ers
betw
een
syst
ems
and
surr
ound
ings
. (3.
1)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• H
eat i
s a
form
of e
nerg
y.
• Te
mpe
ratu
re is
a m
easu
re o
f the
ave
rage
kin
etic
ene
rgy
of th
e pa
rticl
es.
• To
tal e
nerg
y is
con
serv
ed in
che
mic
al re
actio
ns.
• C
hem
ical
reac
tions
that
invo
lve
trans
fer o
f hea
t bet
wee
n th
e sy
stem
and
the
surro
undi
ngs
are
desc
ribed
as
endo
ther
mic
or e
xoth
erm
ic.
• Th
e en
thal
py c
hang
e (∆
H) fo
r che
mic
al re
actio
ns is
indi
cate
d in
kJ
mol
-1.
• ∆H
val
ues
are
usua
lly e
xpre
ssed
und
er s
tand
ard
cond
ition
s, g
iven
by ∆
H°,
incl
udin
g st
anda
rd s
tate
s.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• C
alcu
latio
n of
the
heat
cha
nge
whe
n th
e te
mpe
ratu
re o
f a p
ure
subs
tanc
e is
ch
ange
d us
ing
𝑞𝑞=
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚∆
𝑇𝑇.
• A
cal
orim
etry
exp
erim
ent f
or a
n en
thal
py o
f rea
ctio
n sh
ould
be
cove
red
and
the
resu
lts e
valu
ated
.
Gui
danc
e:
• E
ntha
lpy
chan
ges
of c
ombu
stio
n (∆
H c° ) and
form
atio
n (∆
H f° )sho
uld
be c
over
ed.
• C
onsi
der r
eact
ions
in a
queo
us s
olut
ion
and
com
bust
ion
reac
tions
.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
e S
I uni
t of t
empe
ratu
re is
the
Kel
vin
(K),
but t
he C
elsi
us s
cale
(°C
), w
hich
ha
s th
e sa
me
incr
emen
tal s
calin
g, is
com
mon
ly u
sed
in m
ost c
ount
ries.
The
ex
cept
ion
is th
e U
SA
whi
ch c
ontin
ues
to u
se th
e Fa
hren
heit
scal
e (°
F) fo
r all
non-
scie
ntifi
c co
mm
unic
atio
n.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• W
hat c
riter
ia d
o w
e us
e in
judg
ing
disc
repa
ncie
s be
twee
n ex
perim
enta
l and
th
eore
tical
val
ues?
Whi
ch w
ays
of k
now
ing
do w
e us
e w
hen
asse
ssin
g ex
perim
enta
l lim
itatio
ns a
nd th
eore
tical
ass
umpt
ions
?
Util
izat
ion:
• D
eter
min
ing
ener
gy c
onte
nt o
f im
porta
nt s
ubst
ance
s in
food
and
fuel
s.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 1.
1—co
nser
vatio
n of
mas
s, c
hang
es o
f sta
te
Topi
c 1.
2—th
e m
ole
conc
ept
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e ca
lcul
atin
g en
thal
py c
hang
es fr
om g
iven
ex
perim
enta
l dat
a (e
nerg
y co
nten
t of f
ood,
ent
halp
y of
mel
ting
of ic
e or
the
enth
alpy
cha
nge
of s
impl
e re
actio
ns in
aqu
eous
sol
utio
n).
• A
im 7
: Use
of d
atab
ases
to a
naly
se th
e en
ergy
con
tent
of f
ood.
• A
im 7
: Use
of d
ata
logg
ers
to re
cord
tem
pera
ture
cha
nges
.
Topi
c 5:
Ene
rget
ics/
ther
moc
hem
istr
y 9
hour
s
Core
Topic 5: Energetics/thermochemistry
Chemistry guide 51
5.1
Mea
surin
g en
ergy
cha
nges
• S
tand
ard
stat
e re
fers
to th
e no
rmal
, mos
t pur
e st
able
sta
te o
f a s
ubst
ance
m
easu
red
at 1
00 k
Pa.
Tem
pera
ture
is n
ot a
par
t of t
he d
efin
ition
of s
tand
ard
stat
e, b
ut 2
98 K
is c
omm
only
giv
en a
s th
e te
mpe
ratu
re o
f int
eres
t.
• Th
e sp
ecifi
c he
at c
apac
ity o
f wat
er is
pro
vide
d in
the
data
boo
klet
in s
ectio
n 2.
• S
tude
nts
can
assu
me
the
dens
ity a
nd s
peci
fic h
eat c
apac
ities
of a
queo
us
solu
tions
are
equ
al to
thos
e of
wat
er, b
ut s
houl
d be
aw
are
of th
is li
mita
tion.
• H
eat l
osse
s to
the
envi
ronm
ent a
nd th
e he
at c
apac
ity o
f the
cal
orim
eter
in
expe
rimen
ts s
houl
d be
con
side
red,
but
the
use
of a
bom
b ca
lorim
eter
is n
ot
requ
ired.
Topic 5: Energetics/thermochemistry
Chemistry guide52
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: In
che
mic
al tr
ansf
orm
atio
ns e
nerg
y ca
n ne
ither
be
crea
ted
nor d
estro
yed
(the
first
law
of t
herm
odyn
amic
s).
5.2
Hes
s's
Law
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Hyp
othe
ses—
base
d on
the
cons
erva
tion
of e
nerg
y an
d at
omic
theo
ry, s
cien
tists
can
test
the
hypo
thes
is th
at if
the
sam
e pr
oduc
ts a
re fo
rmed
from
the
sam
e in
itial
reac
tant
s th
en th
e en
ergy
cha
nge
shou
ld b
e th
e sa
me
rega
rdle
ss o
f the
num
ber o
f ste
ps. (
2.4)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• Th
e en
thal
py c
hang
e fo
r a re
actio
n th
at is
car
ried
out i
n a
serie
s of
ste
ps is
eq
ual t
o th
e su
m o
f the
ent
halp
y ch
ange
s fo
r the
indi
vidu
al s
teps
.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• A
pplic
atio
n of
Hes
s’s
Law
to c
alcu
late
ent
halp
y ch
ange
s.
• C
alcu
latio
n of
∆𝐻𝐻
reac
tions
usi
ng ∆
𝐻𝐻 𝑓𝑓° dat
a.
• D
eter
min
atio
n of
the
enth
alpy
cha
nge
of a
reac
tion
that
is th
e su
m o
f mul
tiple
re
actio
ns w
ith k
now
n en
thal
py c
hang
es.
Gui
danc
e:
• E
ntha
lpy
of fo
rmat
ion
data
can
be
foun
d in
the
data
boo
klet
in s
ectio
n 12
.
• A
n ap
plic
atio
n of
Hes
s's
Law
is ∆
𝐻𝐻 re
actio
n=
Σ(∆𝐻𝐻
𝑓𝑓° prod
ucts)
− Σ(
∆𝐻𝐻𝑓𝑓° re
acta
nts)
.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• R
ecyc
ling
of m
ater
ials
is o
ften
an e
ffect
ive
mea
ns o
f red
ucin
g th
e en
viro
nmen
tal i
mpa
ct o
f pro
duct
ion,
but
var
ies
in it
s ef
ficie
ncy
in e
nerg
y te
rms
in d
iffer
ent c
ount
ries.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• H
ess’
s La
w is
an
exam
ple
of th
e ap
plic
atio
n of
the
Con
serv
atio
n of
Ene
rgy.
W
hat a
re th
e ch
alle
nges
and
lim
itatio
ns o
f app
lyin
g ge
nera
l prin
cipl
es to
sp
ecifi
c in
stan
ces?
Util
izat
ion:
• H
ess’
s La
w h
as s
igni
fican
ce in
the
stud
y of
nut
ritio
n, d
rugs
, and
Gib
bs fr
ee
ener
gy w
here
dire
ct s
ynth
esis
from
con
stitu
ent e
lem
ents
is n
ot p
ossi
ble.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Phy
sics
topi
c 2.
3—co
nser
vatio
n of
mas
s-en
ergy
Aim
s:
• A
im 4
: Dis
cuss
the
sour
ce o
f acc
epte
d va
lues
and
use
this
idea
to c
ritiq
ue
expe
rimen
ts.
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e H
ess'
s La
w la
bs.
• A
im 7
: Use
of d
ata
logg
ers
to re
cord
tem
pera
ture
cha
nges
.
Topic 5: Energetics/thermochemistry
Chemistry guide 53
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: E
nerg
y is
abs
orbe
d w
hen
bond
s ar
e br
oken
and
is re
leas
ed w
hen
bond
s ar
e fo
rmed
.
5.3
Bon
d en
thal
pies
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Mod
els
and
theo
ries—
mea
sure
d en
ergy
cha
nges
can
be
expl
aine
d ba
sed
on th
e m
odel
of b
onds
bro
ken
and
bond
s fo
rmed
. Sin
ce th
ese
expl
anat
ions
are
bas
ed o
n a
mod
el,
agre
emen
t with
em
piric
al d
ata
depe
nds
on th
e so
phis
ticat
ion
of th
e m
odel
and
dat
a ob
tain
ed c
an b
e us
ed to
mod
ify th
eorie
s w
here
app
ropr
iate
. (2.
2)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• B
ond-
form
ing
rele
ases
ene
rgy
and
bond
-bre
akin
g re
quire
s en
ergy
.
• A
vera
ge b
ond
enth
alpy
is th
e en
ergy
nee
ded
to b
reak
one
mol
of a
bon
d in
a
gase
ous
mol
ecul
e av
erag
ed o
ver s
imila
r com
poun
ds.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• C
alcu
latio
n of
the
enth
alpy
cha
nges
from
kno
wn
bond
ent
halp
y va
lues
and
co
mpa
rison
of t
hese
to e
xper
imen
tally
mea
sure
d va
lues
.
• S
ketc
hing
and
eva
luat
ion
of p
oten
tial e
nerg
y pr
ofile
s in
det
erm
inin
g w
heth
er
reac
tant
s or
pro
duct
s ar
e m
ore
stab
le a
nd if
the
reac
tion
is e
xoth
erm
ic o
r en
doth
erm
ic.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
bond
stre
ngth
in o
zone
rela
tive
to o
xyge
n in
its
impo
rtanc
e to
th
e at
mos
pher
e.
Gui
danc
e:
• B
ond
enth
alpy
val
ues
are
give
n in
the
data
boo
klet
in s
ectio
n 11
.
• A
vera
ge b
ond
enth
alpi
es a
re o
nly
valid
for g
ases
and
cal
cula
tions
invo
lvin
g bo
nd e
ntha
lpie
s m
ay b
e in
accu
rate
bec
ause
they
do
not t
ake
into
acc
ount
in
term
olec
ular
forc
es.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• S
trato
sphe
ric o
zone
dep
letio
n is
a p
artic
ular
con
cern
in th
e po
lar r
egio
ns o
f the
pl
anet
, alth
ough
the
pollu
tion
that
cau
ses
it co
mes
from
a v
arie
ty o
f reg
ions
and
so
urce
s. In
tern
atio
nal a
ctio
n an
d co
oper
atio
n ha
ve h
elpe
d to
am
elio
rate
the
ozon
e de
plet
ion
prob
lem
.
Util
izat
ion:
• E
nerg
y so
urce
s, s
uch
as c
ombu
stio
n of
foss
il fu
els,
requ
ire h
igh
ΔH
val
ues.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 4.
3—co
vale
nt s
truct
ures
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ents
cou
ld b
e en
thal
py o
f com
bust
ion
of p
ropa
ne o
r but
ane.
• A
im 7
: Dat
a lo
gger
s ca
n be
use
d to
reco
rd te
mpe
ratu
re c
hang
es.
• A
im 8
: Mor
al, e
thic
al, s
ocia
l, ec
onom
ic a
nd e
nviro
nmen
tal c
onse
quen
ces
of
ozon
e de
plet
ion
and
its c
ause
s.
Topic 6: Chemical kinetics
Chemistry guide54
Core Topi
c 6:
Che
mic
al k
inet
ics
7 ho
urs
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he g
reat
er th
e pr
obab
ility
that
mol
ecul
es w
ill c
ollid
e w
ith s
uffic
ient
ene
rgy
and
prop
er o
rient
atio
n, th
e hi
gher
the
rate
of r
eact
ion.
6.1
Col
lisio
n th
eory
and
rate
s of
reac
tion
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
The
prin
cipl
e of
Occ
am’s
razo
r is
used
as
a gu
ide
to d
evel
opin
g a
theo
ry—
alth
ough
we
cann
ot d
irect
ly s
ee re
actio
ns ta
king
pla
ce a
t the
mol
ecul
ar le
vel,
we
can
theo
rize
base
d on
the
curre
nt a
tom
ic m
odel
s. C
ollis
ion
theo
ry is
a g
ood
exam
ple
of th
is p
rinci
ple.
(2.7
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• S
peci
es re
act a
s a
resu
lt of
col
lisio
ns o
f suf
ficie
nt e
nerg
y an
d pr
oper
or
ient
atio
n.
• Th
e ra
te o
f rea
ctio
n is
exp
ress
ed a
s th
e ch
ange
in c
once
ntra
tion
of a
par
ticul
ar
reac
tant
/pro
duct
per
uni
t tim
e.
• C
once
ntra
tion
chan
ges
in a
reac
tion
can
be fo
llow
ed in
dire
ctly
by
mon
itorin
g ch
ange
s in
mas
s, v
olum
e an
d co
lour
.
• A
ctiv
atio
n en
ergy
(Ea)
is th
e m
inim
um e
nerg
y th
at c
ollid
ing
mol
ecul
es n
eed
in
orde
r to
have
suc
cess
ful c
ollis
ions
lead
ing
to a
reac
tion.
• B
y de
crea
sing
Ea,
a ca
taly
st in
crea
ses
the
rate
of a
che
mic
al re
actio
n, w
ithou
t its
elf b
eing
per
man
ently
che
mic
ally
cha
nged
.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
escr
iptio
n of
the
kine
tic th
eory
in te
rms
of th
e m
ovem
ent o
f par
ticle
s w
hose
av
erag
e ki
netic
ene
rgy
is p
ropo
rtion
al to
tem
pera
ture
in K
elvi
n.
• A
naly
sis
of g
raph
ical
and
num
eric
al d
ata
from
rate
exp
erim
ents
.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• D
eple
tion
of s
trato
sphe
ric o
zone
has
bee
n ca
used
larg
ely
by th
e ca
taly
tic
actio
n of
CFC
s an
d is
a p
artic
ular
con
cern
in th
e po
lar r
egio
ns. T
hese
ch
emic
als
are
rele
ased
from
a v
arie
ty o
f reg
ions
and
sou
rces
, so
inte
rnat
iona
l ac
tion
and
coop
erat
ion
have
bee
n ne
eded
to a
mel
iora
te th
e oz
one
depl
etio
n pr
oble
m.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• Th
e K
elvi
n sc
ale
of te
mpe
ratu
re g
ives
a n
atur
al m
easu
re o
f the
kin
etic
ene
rgy
of g
as w
here
as th
e ar
tific
ial C
elsi
us s
cale
is b
ased
on
the
prop
ertie
s of
wat
er.
Are
phy
sica
l pro
perti
es s
uch
as te
mpe
ratu
re in
vent
ed o
r dis
cove
red?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 5.
3—w
hat m
ight
be
mea
nt b
y th
erm
odyn
amic
ally
sta
ble
vs k
inet
ical
ly s
tabl
e?
Topi
c 13
.1—
firew
orks
and
ions
O
ptio
n A
.3—
ever
yday
use
s of
cat
alys
ts
Opt
ion
B.2
—en
zym
es
Bio
logy
topi
c 8.
1—m
etab
olis
m
Topic 6: Chemical kinetics
Chemistry guide 55
6.1
Col
lisio
n th
eory
and
rate
s of
reac
tion
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
effe
cts
of te
mpe
ratu
re, p
ress
ure/
conc
entra
tion
and
parti
cle
size
on
rate
of r
eact
ion.
• C
onst
ruct
ion
of M
axw
ell–
Bol
tzm
ann
ener
gy d
istri
butio
n cu
rves
to a
ccou
nt fo
r th
e pr
obab
ility
of s
ucce
ssfu
l col
lisio
ns a
nd fa
ctor
s af
fect
ing
thes
e, in
clud
ing
the
effe
ct o
f a c
atal
yst.
• In
vest
igat
ion
of ra
tes
of re
actio
n ex
perim
enta
lly a
nd e
valu
atio
n of
the
resu
lts.
• S
ketc
hing
and
exp
lana
tion
of e
nerg
y pr
ofile
s w
ith a
nd w
ithou
t cat
alys
ts.
Gui
danc
e:
• C
alcu
latio
n of
reac
tion
rate
s fro
m ta
ngen
ts o
f gra
phs
of c
once
ntra
tion,
vol
ume
or m
ass
agai
nst t
ime
shou
ld b
e co
vere
d.
• S
tude
nts
shou
ld b
e fa
mili
ar w
ith th
e in
terp
reta
tion
of g
raph
s of
cha
nges
in
conc
entra
tion,
vol
ume
or m
ass
agai
nst t
ime.
Aim
s:
• A
ims
1 an
d 8:
Wha
t are
som
e of
the
cont
rove
rsie
s ov
er ra
te o
f clim
ate
chan
ge?
Why
do
thes
e ex
ist?
• A
im 6
: Inv
estig
ate
the
rate
of a
reac
tion
with
and
with
out a
cat
alys
t.
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e in
vest
igat
ing
rate
s by
cha
ngin
g co
ncen
tratio
n of
a re
acta
nt o
r tem
pera
ture
.
• A
im 7
: Use
sim
ulat
ions
to s
how
how
mol
ecul
ar c
ollis
ions
are
affe
cted
by
chan
ge o
f mac
rosc
opic
pro
perti
es s
uch
as te
mpe
ratu
re, p
ress
ure
and
conc
entra
tion.
• A
im 8
: The
role
that
cat
alys
ts p
lay
in th
e fie
ld o
f gre
en c
hem
istry
.
Topic 7: Equilibrium
Chemistry guide56
Core Topi
c 7:
Equ
ilibr
ium
4.
5 ho
urs
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: M
any
reac
tions
are
reve
rsib
le. T
hese
reac
tions
will
reac
h a
stat
e of
equ
ilibr
ium
whe
n th
e ra
tes
of th
e fo
rwar
d an
d re
vers
e re
actio
n ar
e eq
ual.
The
posi
tion
of
equi
libriu
m c
an b
e co
ntro
lled
by c
hang
ing
the
cond
ition
s.
7.1
Equi
libriu
m
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Obt
aini
ng e
vide
nce
for s
cien
tific
theo
ries—
isot
opic
labe
lling
and
its
use
in d
efin
ing
equi
libriu
m. (
1.8)
Com
mon
lang
uage
acr
oss
diffe
rent
dis
cipl
ines
—th
e te
rm d
ynam
ic e
quili
briu
m is
use
d in
oth
er c
onte
xts,
but
not
nec
essa
rily
with
the
chem
istry
def
initi
on in
min
d. (5
.5)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• A
sta
te o
f equ
ilibr
ium
is re
ache
d in
a c
lose
d sy
stem
whe
n th
e ra
tes
of th
e fo
rwar
d an
d re
vers
e re
actio
ns a
re e
qual
.
• Th
e eq
uilib
rium
law
des
crib
es h
ow th
e eq
uilib
rium
con
stan
t (K
c) ca
n be
de
term
ined
for a
par
ticul
ar c
hem
ical
reac
tion.
• Th
e m
agni
tude
of t
he e
quili
briu
m c
onst
ant i
ndic
ates
the
exte
nt o
f a re
actio
n at
eq
uilib
rium
and
is te
mpe
ratu
re d
epen
dent
.
• Th
e re
actio
n qu
otie
nt (Q
) mea
sure
s th
e re
lativ
e am
ount
of p
rodu
cts
and
reac
tant
s pr
esen
t dur
ing
a re
actio
n at
a p
artic
ular
poi
nt in
tim
e. Q
is th
e eq
uilib
rium
exp
ress
ion
with
non
-equ
ilibr
ium
con
cent
ratio
ns. T
he p
ositi
on o
f the
eq
uilib
rium
cha
nges
with
cha
nges
in c
once
ntra
tion,
pre
ssur
e, a
nd te
mpe
ratu
re.
• A
cat
alys
t has
no
effe
ct o
n th
e po
sitio
n of
equ
ilibr
ium
or t
he e
quili
briu
m
cons
tant
.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• Th
e ch
arac
teris
tics
of c
hem
ical
and
phy
sica
l sys
tem
s in
a s
tate
of e
quili
briu
m.
• D
educ
tion
of th
e eq
uilib
rium
con
stan
t exp
ress
ion
(Kc)
from
an
equa
tion
for a
ho
mog
eneo
us re
actio
n.
• D
eter
min
atio
n of
the
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
diffe
rent
equ
ilibr
ium
con
stan
ts (K
c) fo
r the
sam
e re
actio
n (a
t the
sam
e te
mpe
ratu
re) w
hen
repr
esen
ted
by
equa
tions
writ
ten
in d
iffer
ent w
ays.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
e H
aber
pro
cess
has
bee
n de
scrib
ed a
s th
e m
ost i
mpo
rtant
che
mic
al
reac
tion
on E
arth
as
it ha
s re
volu
tioni
zed
glob
al fo
od p
rodu
ctio
n. H
owev
er, i
t al
so h
ad a
larg
e im
pact
on
wea
ponr
y in
bot
h w
orld
war
s.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• S
cien
tists
inve
stig
ate
the
wor
ld a
t diff
eren
t sca
les;
the
mac
rosc
opic
and
m
icro
scop
ic. W
hich
way
s of
kno
win
g al
low
us
to m
ove
from
the
mac
rosc
opic
to
the
mic
rosc
opic
?
• C
hem
istry
use
s a
spec
ializ
ed v
ocab
ular
y: a
clo
sed
syst
em is
one
in w
hich
no
mat
ter i
s ex
chan
ged
with
the
surro
undi
ngs.
Doe
s ou
r voc
abul
ary
sim
ply
com
mun
icat
e ou
r kno
wle
dge;
or d
oes
it sh
ape
wha
t we
can
know
?
• Th
e ca
reer
of F
ritz
Hab
er c
oinc
ided
with
the
polit
ical
uph
eava
ls o
f tw
o w
orld
w
ars.
He
supe
rvis
ed th
e re
leas
e of
chl
orin
e on
the
battl
efie
ld in
Wor
ld W
ar I
and
wor
ked
on th
e pr
oduc
tion
of e
xplo
sive
s. H
ow d
oes
the
soci
al c
onte
xt o
f sc
ient
ific
wor
k af
fect
the
met
hods
and
find
ings
of s
cien
ce?
Sho
uld
scie
ntis
ts b
e he
ld m
oral
ly re
spon
sibl
e fo
r the
app
licat
ions
of t
heir
disc
over
ies?
Util
izat
ion:
• S
quar
e br
acke
ts a
re u
sed
in c
hem
istry
in a
rang
e of
con
text
s: e
g co
ncen
tratio
ns (t
opic
1.3
), Le
wis
(ele
ctro
n do
t) st
ruct
ures
(top
ic 4
.3) a
nd
com
plex
es (t
opic
14.
1).
Topic 7: Equilibrium
Chemistry guide 57
7.1
Equi
libriu
m
• A
pplic
atio
n of
Le
Châ
telie
r’s p
rinci
ple
to p
redi
ct th
e qu
alita
tive
effe
cts
of
chan
ges
of te
mpe
ratu
re, p
ress
ure
and
conc
entra
tion
on th
e po
sitio
n of
eq
uilib
rium
and
on
the
valu
e of
the
equi
libriu
m c
onst
ant.
Gu i
danc
e:
• P
hysi
cal a
nd c
hem
ical
sys
tem
s sh
ould
be
cove
red.
• R
elat
ions
hip
betw
een
Kc v
alue
s fo
r rea
ctio
ns th
at a
re m
ultip
les
or in
vers
es o
f on
e an
othe
r sho
uld
be c
over
ed.
• S
peci
fic d
etai
ls o
f any
indu
stria
l pro
cess
are
not
requ
ired.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 8.
4—th
e be
havi
our o
f wea
k ac
ids
and
base
s
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Le
Châ
telie
r’s p
rinci
ple
can
be in
vest
igat
ed q
ualit
ativ
ely
by lo
okin
g at
pr
essu
re, c
once
ntra
tion
and
tem
pera
ture
cha
nges
on
diffe
rent
equ
ilibr
ium
sy
stem
s.
• A
im 7
: Ani
mat
ions
and
sim
ulat
ions
can
be
used
to il
lust
rate
the
conc
ept o
f dy
nam
ic e
quili
briu
m.
• A
im 8
: Rai
se a
war
enes
s of
the
mor
al, e
thic
al, a
nd e
cono
mic
impl
icat
ions
of
usin
g sc
ienc
e an
d te
chno
logy
. A c
ase
stud
y of
Frit
z H
aber
can
be
used
to
deba
te th
e ro
le o
f sci
entis
ts in
soc
iety
.
Topic 8: Acids and bases
Chemistry guide58
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: M
any
reac
tions
invo
lve
the
trans
fer o
f a p
roto
n fro
m a
n ac
id to
a b
ase.
8.1
Theo
ries
of a
cids
and
bas
es
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Fals
ifica
tion
of th
eorie
s—H
CN
alte
ring
the
theo
ry th
at o
xyge
n w
as th
e el
emen
t whi
ch g
ave
a co
mpo
und
its a
cidi
c pr
oper
ties
allo
wed
for o
ther
aci
d–ba
se th
eorie
s to
dev
elop
. (2
.5)
Theo
ries
bein
g su
pers
eded
—on
e ea
rly th
eory
of a
cidi
ty d
eriv
ed fr
om th
e se
nsat
ion
of a
sou
r tas
te, b
ut th
is h
ad b
een
prov
en fa
lse.
(1.9
)
Pub
lic u
nder
stan
ding
of s
cien
ce—
outs
ide
of th
e ar
ena
of c
hem
istry
, dec
isio
ns a
re s
omet
imes
refe
rred
to a
s "a
cid
test
" or "
litm
us te
st".
(5.5
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• A
Brø
nste
d–Lo
wry
aci
d is
a p
roto
n/H
+ don
or a
nd a
Brø
nste
d–Lo
wry
bas
e is
a
prot
on/H
+ acc
epto
r.
• A
mph
ipro
tic s
peci
es c
an a
ct a
s bo
th B
røns
ted–
Low
ry a
cids
and
bas
es.
• A
pai
r of s
peci
es d
iffer
ing
by a
sin
gle
prot
on is
cal
led
a co
njug
ate
acid
-bas
e pa
ir.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
educ
tion
of th
e B
røns
ted–
Low
ry a
cid
and
base
in a
che
mic
al re
actio
n.
• D
educ
tion
of th
e co
njug
ate
acid
or c
onju
gate
bas
e in
a c
hem
ical
reac
tion.
Gui
danc
e:
• Le
wis
theo
ry is
not
requ
ired
here
.
• Th
e lo
catio
n of
the
prot
on tr
ansf
erre
d sh
ould
be
clea
rly in
dica
ted.
For
exa
mpl
e,
CH
3CO
OH
/CH
3CO
O– r
athe
r tha
n C
2H4O
2/C2H
3O2– .
• S
tude
nts
shou
ld k
now
the
repr
esen
tatio
n of
a p
roto
n in
aqu
eous
sol
utio
n as
bo
th H
+ (aq
) and
H3O
+ (aq
).
• Th
e di
ffere
nce
betw
een
the
term
s am
phot
eric
and
am
phip
rotic
sho
uld
be
cove
red.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• A
cidu
s m
eans
sou
r in
Latin
, whi
le a
lkal
i is
deriv
ed fr
om th
e A
rabi
c w
ord
for
calc
ined
ash
es. O
xyge
ne m
eans
aci
d-fo
rmin
g in
Gre
ek, a
nd re
flect
s th
e m
ista
ken
belie
f tha
t the
ele
men
t oxy
gen
was
resp
onsi
ble
for a
com
poun
d’s
acid
ic p
rope
rties
. Aci
d–ba
se th
eory
has
bee
n de
velo
ped
by s
cien
tists
from
ar
ound
the
wor
ld, a
nd it
s vo
cabu
lary
has
bee
n in
fluen
ced
by th
eir l
angu
ages
.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• A
cid
and
base
beh
avio
ur c
an b
e ex
plai
ned
usin
g di
ffere
nt th
eorie
s. H
ow a
re th
e ex
plan
atio
ns in
che
mis
try d
iffer
ent f
rom
exp
lana
tions
in o
ther
sub
ject
s su
ch a
s hi
stor
y?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 3.
2—th
e ac
id/b
ase
char
acte
r of o
xide
s To
pic
8.5—
non-
met
al o
xide
s ar
e re
spon
sibl
e fo
r aci
d pr
ecip
itatio
n
Opt
ion
B.2
—am
ino
acid
s ac
ting
as a
mph
ipro
tic s
peci
es
Opt
ion
D.4
—an
taci
ds a
re b
ases
whi
ch n
eutra
lize
exce
ss h
ydro
chlo
ric a
cid
in th
e st
omac
h
Aim
s:
• A
im 9
: Eac
h th
eory
has
its
stre
ngth
s an
d lim
itatio
ns. L
avoi
sier
has
bee
n ca
lled
the
fath
er o
f mod
ern
chem
istry
but
he
was
mis
take
n ab
out o
xyge
n in
this
co
ntex
t.
Topi
c 8:
Aci
ds a
nd b
ases
6.
5 ho
urs
Core
Topic 8: Acids and bases
Chemistry guide 59
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he c
hara
cter
izat
ion
of a
n ac
id d
epen
ds o
n em
piric
al e
vide
nce
such
as
the
prod
uctio
n of
gas
es in
reac
tions
with
met
als,
the
colo
ur c
hang
es o
f ind
icat
ors
or
the
rele
ase
of h
eat i
n re
actio
ns w
ith m
etal
oxi
des
and
hydr
oxid
es.
8.2
Prop
ertie
s of
aci
ds a
nd b
ases
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Obt
aini
ng e
vide
nce
for t
heor
ies—
obse
rvab
le p
rope
rties
of a
cids
and
bas
es h
ave
led
to th
e m
odifi
catio
n of
aci
d–ba
se th
eorie
s. (1
.9)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• M
ost a
cids
hav
e ob
serv
able
cha
ract
eris
tic c
hem
ical
reac
tions
with
reac
tive
met
als,
met
al o
xide
s, m
etal
hyd
roxi
des,
hyd
roge
n ca
rbon
ates
and
car
bona
tes.
• S
alt a
nd w
ater
are
pro
duce
d in
exo
ther
mic
neu
traliz
atio
n re
actio
ns.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• B
alan
cing
che
mic
al e
quat
ions
for t
he re
actio
n of
aci
ds.
• Id
entif
icat
ion
of th
e ac
id a
nd b
ase
need
ed to
mak
e di
ffere
nt s
alts
.
• C
andi
date
s sh
ould
hav
e ex
perie
nce
of a
cid-
base
titra
tions
with
diff
eren
t in
dica
tors
.
Gui
danc
e:
• B
ases
whi
ch a
re n
ot h
ydro
xide
s, s
uch
as a
mm
onia
, sol
uble
car
bona
tes
and
hydr
ogen
car
bona
tes
shou
ld b
e co
vere
d.
• Th
e co
lour
cha
nges
of d
iffer
ent i
ndic
ator
s ar
e gi
ven
in th
e da
ta b
ookl
et in
se
ctio
n 22
.
Util
izat
ion:
• A
num
ber o
f aci
ds a
nd b
ases
are
use
d in
our
eve
ryda
y lif
e fro
m ru
st re
mov
ers
to o
ven
clea
ners
, fro
m fo
ods
to to
othp
aste
s, fr
om tr
eatm
ents
for b
ee s
tings
to
treat
men
t of w
asp
stin
gs.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 1.
3—ac
id–b
ase
titra
tions
To
pic
3.2—
the
acid
/bas
e ch
arac
ter o
f oxi
des
To
pic
5.1—
enth
alpy
cha
nge
of n
eutra
lizat
ion
reac
tions
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: The
evi
denc
e fo
r the
se p
rope
rties
cou
ld b
e ba
sed
on a
stu
dent
’s
expe
rimen
tal e
xper
ienc
es.
Topic 8: Acids and bases
Chemistry guide60
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he p
H s
cale
is a
n ar
tific
ial s
cale
use
d to
dis
tingu
ish
betw
een
acid
, neu
tral a
nd b
asic
/alk
alin
e so
lutio
ns.
8.3
The
pH s
cale
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Occ
am’s
razo
r—th
e pH
sca
le is
an
atte
mpt
to s
cale
the
rela
tive
acid
ity o
ver a
wid
e ra
nge
of H
+ con
cent
ratio
ns in
to a
ver
y si
mpl
e nu
mbe
r. (2
.7)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• pH
=−
log[
H+ ( aq)
] and
[H+
]=10
−pH
.
• A
cha
nge
of o
ne p
H u
nit r
epre
sent
s a
10-fo
ld c
hang
e in
the
hydr
ogen
ion
conc
entra
tion
[H+
].
• pH
val
ues
dist
ingu
ish
betw
een
acid
ic, n
eutra
l and
alk
alin
e so
lutio
ns.
• Th
e io
nic
prod
uct c
onst
ant,
𝐾𝐾 𝑤𝑤=
[ H+
][ OH−
] = 1
0−14 a
t 298
K.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• S
olvi
ng p
robl
ems
invo
lvin
g pH
,[ H+
] and
[OH− ].
• S
tude
nts
shou
ld b
e fa
mili
ar w
ith th
e us
e of
a p
H m
eter
and
uni
vers
al in
dica
tor.
Gui
danc
e:
• S
tude
nts
will
not
be
asse
ssed
on
pOH
valu
es.
• S
tude
nts
shou
ld b
e co
ncer
ned
only
with
stro
ng a
cids
and
bas
es in
this
sub
-to
pic.
• K
now
ing
the
tem
pera
ture
dep
ende
nce
of 𝐾𝐾
𝑤𝑤 is
not
requ
ired.
• E
quat
ions
invo
lvin
g H
3O+ i
nste
ad o
f H+ m
ay b
e ap
plie
d.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• C
hem
istry
mak
es u
se o
f the
uni
vers
al la
ngua
ge o
f mat
hem
atic
s as
a m
eans
of
com
mun
icat
ion.
Why
is it
impo
rtant
to h
ave
just
one
“sci
entif
ic” l
angu
age?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Mat
hem
atic
s S
L (to
pic
1.2)
and
Mat
hem
atic
s H
L (to
pic
1.2)
—st
udy
of lo
gs
Aim
s:
• A
im 3
: Stu
dent
s sh
ould
be
able
to u
se a
nd a
pply
the
pH c
once
pt in
a ra
nge
of
expe
rimen
tal a
nd th
eore
tical
con
text
s.
• A
im 6
: An
acid
–bas
e tit
ratio
n co
uld
be m
onito
red
with
an
indi
cato
r or a
pH
pr
obe.
Topic 8: Acids and bases
Chemistry guide 61
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he p
H d
epen
ds o
n th
e co
ncen
tratio
n of
the
solu
tion.
The
stre
ngth
of a
cids
or b
ases
dep
ends
on
the
exte
nt to
whi
ch th
ey d
isso
ciat
e in
aqu
eous
sol
utio
n.
8.4
Stro
ng a
nd w
eak
acid
s an
d ba
ses
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Impr
oved
inst
rum
enta
tion—
the
use
of a
dvan
ced
anal
ytic
al te
chni
ques
has
allo
wed
the
rela
tive
stre
ngth
of d
iffer
ent a
cids
and
bas
es to
be
quan
tifie
d. (1
.8)
Look
ing
for t
rend
s an
d di
scre
panc
ies—
patte
rns
and
anom
alie
s in
rela
tive
stre
ngth
s of
aci
ds a
nd b
ases
can
be
expl
aine
d at
the
mol
ecul
ar le
vel.
(3.1
)
The
outc
omes
of e
xper
imen
ts o
r mod
els
may
be
used
as
furth
er e
vide
nce
for a
cla
im—
data
for a
par
ticul
ar ty
pe o
f rea
ctio
n su
ppor
ts th
e id
ea th
at w
eak
acid
s ex
ist i
n eq
uilib
rium
. (1.
9)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• S
trong
and
wea
k ac
ids
and
base
s di
ffer i
n th
e ex
tent
of i
oniz
atio
n.
• S
trong
aci
ds a
nd b
ases
of e
qual
con
cent
ratio
ns h
ave
high
er c
ondu
ctiv
ities
than
w
eak
acid
s an
d ba
ses.
• A
stro
ng a
cid
is a
goo
d pr
oton
don
or a
nd h
as a
wea
k co
njug
ate
base
.
• A
stro
ng b
ase
is a
goo
d pr
oton
acc
epto
r and
has
a w
eak
conj
ugat
e ac
id.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
istin
ctio
n be
twee
n st
rong
and
wea
k ac
ids
in te
rms
of th
e ra
tes
of th
eir
reac
tions
with
met
als,
met
al o
xide
s, m
etal
hyd
roxi
des,
met
al h
ydro
gen
carb
onat
es a
nd m
etal
car
bona
tes.
Stro
ng a
nd w
eak
acid
s an
d ba
ses
also
diff
er
in th
eir e
lect
rical
con
duct
iviti
es fo
r sol
utio
ns o
f equ
al c
once
ntra
tions
.
Gui
danc
e:
• Th
e te
rms
ioni
zatio
n an
d di
ssoc
iatio
n ca
n be
use
d in
terc
hang
eabl
y.
• S
ee s
ectio
n 21
in th
e da
ta b
ookl
et fo
r a li
st o
f wea
k ac
ids
and
base
s.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• Th
e st
reng
th o
f an
acid
can
be
dete
rmin
ed b
y th
e us
e of
pH
and
con
duct
ivity
pr
obes
. In
wha
t way
s do
tech
nolo
gies
, whi
ch e
xten
d ou
r sen
ses,
cha
nge
or
rein
forc
e ou
r vie
w o
f the
wor
ld?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 1.
3—so
lutio
n ch
emis
try
Topi
c 7.
1—w
eak
acid
s an
d ba
ses
invo
lve
reve
rsib
le re
actio
ns
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Stu
dent
s sh
ould
hav
e ex
perim
enta
l exp
erie
nce
of w
orki
ng q
ualit
ativ
ely
with
bot
h st
rong
and
wea
k ac
ids
and
base
s. E
xam
ples
to in
clud
e: H
2SO
4 (a
q),
HC
l (aq
), H
NO
3 (a
q), N
aOH
(aq)
, NH
3 (a
q).
• A
im 7
: Stu
dent
s co
uld
use
data
logg
ers
to in
vest
igat
e th
e st
reng
th o
f aci
d an
d ba
ses.
Topic 8: Acids and bases
Chemistry guide62
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: In
crea
sed
indu
stria
lizat
ion
has
led
to g
reat
er p
rodu
ctio
n of
nitr
ogen
and
sul
fur o
xide
s le
adin
g to
aci
d ra
in, w
hich
is d
amag
ing
our e
nviro
nmen
t. Th
ese
prob
lem
s ca
n be
redu
ced
thro
ugh
colla
bora
tion
with
nat
iona
l and
inte
rgov
ernm
enta
l org
aniz
atio
ns.
8.5
Acid
dep
ositi
on
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Ris
ks a
nd p
robl
ems—
oxid
es o
f met
als
and
non-
met
als
can
be c
hara
cter
ized
by
thei
r aci
d–ba
se p
rope
rties
. Aci
d de
posi
tion
is a
topi
c th
at c
an b
e di
scus
sed
from
diff
eren
t pe
rspe
ctiv
es. C
hem
istry
allo
ws
us to
und
erst
and
and
to re
duce
the
envi
ronm
enta
l im
pact
of h
uman
act
iviti
es. (
4.8)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• R
ain
is n
atur
ally
aci
dic
beca
use
of d
isso
lved
CO
2 and
has
a p
H o
f 5.6
. Aci
d de
posi
tion
has
a pH
bel
ow 5
.6.
• A
cid
depo
sitio
n is
form
ed w
hen
nitro
gen
or s
ulfu
r oxi
des
diss
olve
in w
ater
to
form
HN
O3,
HN
O2,
H2S
O4 a
nd H
2SO
3.
• S
ourc
es o
f the
oxi
des
of s
ulfu
r and
nitr
ogen
and
the
effe
cts
of a
cid
depo
sitio
n sh
ould
be
cove
red.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• B
alan
cing
the
equa
tions
that
des
crib
e th
e co
mbu
stio
n of
sul
fur a
nd n
itrog
en to
th
eir o
xide
s an
d th
e su
bseq
uent
form
atio
n of
H2S
O3,
H2S
O4,
HN
O2 a
nd H
NO
3.
• D
istin
ctio
n be
twee
n th
e pr
e-co
mbu
stio
n an
d po
st-c
ombu
stio
n m
etho
ds o
f re
duci
ng s
ulfu
r oxi
des
emis
sion
s.
• D
educ
tion
of a
cid
depo
sitio
n eq
uatio
ns fo
r aci
d de
posi
tion
with
reac
tive
met
als
and
carb
onat
es.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
e po
llute
r cou
ntry
and
pol
lute
d co
untry
are
ofte
n no
t the
sam
e. A
cid
depo
sitio
n is
a s
econ
dary
pol
luta
nt th
at a
ffect
s re
gion
s fa
r fro
m th
e pr
imar
y so
urce
. Sol
ving
this
pro
blem
requ
ires
inte
rnat
iona
l coo
pera
tion.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• A
ll ra
in is
aci
dic
but n
ot a
ll ra
in is
“aci
d ra
in”.
Sci
entif
ic te
rms
have
a p
reci
se
defin
ition
. Doe
s sc
ient
ific
voca
bula
ry s
impl
y co
mm
unic
ate
our k
now
ledg
e in
a
neut
ral w
ay o
r can
it h
ave
valu
e-la
den
term
inol
ogy?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 3.
2—th
e ac
id/b
ase
char
acte
r of t
he o
xide
s
Opt
ion
B.2
—pH
cha
nge
and
enzy
me
activ
ity
Opt
ion
C.2
—su
lfur d
ioxi
de is
pro
duce
d by
the
com
bust
ion
of fo
ssil
fuel
s w
ith h
igh
leve
ls o
f sul
fur i
mpu
ritie
s
Env
ironm
enta
l sys
tem
s an
d so
ciet
ies
topi
c 5.
8—ac
id d
epos
ition
G
eogr
aphy
Opt
ion
G: U
rban
Env
ironm
ents
—ur
ban
stre
ss a
nd th
e su
stai
nabl
e ci
ty;
HL—
Glo
bal i
nter
actio
ns—
envi
ronm
enta
l cha
nge
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: The
effe
cts
of a
cid
rain
on
diffe
rent
con
stru
ctio
n m
ater
ials
cou
ld b
e qu
antit
ativ
ely
inve
stig
ated
.
• A
im 8
: A d
iscu
ssio
n of
the
impa
ct o
f aci
d ra
in in
diff
eren
t cou
ntrie
s w
ill h
elp
rais
e aw
aren
ess
of th
e en
viro
nmen
tal i
mpa
ct o
f thi
s se
cond
ary
pollu
tant
and
th
e po
litic
al im
plic
atio
ns.
• A
im 8
: Oth
er m
eans
of r
educ
ing
oxid
e pr
oduc
tion—
bus
use,
car
poo
ling,
etc
. co
uld
be d
iscu
ssed
.
Topic 9: Redox processes
Chemistry guide 6363
Topi
c 9:
Red
ox p
roce
sses
8
hour
s
Core
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: R
edox
(red
uctio
n–ox
idat
ion)
reac
tions
pla
y a
key
role
in m
any
chem
ical
and
bio
chem
ical
pro
cess
es.
9.1
Oxi
datio
n an
d re
duct
ion
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
How
evi
denc
e is
use
d—ch
ange
s in
the
defin
ition
of o
xida
tion
and
redu
ctio
n fro
m o
ne in
volv
ing
spec
ific
elem
ents
(oxy
gen
and
hydr
ogen
), to
one
invo
lvin
g el
ectro
n tra
nsfe
r, to
one
invo
king
oxi
datio
n nu
mbe
rs is
a g
ood
exam
ple
of th
e w
ay th
at s
cien
tists
bro
aden
sim
ilarit
ies
to g
ener
al p
rinci
ples
. (1.
9)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• O
xida
tion
and
redu
ctio
n ca
n be
con
side
red
in te
rms
of o
xyge
n ga
in/h
ydro
gen
loss
, ele
ctro
n tra
nsfe
r or c
hang
e in
oxi
datio
n nu
mbe
r.
• A
n ox
idiz
ing
agen
t is
redu
ced
and
a re
duci
ng a
gent
is o
xidi
zed.
• V
aria
ble
oxid
atio
n nu
mbe
rs e
xist
for t
rans
ition
met
als
and
for m
ost m
ain-
grou
p no
n-m
etal
s.
• Th
e ac
tivity
ser
ies
rank
s m
etal
s ac
cord
ing
to th
e ea
se w
ith w
hich
they
und
ergo
ox
idat
ion.
• Th
e W
inkl
er M
etho
d ca
n be
use
d to
mea
sure
bio
chem
ical
oxy
gen
dem
and
(BO
D),
used
as
a m
easu
re o
f the
deg
ree
of p
ollu
tion
in a
wat
er s
ampl
e.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
educ
tion
of th
e ox
idat
ion
stat
es o
f an
atom
in a
n io
n or
a c
ompo
und.
• D
educ
tion
of th
e na
me
of a
tran
sitio
n m
etal
com
poun
d fro
m a
giv
en fo
rmul
a,
appl
ying
oxi
datio
n nu
mbe
rs re
pres
ente
d by
Rom
an n
umer
als.
• Id
entif
icat
ion
of th
e sp
ecie
s ox
idiz
ed a
nd re
duce
d an
d th
e ox
idiz
ing
and
redu
cing
age
nts,
in re
dox
reac
tions
.
• D
educ
tion
of re
dox
reac
tions
usi
ng h
alf-e
quat
ions
in a
cidi
c or
neu
tral s
olut
ions
.
• D
educ
tion
of th
e fe
asib
ility
of a
redo
x re
actio
n fro
m th
e ac
tivity
ser
ies
or
reac
tion
data
.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• A
cces
s to
a s
uppl
y of
cle
an d
rinki
ng w
ater
has
bee
n re
cogn
ized
by
the
Uni
ted
Nat
ions
as
a fu
ndam
enta
l hum
an ri
ght,
yet i
t is
estim
ated
that
ove
r one
bill
ion
peop
le la
ck th
is p
rovi
sion
. Dis
infe
ctio
n of
wat
er s
uppl
ies
com
mon
ly u
ses
oxid
izin
g ag
ents
suc
h as
chl
orin
e or
ozo
ne to
kill
mic
robi
al p
atho
gens
.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• C
hem
istry
has
dev
elop
ed a
sys
tem
atic
lang
uage
that
has
resu
lted
in o
lder
na
mes
bec
omin
g ob
sole
te. W
hat h
as b
een
lost
and
gai
ned
in th
is p
roce
ss?
• O
xida
tion
stat
es a
re u
sefu
l whe
n ex
plai
ning
redo
x re
actio
ns. A
re a
rtific
ial
conv
ersi
ons
a us
eful
or v
alid
way
of c
larif
ying
kno
wle
dge?
Util
izat
ion:
• A
erob
ic re
spira
tion,
bat
terie
s, s
olar
cel
ls, f
uel c
ells
, ble
achi
ng b
y hy
drog
en
pero
xide
of m
elan
in in
hai
r, ho
useh
old
blea
ch, t
he b
row
ning
of f
ood
expo
sed
to
air,
etc.
• D
rivin
g un
der t
he in
fluen
ce o
f alc
ohol
is a
glo
bal p
robl
em w
hich
resu
lts in
se
rious
road
acc
iden
ts. A
redo
x re
actio
n is
the
basi
s of
the
brea
thal
yser
test
.
• N
atur
al a
nd s
ynth
etic
ant
ioxi
dant
s in
food
che
mis
try.
• P
hoto
chro
mic
lens
es.
• C
orro
sion
and
gal
vani
zatio
n.
Topic 9: Redox processes
Chemistry guide64
9.1
Oxi
datio
n an
d re
duct
ion
• S
olut
ion
of a
rang
e of
redo
x tit
ratio
n pr
oble
ms.
• A
pplic
atio
n of
the
Win
kler
Met
hod
to c
alcu
late
BO
D.
Gui
danc
e:
• O
xida
tion
num
ber a
nd o
xida
tion
stat
e ar
e of
ten
used
inte
rcha
ngea
bly,
thou
gh
IUP
AC
doe
s fo
rmal
ly d
istin
guis
h be
twee
n th
e tw
o te
rms.
Oxi
datio
n nu
mbe
rs
are
repr
esen
ted
by R
oman
num
eral
s ac
cord
ing
to IU
PA
C.
• O
xida
tion
stat
es s
houl
d be
repr
esen
ted
with
the
sign
giv
en b
efor
e th
e nu
mbe
r, eg
+2
not 2
+.
• Th
e ox
idat
ion
stat
e of
hyd
roge
n in
met
al h
ydrid
es (-
1) a
nd o
xyge
n in
per
oxid
es
(-1) s
houl
d be
cov
ered
.
• A
sim
ple
activ
ity s
erie
s is
giv
en in
the
data
boo
klet
in s
ectio
n 25
.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 1.
3—ex
perim
enta
l det
erm
inat
ion
of a
mou
nts,
mas
ses,
vol
umes
and
co
ncen
tratio
ns o
f sol
utio
ns
Topi
c 3.
2—ha
loge
n re
activ
ity
Topi
cs 4
.1 a
nd 4
.2—
diffe
renc
e be
twee
n io
nic
and
cova
lent
bon
ding
To
pic
10.2
—ox
idat
ion
of a
lcoh
ols
Bio
logy
topi
cs 8
.2 a
nd 8
.3—
redo
x re
actio
ns in
phy
siol
ogy
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e de
mon
stra
ting
the
activ
ity s
erie
s, re
dox
titra
tions
and
usi
ng th
e W
inkl
er M
etho
d to
mea
sure
BO
D.
• A
im 8
: Oxi
dizi
ng a
gent
s su
ch a
s ch
lorin
e ca
n be
use
d as
dis
infe
ctan
ts. U
se o
f ch
lorin
e as
a d
isin
fect
ant i
s of
con
cern
due
to it
s ab
ility
to o
xidi
ze o
ther
spe
cies
fo
rmin
g ha
rmfu
l by-
prod
ucts
(eg
trich
loro
met
hane
).
Topic 9: Redox processes
Chemistry guide 65
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: V
olta
ic c
ells
con
vert
chem
ical
ene
rgy
to e
lect
rical
ene
rgy
and
elec
troly
tic c
ells
con
vert
elec
trica
l ene
rgy
to c
hem
ical
ene
rgy.
9.2
Elec
troc
hem
ical
cel
ls
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Eth
ical
impl
icat
ions
of r
esea
rch—
the
desi
re to
pro
duce
ene
rgy
can
be d
riven
by
soci
al n
eeds
or p
rofit
. (4.
5)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
Vol
taic
(Gal
vani
c) c
ells
:
• V
olta
ic c
ells
con
vert
ener
gy fr
om s
pont
aneo
us, e
xoth
erm
ic c
hem
ical
pro
cess
es
to e
lect
rical
ene
rgy.
• O
xida
tion
occu
rs a
t the
ano
de (n
egat
ive
elec
trode
) and
redu
ctio
n oc
curs
at t
he
cath
ode
(pos
itive
ele
ctro
de) i
n a
volta
ic c
ell.
Ele
ctro
lytic
cel
ls:
• E
lect
roly
tic c
ells
con
vert
elec
trica
l ene
rgy
to c
hem
ical
ene
rgy,
by
brin
ging
abo
ut
non-
spon
tane
ous
proc
esse
s.
• O
xida
tion
occu
rs a
t the
ano
de (p
ositi
ve e
lect
rode
) and
redu
ctio
n oc
curs
at t
he
cath
ode
(neg
ativ
e el
ectro
de) i
n an
ele
ctro
lytic
cel
l.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• C
onst
ruct
ion
and
anno
tatio
n of
bot
h ty
pes
of e
lect
roch
emic
al c
ells
.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
how
a re
dox
reac
tion
is u
sed
to p
rodu
ce e
lect
ricity
in a
vol
taic
ce
ll an
d ho
w c
urre
nt is
con
duct
ed in
an
elec
troly
tic c
ell.
• D
istin
ctio
n be
twee
n el
ectro
n an
d io
n flo
w in
bot
h el
ectro
chem
ical
cel
ls.
• P
erfo
rman
ce o
f lab
orat
ory
expe
rimen
ts in
volv
ing
a ty
pica
l vol
taic
cel
l usi
ng tw
o m
etal
/met
al-io
n ha
lf-ce
lls.
• D
educ
tion
of th
e pr
oduc
ts o
f the
ele
ctro
lysi
s of
a m
olte
n sa
lt.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• R
esea
rch
in s
pace
exp
lora
tion
ofte
n ce
ntre
s on
ene
rgy
fact
ors.
The
bas
ic
hydr
ogen
–oxy
gen
fuel
cel
l can
be
used
as
an e
nerg
y so
urce
in s
pace
craf
t, su
ch a
s th
ose
first
eng
inee
red
by N
AS
A in
the
US
A. T
he In
tern
atio
nal S
pace
S
tatio
n is
a g
ood
exam
ple
of a
mul
tinat
iona
l pro
ject
invo
lvin
g th
e in
tern
atio
nal
scie
ntifi
c co
mm
unity
.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• Is
ene
rgy
just
an
abst
ract
con
cept
use
d to
just
ify w
hy c
erta
in ty
pes
of c
hang
es
are
alw
ays
asso
ciat
ed w
ith e
ach
othe
r? A
re c
once
pts
such
as
ener
gy re
al?
Util
izat
ion:
• Fu
el c
ells
.
• H
eart
pace
mak
ers.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Opt
ion
C.6
—fu
el c
ells
P
hysi
cs to
pic
5.3—
elec
troch
emic
al c
ells
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Con
stru
ctio
n of
a ty
pica
l vol
taic
cel
l usi
ng tw
o m
etal
/met
al-io
n ha
lf-ce
lls.
• A
im 6
: Ele
ctro
lysi
s ex
perim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e th
at o
f a m
olte
n sa
lt. A
vid
eo
coul
d al
so b
e us
ed to
sho
w s
ome
of th
ese
elec
troly
tic p
roce
sses
.
Topic 9: Redox processes
Chemistry guide66
9.2
Elec
troc
hem
ical
cel
ls
Gui
danc
e:
• Fo
r vol
taic
cel
ls, a
cel
l dia
gram
con
vent
ion
shou
ld b
e co
vere
d.
• A
im 8
: Alth
ough
the
hydr
ogen
fuel
cel
l is
cons
ider
ed a
n en
viro
nmen
tally
fri
endl
y, e
ffici
ent a
ltern
ativ
e to
the
inte
rnal
com
bust
ion
engi
ne, s
tora
ge o
f hy
drog
en fu
el is
a m
ajor
pro
blem
. The
use
of l
iqui
d m
etha
nol,
whi
ch c
an b
e pr
oduc
ed fr
om p
lant
s as
a c
arbo
n ne
utra
l fue
l (on
e w
hich
doe
s no
t con
tribu
te to
th
e gr
eenh
ouse
effe
ct),
in fu
el c
ells
has
eno
rmou
s po
tent
ial.
Wha
t are
the
curre
nt b
arrie
rs to
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f fue
l cel
ls?
Topic 10: Organic chemistry
Chemistry guide 6767
Topi
c 10
: Org
anic
che
mis
try
11 h
ours
Core
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: O
rgan
ic c
hem
istry
focu
ses
on th
e ch
emis
try o
f com
poun
ds c
onta
inin
g ca
rbon
.
10.1
Fun
dam
enta
ls o
f org
anic
che
mis
try
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Ser
endi
pity
and
sci
entif
ic d
isco
verie
s—P
TFE
and
sup
ergl
ue. (
1.4)
Eth
ical
impl
icat
ions
—dr
ugs,
add
itive
s an
d pe
stic
ides
can
hav
e ha
rmfu
l effe
cts
on b
oth
peop
le a
nd th
e en
viro
nmen
t. (4
.5)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• A
hom
olog
ous
serie
s is
a s
erie
s of
com
poun
ds o
f the
sam
e fa
mily
, with
the
sam
e ge
nera
l for
mul
a, w
hich
diff
er fr
om e
ach
othe
r by
a co
mm
on s
truct
ural
un
it.
• S
truct
ural
form
ulas
can
be
repr
esen
ted
in fu
ll an
d co
nden
sed
form
at.
• S
truct
ural
isom
ers
are
com
poun
ds w
ith th
e sa
me
mol
ecul
ar fo
rmul
a bu
t di
ffere
nt a
rrang
emen
ts o
f ato
ms.
• Fu
nctio
nal g
roup
s ar
e th
e re
activ
e pa
rts o
f mol
ecul
es.
• S
atur
ated
com
poun
ds c
onta
in s
ingl
e bo
nds
only
and
uns
atur
ated
com
poun
ds
cont
ain
doub
le o
r trip
le b
onds
.
• B
enze
ne is
an
arom
atic
, uns
atur
ated
hyd
roca
rbon
.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
trend
s in
boi
ling
poin
ts o
f mem
bers
of a
hom
olog
ous
serie
s.
• D
istin
ctio
n be
twee
n em
piric
al, m
olec
ular
and
stru
ctur
al fo
rmul
as.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• A
sm
all p
ropo
rtion
of n
atio
ns h
ave
cont
rol o
ver t
he w
orld
’s o
il re
sour
ces.
The
in
terd
epen
denc
e of
the
coun
tries
that
are
net
impo
rters
and
thos
e th
at a
re n
et
expo
rters
is a
n im
porta
nt fa
ctor
in s
hapi
ng g
loba
l pol
icie
s an
d ec
onom
ic
deve
lopm
ents
.
• Th
e oc
tane
ratin
g (o
ctan
e nu
mbe
r) c
an b
e de
scrib
ed a
s a
stan
dard
mea
sure
of
the
perfo
rman
ce o
f the
fuel
use
d in
car
s an
d ai
rcra
ft. O
ctan
e ra
tings
ofte
n va
ry
quite
wid
ely
regi
onal
ly th
roug
hout
the
glob
e, a
nd a
re c
ompl
icat
ed b
y th
e fa
ct
that
diff
eren
t cou
ntrie
s us
e di
ffere
nt m
eans
of e
xpre
ssin
g th
e va
lues
.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• Th
e la
bel “
orga
nic
chem
istry
” orig
inat
es fr
om a
mis
conc
eptio
n th
at a
vita
l for
ce
was
nee
ded
to e
xpla
in th
e ch
emis
try o
f life
. Can
you
thin
k of
exa
mpl
es w
here
vo
cabu
lary
has
dev
elop
ed fr
om s
imila
r mis
unde
rsta
ndin
gs?
Can
and
sho
uld
lang
uage
eve
r be
cont
rolle
d to
elim
inat
e su
ch p
robl
ems?
• K
ekul
é cl
aim
ed th
at th
e in
spira
tion
for t
he c
yclic
stru
ctur
e of
ben
zene
cam
e fro
m a
dre
am. W
hat r
ole
do th
e le
ss a
naly
tical
way
s of
kno
wle
dge
play
in th
e ac
quis
ition
of s
cien
tific
kno
wle
dge?
Util
izat
ion:
• Fr
actio
nal d
istil
latio
n m
akes
gre
at u
se o
f man
y pe
troch
emic
als.
• D
yes,
pes
ticid
es, h
erbi
cide
s, e
xplo
sive
s, s
oap,
cos
met
ics,
syn
thet
ic s
cent
s an
d fla
vour
ings
.
Topic 10: Organic chemistry
Chemistry guide68
10.1
Fun
dam
enta
ls o
f org
anic
che
mis
try
• Id
entif
icat
ion
of d
iffer
ent c
lass
es: a
lkan
es, a
lken
es, a
lkyn
es, h
alog
enoa
lkan
es,
alco
hols
, eth
ers,
ald
ehyd
es, k
eton
es, e
ster
s, c
arbo
xylic
aci
ds, a
min
es, a
mid
es,
nitri
les
and
aren
es.
• Id
entif
icat
ion
of ty
pica
l fun
ctio
nal g
roup
s in
mol
ecul
es e
g ph
enyl
, hyd
roxy
l, ca
rbon
yl, c
arbo
xyl,
carb
oxam
ide,
ald
ehyd
e, e
ster
, eth
er, a
min
e, n
itrile
, alk
yl,
alke
nyl a
nd a
lkyn
yl.
• C
onst
ruct
ion
of 3
-D m
odel
s (r
eal o
r virt
ual)
of o
rgan
ic m
olec
ules
.
• A
pplic
atio
n of
IUP
AC
rule
s in
the
nom
encl
atur
e of
stra
ight
-cha
in a
nd b
ranc
hed-
chai
n is
omer
s.
• Id
entif
icat
ion
of p
rimar
y, s
econ
dary
and
terti
ary
carb
on a
tom
s in
ha
loge
noal
kane
s an
d al
coho
ls a
nd p
rimar
y, s
econ
dary
and
terti
ary
nitro
gen
atom
s in
am
ines
.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
stru
ctur
e of
ben
zene
usi
ng p
hysi
cal a
nd c
hem
ical
evi
denc
e.
Gui
danc
e:
• S
kele
tal f
orm
ulas
sho
uld
be d
iscu
ssed
in th
e co
urse
.
• Th
e ge
nera
l for
mul
as (e
g C
nH2n
+2) o
f alk
anes
, alk
enes
, alk
ynes
, ket
ones
, al
coho
ls, a
ldeh
ydes
and
car
boxy
lic a
cids
sho
uld
be k
now
n.
• Th
e di
stin
ctio
n be
twee
n cl
ass
nam
es a
nd fu
nctio
nal g
roup
nam
es n
eeds
to b
e m
ade.
Eg
for O
H, h
ydro
xyl i
s th
e fu
nctio
nal g
roup
whe
reas
alc
ohol
is th
e cl
ass
nam
e.
• Th
e fo
llow
ing
nom
encl
atur
e sh
ould
be
cove
red:
– no
n-cy
clic
alk
anes
and
hal
ogen
oalk
anes
up
to h
aloh
exan
es.
– al
kene
s up
to h
exen
e an
d al
kyne
s up
to h
exyn
e.
– co
mpo
unds
up
to s
ix c
arbo
n at
oms
(in t
he b
asic
cha
in f
or n
omen
clat
ure
purp
oses
) co
ntai
ning
onl
y on
e of
the
fun
ctio
nal
grou
ps:
hydr
oxyl
, et
her,
carb
onyl
(fro
m a
ldeh
ydes
or k
eton
es),
este
r and
car
boxy
l.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 1.
2—em
piric
al a
nd m
olec
ular
form
ulas
To
pics
4.2
and
4.3
—Le
wis
(ele
ctro
n do
t) st
ruct
ures
, mul
tiple
bon
ds, V
SE
PR
theo
ry,
reso
nanc
e an
d bo
nd a
nd m
olec
ular
pol
arity
To
pic
4.4—
inte
rmol
ecul
ar fo
rces
To
pic
5.3—
exot
herm
ic re
actio
ns a
nd b
ond
enth
alpi
es
Topi
c 8.
4—w
eak
acid
s O
ptio
n A
.5—
mat
eria
ls a
nd p
olym
ers
Opt
ions
B.2
and
B.7
—pr
otei
ns
Opt
ion
D.9
—or
gani
c st
ruct
ure
in m
edic
ines
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Eith
er u
se m
odel
kits
or s
uita
ble
com
pute
r-ge
nera
ted
mol
ecul
ar
grap
hics
pro
gram
mes
to c
onst
ruct
thre
e-di
men
sion
al m
odel
s of
a w
ide
rang
e of
or
gani
c m
olec
ules
.
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e di
still
atio
n to
sep
arat
e liq
uids
or t
he u
se o
f a
rota
ry e
vapo
rato
r to
rem
ove
a so
lven
t fro
m a
mix
ture
.
• A
im 8
: The
re a
re c
onse
quen
ces
in u
sing
foss
il fu
els
as o
ur m
ain
sour
ce o
f en
ergy
. Man
y pr
oduc
ts c
an b
e ob
tain
ed fr
om fo
ssil
fuel
s du
e to
the
inhe
rent
ly
rich
chem
istry
of c
arbo
n. T
his
rais
es s
ome
fund
amen
tal q
uest
ions
—ar
e fo
ssil
fuel
s to
o va
luab
le to
bur
n an
d ho
w d
o th
ey a
ffect
the
envi
ronm
ent?
Who
sho
uld
be re
spon
sibl
e fo
r mak
ing
deci
sion
s in
this
rega
rd?
• A
im 8
: Dis
cuss
the
use
of a
lcoh
ols
and
biof
uels
as
fuel
alte
rnat
ives
to p
etro
l (g
asol
ine)
and
die
sel.
Topic 10: Organic chemistry
Chemistry guide 69
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: S
truct
ure,
bon
ding
and
che
mic
al re
actio
ns in
volv
ing
func
tiona
l gro
up in
terc
onve
rsio
ns a
re k
ey s
trand
s in
org
anic
che
mis
try.
10.2
Fun
ctio
nal g
roup
che
mis
try
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Use
of d
ata—
muc
h of
the
prog
ress
that
has
bee
n m
ade
to d
ate
in th
e de
velo
pmen
ts a
nd a
pplic
atio
ns o
f sci
entif
ic re
sear
ch c
an b
e m
appe
d ba
ck to
key
org
anic
che
mic
al
reac
tions
invo
lvin
g fu
nctio
nal g
roup
inte
rcon
vers
ions
. (3.
1)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
Alk
anes
:
• A
lkan
es h
ave
low
reac
tivity
and
und
ergo
free
-radi
cal s
ubst
itutio
n re
actio
ns.
Alk
enes
:
• A
lken
es a
re m
ore
reac
tive
than
alk
anes
and
und
ergo
add
ition
reac
tions
. B
rom
ine
wat
er c
an b
e us
ed to
dis
tingu
ish
betw
een
alke
nes
and
alka
nes.
Alc
ohol
s:
• A
lcoh
ols
unde
rgo
este
rific
atio
n (o
r con
dens
atio
n) re
actio
ns w
ith a
cids
and
so
me
unde
rgo
oxid
atio
n re
actio
ns.
Hal
ogen
oalk
anes
:
• H
alog
enoa
lkan
es a
re m
ore
reac
tive
than
alk
anes
. The
y ca
n un
derg
o (n
ucle
ophi
lic) s
ubst
itutio
n re
actio
ns. A
nuc
leop
hile
is a
n el
ectro
n-ric
h sp
ecie
s co
ntai
ning
a lo
ne p
air t
hat i
t don
ates
to a
n el
ectro
n-de
ficie
nt c
arbo
n.
Pol
ymer
s:
• A
dditi
on p
olym
ers
cons
ist o
f a w
ide
rang
e of
mon
omer
s an
d fo
rm th
e ba
sis
of
the
plas
tics
indu
stry
.
Ben
zene
:
• B
enze
ne d
oes
not r
eadi
ly u
nder
go a
dditi
on re
actio
ns b
ut d
oes
unde
rgo
elec
troph
ilic
subs
titut
ion
reac
tions
.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• M
etha
ne is
a g
reen
hous
e ga
s, a
nd it
s re
leas
e fro
m ru
min
ants
in c
ount
ries
such
as
Bra
zil,
Uru
guay
, Arg
entin
a an
d N
ew Z
eala
nd c
ontri
bute
s si
gnifi
cant
ly to
tota
l gr
eenh
ouse
gas
em
issi
ons.
Lan
dfills
are
als
o a
sour
ce o
f met
hane
, and
te
chno
logi
es a
re d
evel
opin
g in
som
e co
untri
es to
cap
ture
the
gas
as a
sou
rce
of e
nerg
y fo
r ele
ctric
ity a
nd h
eat g
ener
atio
n.
• A
lcoh
ol m
isus
e is
a g
row
ing
prob
lem
in m
any
coun
tries
and
can
hav
e an
im
pact
on
thei
r eco
nom
ies
and
soci
al s
truct
ures
.
Util
izat
ion:
• A
lkan
e us
age
as fu
els.
• Th
e ro
le o
f eth
ene
in fr
uit r
ipen
ing.
• A
lcoh
ols,
usa
ge a
s fu
el a
dditi
ves.
• A
lcoh
ols,
role
in th
e br
eath
alys
er.
• E
ster
s, v
arie
d us
es—
perfu
mes
, foo
d fla
vour
ings
, sol
vent
s, n
itrog
lyce
rin,
biof
uels
and
pai
nkill
ers.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 9.
1—re
dox
proc
esse
s O
ptio
n A
.5—
poly
mer
s O
ptio
n B
.3—
lipid
s
Topic 10: Organic chemistry
Chemistry guide70
10.2
Fun
ctio
nal g
roup
che
mis
try
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
Alk
anes
:
• W
ritin
g eq
uatio
ns fo
r the
com
plet
e an
d in
com
plet
e co
mbu
stio
n of
hy
droc
arbo
ns.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
reac
tion
of m
etha
ne a
nd e
than
e w
ith h
alog
ens
in te
rms
of a
fre
e-ra
dica
l sub
stitu
tion
mec
hani
sm in
volv
ing
phot
oche
mic
al h
omol
ytic
fiss
ion.
Alk
enes
:
• W
ritin
g eq
uatio
ns fo
r the
reac
tions
of a
lken
es w
ith h
ydro
gen
and
halo
gens
and
of
sym
met
rical
alk
enes
with
hyd
roge
n ha
lides
and
wat
er.
• O
utlin
e of
the
addi
tion
poly
mer
izat
ion
of a
lken
es.
• R
elat
ions
hip
betw
een
the
stru
ctur
e of
the
mon
omer
to th
e po
lym
er a
nd
repe
atin
g un
it.
Alc
ohol
s:
• W
ritin
g eq
uatio
ns fo
r the
com
plet
e co
mbu
stio
n of
alc
ohol
s.
• W
ritin
g eq
uatio
ns fo
r the
oxi
datio
n re
actio
ns o
f prim
ary
and
seco
ndar
y al
coho
ls
(usi
ng a
cidi
fied
pota
ssiu
m d
ichr
omat
e(V
I) or
pot
assi
um m
anga
nate
(VII)
as
oxid
izin
g ag
ents
). E
xpla
natio
n of
dis
tilla
tion
and
reflu
x in
the
isol
atio
n of
the
alde
hyde
and
car
boxy
lic a
cid
prod
ucts
.
• W
ritin
g th
e eq
uatio
n fo
r the
con
dens
atio
n re
actio
n of
an
alco
hol w
ith a
ca
rbox
ylic
aci
d, in
the
pres
ence
of a
cat
alys
t (eg
con
cent
rate
d su
lfuric
aci
d) to
fo
rm a
n es
ter.
Hal
ogen
oalk
anes
:
• W
ritin
g th
e eq
uatio
n fo
r the
sub
stitu
tion
reac
tions
of h
alog
enoa
lkan
es w
ith
aque
ous
sodi
um h
ydro
xide
.
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e di
stin
guis
hing
bet
wee
n al
kane
s an
d al
kene
s,
prep
arin
g so
ap a
nd th
e us
e of
gra
vity
filtr
atio
n, fi
ltrat
ion
unde
r vac
uum
(usi
ng a
B
uchn
er fl
ask)
, pur
ifica
tion
incl
udin
g re
crys
talli
zatio
n, re
flux
and
dist
illat
ion,
m
eltin
g po
int d
eter
min
atio
n an
d ex
tract
ion.
• A
im 8
: Dis
cuss
the
sign
ifica
nce
of th
e hy
drog
enat
ion
of a
lken
es in
the
food
pr
oduc
tion
incl
udin
g tra
ns-fa
ts a
s by
-pro
duct
s.
Topic 10: Organic chemistry
Chemistry guide 71
10.2
Fun
ctio
nal g
roup
che
mis
try
Gui
danc
e:
• R
efer
ence
sho
uld
be m
ade
to in
itiat
ion,
pro
paga
tion
and
term
inat
ion
step
s in
fre
e-ra
dica
l sub
stitu
tion
reac
tions
. Fre
e ra
dica
ls s
houl
d be
repr
esen
ted
by a
si
ngle
dot
.
• Th
e m
echa
nism
s of
SN1
and
SN2
and
elec
troph
ilic
subs
titut
ion
reac
tions
are
not
re
quire
d.
Topic 11: Measurement and data processing
Chemistry guide72
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: A
ll m
easu
rem
ent h
as a
lim
it of
pre
cisi
on a
nd a
ccur
acy,
and
this
mus
t be
take
n in
to a
ccou
nt w
hen
eval
uatin
g ex
perim
enta
l res
ults
.
11.1
Unc
erta
intie
s an
d er
rors
in m
easu
rem
ent a
nd re
sults
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Mak
ing
quan
titat
ive
mea
sure
men
ts w
ith re
plic
ates
to e
nsur
e re
liabi
lity—
prec
isio
n, a
ccur
acy,
sys
tem
atic
, and
rand
om e
rror
s m
ust b
e in
terp
rete
d th
roug
h re
plic
atio
n. (3
.2, 3
.4)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• Q
ualit
ativ
e da
ta in
clud
es a
ll no
n-nu
mer
ical
info
rmat
ion
obta
ined
from
ob
serv
atio
ns n
ot fr
om m
easu
rem
ent.
• Q
uant
itativ
e da
ta a
re o
btai
ned
from
mea
sure
men
ts, a
nd a
re a
lway
s as
soci
ated
w
ith ra
ndom
erro
rs/u
ncer
tain
ties,
det
erm
ined
by
the
appa
ratu
s, a
nd b
y hu
man
lim
itatio
ns s
uch
as re
actio
n tim
es.
• P
ropa
gatio
n of
rand
om e
rrors
in d
ata
proc
essi
ng s
how
s th
e im
pact
of t
he
unce
rtain
ties
on th
e fin
al re
sult.
• E
xper
imen
tal d
esig
n an
d pr
oced
ure
usua
lly le
ad to
sys
tem
atic
erro
rs in
m
easu
rem
ent,
whi
ch c
ause
a d
evia
tion
in a
par
ticul
ar d
irect
ion.
• R
epea
t tria
ls a
nd m
easu
rem
ents
will
redu
ce ra
ndom
erro
rs b
ut n
ot s
yste
mat
ic
erro
rs.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
istin
ctio
n be
twee
n ra
ndom
erro
rs a
nd s
yste
mat
ic e
rrors
.
• R
ecor
d un
certa
intie
s in
all
mea
sure
men
ts a
s a
rang
e (+
) to
an a
ppro
pria
te
prec
isio
n.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
way
s to
redu
ce u
ncer
tain
ties
in a
n ex
perim
ent.
• P
ropa
gatio
n of
unc
erta
intie
s in
pro
cess
ed d
ata,
incl
udin
g th
e us
e of
per
cent
age
unce
rtain
ties.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
sys
tem
atic
err
ors
in a
ll ex
perim
enta
l wor
k, th
eir i
mpa
ct o
n th
e re
sults
and
how
they
can
be
redu
ced.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• A
s a
resu
lt of
col
labo
ratio
n be
twee
n se
ven
inte
rnat
iona
l org
aniz
atio
ns,
incl
udin
g IU
PA
C, t
he In
tern
atio
nal S
tand
ards
Org
aniz
atio
n (IS
O) p
ublis
hed
the
Gui
de to
the
Exp
ress
ion
of U
ncer
tain
ty in
Mea
sure
men
t in
1995
. Thi
s ha
s be
en
wid
ely
adop
ted
in m
ost c
ount
ries
and
has
been
tran
slat
ed in
to s
ever
al
lang
uage
s.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• S
cien
ce h
as b
een
desc
ribed
as
a se
lf-co
rrect
ing
and
com
mun
al p
ublic
en
deav
our.
To w
hat e
xten
t do
thes
e ch
arac
teris
tics
also
app
ly to
the
othe
r ar
eas
of k
now
ledg
e?
Util
izat
ion:
• C
rash
of t
he M
ars
Clim
ate
Orb
iter s
pace
craf
t.
• O
rigin
al re
sults
from
CE
RN
rega
rdin
g th
e sp
eed
of n
eutri
nos
wer
e fla
wed
.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Opt
ion
D.1
—dr
ug tr
ials
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: The
dis
tinct
ion
and
diffe
rent
role
s of
Cla
ss A
and
Cla
ss B
gla
ssw
are
coul
d be
exp
lore
d.
• A
im 8
: Con
side
r the
mor
al o
blig
atio
ns o
f sci
entis
ts to
com
mun
icat
e th
e fu
ll ex
tent
of t
heir
data
, inc
ludi
ng e
xper
imen
tal u
ncer
tain
ties.
The
“col
d fu
sion
” cas
e of
Fle
isch
man
n an
d P
ons
in th
e 19
90s
is a
n ex
ampl
e of
whe
n th
is w
as n
ot
fulfi
lled.
Core Topi
c 11
: Mea
sure
men
t and
dat
a pr
oces
sing
10 h
ours
Topic 11: Measurement and data processing
Chemistry guide 73
11.1
Unc
erta
intie
s an
d er
rors
in m
easu
rem
ent a
nd re
sults
• E
stim
atio
n of
whe
ther
a p
artic
ular
sou
rce
of e
rror i
s lik
ely
to h
ave
a m
ajor
or
min
or e
ffect
on
the
final
resu
lt.
• C
alcu
latio
n of
per
cent
age
erro
r whe
n th
e ex
perim
enta
l res
ult c
an b
e co
mpa
red
with
a th
eore
tical
or a
ccep
ted
resu
lt.
• D
istin
ctio
n be
twee
n ac
cura
cy a
nd p
reci
sion
in e
valu
atin
g re
sults
.
Gui
danc
e:
• Th
e nu
mbe
r of s
igni
fican
t fig
ures
in a
resu
lt is
bas
ed o
n th
e fig
ures
giv
en in
the
data
. Whe
n ad
ding
or s
ubtra
ctin
g, th
e fin
al a
nsw
er s
houl
d be
giv
en to
the
leas
t nu
mbe
r of d
ecim
al p
lace
s. W
hen
mul
tiply
ing
or d
ivid
ing
the
final
ans
wer
is
give
n to
the
leas
t num
ber o
f sig
nific
ant f
igur
es.
• N
ote
that
the
data
val
ue m
ust b
e re
cord
ed to
the
sam
e pr
ecis
ion
as th
e ra
ndom
er
ror.
• S
I uni
ts s
houl
d be
use
d th
roug
hout
the
prog
ram
me.
Topic 11: Measurement and data processing
Chemistry guide74
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: G
raph
s ar
e a
visu
al re
pres
enta
tion
of tr
ends
in d
ata.
11.2
Gra
phic
al te
chni
ques
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
The
idea
of c
orre
latio
n—ca
n be
test
ed in
exp
erim
ents
who
se re
sults
can
be
disp
laye
d gr
aphi
cally
. (2.
8)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• G
raph
ical
tech
niqu
es a
re a
n ef
fect
ive
mea
ns o
f com
mun
icat
ing
the
effe
ct o
f an
inde
pend
ent v
aria
ble
on a
dep
ende
nt v
aria
ble,
and
can
lead
to d
eter
min
atio
n of
ph
ysic
al q
uant
ities
.
• S
ketc
hed
grap
hs h
ave
labe
lled
but u
nsca
led
axes
, and
are
use
d to
sho
w
qual
itativ
e tre
nds,
suc
h as
var
iabl
es th
at a
re p
ropo
rtion
al o
r inv
erse
ly
prop
ortio
nal.
• D
raw
n gr
aphs
hav
e la
belle
d an
d sc
aled
axe
s, a
nd a
re u
sed
in q
uant
itativ
e m
easu
rem
ents
.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
raw
ing
grap
hs o
f exp
erim
enta
l res
ults
incl
udin
g th
e co
rrect
cho
ice
of a
xes
and
scal
e.
• In
terp
reta
tion
of g
raph
s in
term
s of
the
rela
tions
hips
of d
epen
dent
and
in
depe
nden
t var
iabl
es.
• P
rodu
ctio
n an
d in
terp
reta
tion
of b
est-f
it lin
es o
r cur
ves
thro
ugh
data
poi
nts,
in
clud
ing
an a
sses
smen
t of w
hen
it ca
n an
d ca
nnot
be
cons
ider
ed a
s a
linea
r fu
nctio
n.
• C
alcu
latio
n of
qua
ntiti
es fr
om g
raph
s by
mea
surin
g sl
ope
(gra
dien
t) an
d in
terc
ept,
incl
udin
g ap
prop
riate
uni
ts.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• C
harts
and
gra
phs,
whi
ch la
rgel
y tra
nsce
nd la
ngua
ge b
arrie
rs, c
an fa
cilit
ate
com
mun
icat
ion
betw
een
scie
ntis
ts w
orld
wid
e.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• G
raph
s ar
e a
visu
al re
pres
enta
tion
of d
ata,
and
so
use
sens
e pe
rcep
tion
as a
w
ay o
f kno
win
g. T
o w
hat e
xten
t doe
s th
eir i
nter
pret
atio
n al
so re
ly o
n th
e ot
her
way
s of
kno
win
g, s
uch
as la
ngua
ge a
nd re
ason
?
Util
izat
ion:
• G
raph
ical
repr
esen
tatio
ns o
f dat
a ar
e w
idel
y us
ed in
div
erse
are
as s
uch
as
popu
latio
n, fi
nanc
e an
d cl
imat
e m
odel
ling.
Inte
rpre
tatio
n of
thes
e st
atis
tical
tre
nds
can
ofte
n le
ad to
pre
dict
ions
, and
so
unde
rpin
s th
e se
tting
of
gove
rnm
ent p
olic
ies
in m
any
area
s su
ch a
s he
alth
and
edu
catio
n.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 1.
3—ga
s vo
lum
e, te
mpe
ratu
re, p
ress
ure
grap
hs
Topi
c 6.
1—M
axw
ell–
Bol
tzm
ann
frequ
ency
dis
tribu
tion;
con
cent
ratio
n–tim
e an
d ra
te–
conc
entra
tion
grap
hs
Topi
c 16
.2—
Arrh
eniu
s pl
ot to
det
erm
ine
activ
atio
n en
ergy
To
pic
18.3
—tit
ratio
n cu
rves
O
ptio
n B
.7—
enzy
me
kine
tics
O
ptio
n C
.5—
gree
nhou
se e
ffect
; car
bon
diox
ide
conc
entra
tion
and
glob
al
tem
pera
ture
s O
ptio
n C
.7—
first
ord
er/d
ecay
gra
ph
Aim
s:
• A
im 7
: Gra
ph-p
lotti
ng s
oftw
are
may
be
used
, inc
ludi
ng th
e us
e of
spr
eads
heet
s an
d th
e de
rivat
ion
of b
est-f
it lin
es a
nd g
radi
ents
.
Topic 11: Measurement and data processing
Chemistry guide 75
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: A
naly
tical
tech
niqu
es c
an b
e us
ed to
det
erm
ine
the
stru
ctur
e of
a c
ompo
und,
ana
lyse
the
com
posi
tion
of a
sub
stan
ce o
r det
erm
ine
the
purit
y of
a c
ompo
und.
S
pect
rosc
opic
tech
niqu
es a
re u
sed
in th
e st
ruct
ural
iden
tific
atio
n of
org
anic
and
inor
gani
c co
mpo
unds
.
11.3
Spe
ctro
scop
ic id
entif
icat
ion
of o
rgan
ic c
ompo
unds
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Impr
ovem
ents
in in
stru
men
tatio
n—m
ass
spec
trom
etry
, pro
ton
nucl
ear m
agne
tic re
sona
nce
and
infra
red
spec
trosc
opy
have
mad
e id
entif
icat
ion
and
stru
ctur
al d
eter
min
atio
n of
com
poun
ds ro
utin
e. (1
.8)
Mod
els
are
deve
lope
d to
exp
lain
cer
tain
phe
nom
ena
that
may
not
be
obse
rvab
le—
for e
xam
ple,
spe
ctra
are
bas
ed o
n th
e bo
nd v
ibra
tion
mod
el. (
1.10
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• Th
e de
gree
of u
nsat
urat
ion
or in
dex
of h
ydro
gen
defic
ienc
y (IH
D) c
an b
e us
ed
to d
eter
min
e fro
m a
mol
ecul
ar fo
rmul
a th
e nu
mbe
r of r
ings
or m
ultip
le b
onds
in
a m
olec
ule.
• M
ass
spec
trom
etry
(MS
), pr
oton
nuc
lear
mag
netic
reso
nanc
e sp
ectro
scop
y (1 H
N
MR
) and
infra
red
spec
trosc
opy
(IR) a
re te
chni
ques
that
can
be
used
to h
elp
iden
tify
com
poun
ds a
nd to
det
erm
ine
thei
r stru
ctur
e.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
eter
min
atio
n of
the
IHD
from
a m
olec
ular
form
ula.
• D
educ
tion
of in
form
atio
n ab
out t
he s
truct
ural
feat
ures
of a
com
poun
d fro
m
perc
enta
ge c
ompo
sitio
n da
ta, M
S, 1 H
NM
R o
r IR
.
Gui
danc
e:
• Th
e el
ectro
mag
netic
spe
ctru
m (E
MS
) is
give
n in
the
data
boo
klet
in s
ectio
n 3.
Th
e re
gion
s em
ploy
ed fo
r eac
h te
chni
que
shou
ld b
e un
ders
tood
.
• Th
e op
erat
ing
prin
cipl
es a
re n
ot re
quire
d fo
r any
of t
hese
met
hods
.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• M
onito
ring
and
anal
ysis
of t
oxin
s an
d xe
nobi
otic
s in
the
envi
ronm
ent i
s a
cont
inuo
us e
ndea
vour
that
invo
lves
col
labo
ratio
n be
twee
n sc
ient
ists
in d
iffer
ent
coun
tries
.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• E
lect
rom
agne
tic w
aves
can
tran
smit
info
rmat
ion
beyo
nd th
at o
f our
sen
se
perc
eptio
ns. W
hat a
re th
e lim
itatio
ns o
f sen
se p
erce
ptio
n as
a w
ay o
f kno
win
g?
Util
izat
ion:
• IR
spe
ctro
scop
y is
use
d in
hea
t sen
sors
and
rem
ote
sens
ing
in p
hysi
cs.
• P
roto
ns in
wat
er m
olec
ules
with
in h
uman
cel
ls c
an b
e de
tect
ed b
y m
agne
tic
reso
nanc
e im
agin
g (M
RI),
giv
ing
a th
ree-
dim
ensi
onal
vie
w o
f org
ans
in th
e hu
man
bod
y.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 1.
2—de
term
inat
ion
of th
e em
piric
al fo
rmul
a fro
m p
erce
ntag
e co
mpo
sitio
n da
ta
or fr
om o
ther
exp
erim
enta
l dat
a an
d de
term
inat
ion
of th
e m
olec
ular
form
ula
from
bo
th th
e em
piric
al fo
rmul
a an
d ex
perim
enta
l dat
a.
Topic 11: Measurement and data processing
Chemistry guide76
11.3
Spe
ctro
scop
ic id
entif
icat
ion
of o
rgan
ic c
ompo
unds
• Th
e da
ta b
ookl
et c
onta
ins
char
acte
ristic
rang
es fo
r IR
abs
orpt
ions
(sec
tion
26),
1 H N
MR
dat
a (s
ectio
n 27
) and
spe
cific
MS
frag
men
ts (s
ectio
n 28
). Fo
r 1 H N
MR
, on
ly th
e ab
ility
to d
educ
e th
e nu
mbe
r of d
iffer
ent h
ydro
gen
(pro
ton)
en
viro
nmen
ts a
nd th
e re
lativ
e nu
mbe
rs o
f hyd
roge
n at
oms
in e
ach
envi
ronm
ent
is re
quire
d. In
tegr
atio
n tra
ces
shou
ld b
e co
vere
d bu
t spl
ittin
g pa
ttern
s ar
e no
t re
quire
d.
Topi
c 2.
1—th
e nu
clea
r ato
m
Topi
c 5.
3—bo
nd e
ntha
lpie
s
Aim
s:
• A
im 7
: Spe
ctra
l dat
abas
es c
ould
be
used
her
e.
• A
im 8
: The
effe
cts
of th
e va
rious
gre
enho
use
gase
s de
pend
on
thei
r ab
unda
nce
and
thei
r abi
lity
to a
bsor
b he
at ra
diat
ion.
Topic 12: Atomic structure
Chemistry guide 7777
Topi
c 12
: Ato
mic
str
uctu
re
2 ho
urs
Add
ition
al h
ighe
r lev
el
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he q
uant
ized
nat
ure
of e
nerg
y tra
nsiti
ons
is re
late
d to
the
ener
gy s
tate
s of
ele
ctro
ns in
ato
ms
and
mol
ecul
es.
12.1
Ele
ctro
ns in
ato
ms
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Exp
erim
enta
l evi
denc
e to
sup
port
theo
ries—
emis
sion
spe
ctra
pro
vide
evi
denc
e fo
r the
exi
sten
ce o
f ene
rgy
leve
ls. (
1.8)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• In
an
emis
sion
spe
ctru
m, t
he li
mit
of c
onve
rgen
ce a
t hig
her f
requ
ency
co
rresp
onds
to th
e fir
st io
niza
tion
ener
gy.
• Tr
ends
in fi
rst i
oniz
atio
n en
ergy
acr
oss
perio
ds a
ccou
nt fo
r the
exi
sten
ce o
f m
ain
ener
gy le
vels
and
sub
-leve
ls in
ato
ms.
• S
ucce
ssiv
e io
niza
tion
ener
gy d
ata
for a
n el
emen
t giv
e in
form
atio
n th
at s
how
s re
latio
ns to
ele
ctro
n co
nfig
urat
ions
.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• S
olvi
ng p
robl
ems
usin
g 𝐸𝐸
=ℎ𝑣𝑣
.
• C
alcu
latio
n of
the
valu
e of
the
first
ioni
zatio
n en
ergy
from
spe
ctra
l dat
a w
hich
gi
ves
the
wav
elen
gth
or fr
eque
ncy
of th
e co
nver
genc
e lim
it.
• D
educ
tion
of th
e gr
oup
of a
n el
emen
t fro
m it
s su
cces
sive
ioni
zatio
n en
ergy
da
ta.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
trend
s an
d di
scon
tinui
ties
in fi
rst i
oniz
atio
n en
ergy
acr
oss
a pe
riod.
Gui
danc
e:
• Th
e va
lue
of P
lanc
k’s
cons
tant
(h) a
nd 𝐸𝐸
=ℎ𝑣𝑣
are
giv
en in
the
data
boo
klet
in
sect
ions
1 a
nd 2
.
• U
se o
f the
Ryd
berg
form
ula
is n
ot e
xpec
ted
in c
alcu
latio
ns o
f ion
izat
ion
ener
gy.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• In
201
2 tw
o se
para
te in
tern
atio
nal t
eam
s w
orki
ng a
t the
Lar
ge H
adro
n C
ollid
er
at C
ER
N in
depe
nden
tly a
nnou
nced
that
they
had
dis
cove
red
a pa
rticl
e w
ith
beha
viou
r con
sist
ent w
ith th
e pr
evio
usly
pre
dict
ed “H
iggs
bos
on”.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• “W
hat w
e ob
serv
e is
not
nat
ure
itsel
f, bu
t nat
ure
expo
sed
to o
ur m
etho
d of
qu
estio
ning
.”—W
erne
r Hei
senb
erg.
An
elec
tron
can
beha
ve a
s a
wav
e or
a
parti
cle
depe
ndin
g on
the
expe
rimen
tal c
ondi
tions
. Can
sen
se p
erce
ptio
n gi
ve
us o
bjec
tive
know
ledg
e ab
out t
he w
orld
?
• Th
e de
Bro
glie
equ
atio
n sh
ows
that
mac
rosc
opic
par
ticle
s ha
ve to
o sh
ort a
w
avel
engt
h fo
r the
ir w
ave
prop
ertie
s to
be
obse
rved
. Is
it m
eani
ngfu
l to
talk
of
prop
ertie
s w
hich
can
nev
er b
e ob
serv
ed fr
om s
ense
per
cept
ion?
Util
izat
ion:
• El
ectro
n m
icro
scop
y ha
s le
d to
man
y ad
vanc
es in
bio
logy
, suc
h as
the
ultra
stru
ctur
e of
cel
ls a
nd v
iruse
s. T
he s
cann
ing
tunn
ellin
g m
icro
scop
e (S
TM) u
ses
a st
ylus
of a
sin
gle
atom
to s
can
a su
rface
and
pro
vide
a 3-
D im
age
at th
e at
omic
leve
l.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 3.
2—pe
riodi
c tre
nds
Topi
c 4.
1—io
nic
bond
ing
Topi
c 15
.1—
latti
ce e
ntha
lpy
Aim
s:
• Ai
m 7
: Dat
abas
es c
ould
be
used
for c
ompi
ling
grap
hs o
f tre
nds
in io
niza
tion
ener
gies
an
d sim
ulat
ions
are
ava
ilabl
e fo
r the
Dav
isson
-Ger
mer
ele
ctro
n di
ffrac
tion
expe
rimen
t.
Topic 13: The periodic table—the transition metals
Chemistry guide78
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he tr
ansi
tion
elem
ents
hav
e ch
arac
teris
tic p
rope
rties
; the
se p
rope
rties
are
rela
ted
to th
eir a
ll ha
ving
inco
mpl
ete
d su
blev
els.
13.1
Firs
t-row
d-b
lock
ele
men
ts
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Look
ing
for t
rend
s an
d di
scre
panc
ies—
trans
ition
ele
men
ts fo
llow
cer
tain
pat
tern
s of
beh
avio
ur. T
he e
lem
ents
Zn,
Cr a
nd C
u do
not
follo
w th
ese
patte
rns
and
are
ther
efor
e co
nsid
ered
ano
mal
ous
in th
e fir
st-ro
w d
-blo
ck. (
3.1)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• Tr
ansi
tion
elem
ents
hav
e va
riabl
e ox
idat
ion
stat
es, f
orm
com
plex
ions
with
lig
ands
, hav
e co
lour
ed c
ompo
unds
, and
dis
play
cat
alyt
ic a
nd m
agne
tic
prop
ertie
s.
• Zn
is n
ot c
onsi
dere
d to
be
a tra
nsiti
on e
lem
ent a
s it
does
not
form
ions
with
in
com
plet
e d-
orbi
tals
.
• Tr
ansi
tion
elem
ents
sho
w a
n ox
idat
ion
stat
e of
+2
whe
n th
e s-
elec
trons
are
re
mov
ed.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
abili
ty o
f tra
nsiti
on m
etal
s to
form
var
iabl
e ox
idat
ion
stat
es
from
suc
cess
ive
ioni
zatio
n en
ergi
es.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
natu
re o
f the
coo
rdin
ate
bond
with
in a
com
plex
ion.
• D
educ
tion
of th
e to
tal c
harg
e gi
ven
the
form
ula
of th
e io
n an
d lig
ands
pre
sent
.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
mag
netic
pro
perti
es in
tran
sitio
n m
etal
s in
term
s of
unp
aire
d el
ectro
ns.
Gui
danc
e:
• C
omm
on o
xida
tion
char
ges
on tr
ansi
tion
met
al io
ns a
re g
iven
in s
ectio
n 9
of th
e da
ta b
ookl
et, a
nd c
omm
on o
xida
tion
stat
es a
re g
iven
in s
ectio
n 14
.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
e pr
oper
ties
and
uses
of t
he tr
ansi
tion
met
als
mak
e th
em im
porta
nt
inte
rnat
iona
l com
mod
ities
. Min
ing
for p
reci
ous
met
als
is a
maj
or fa
ctor
in th
e ec
onom
ies
of s
ome
coun
tries
.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• Th
e m
edic
al s
ymbo
ls fo
r fem
ale
and
mal
e or
igin
ate
from
the
alch
emic
al
sym
bols
for c
oppe
r and
iron
. Wha
t rol
e ha
s th
e ps
eudo
scie
nce
of a
lche
my
play
ed in
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f mod
ern
scie
nce?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 9.
1—re
dox
reac
tions
To
pic
10.2
—ox
idat
ion
of a
lcoh
ols,
hyd
roge
natio
n of
alk
enes
O
ptio
n A
.3—
hom
ogen
eous
and
het
erog
eneo
us c
atal
ysis
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: The
oxi
datio
n st
ates
of v
anad
ium
and
man
gane
se, f
or e
xam
ple,
cou
ld b
e in
vest
igat
ed e
xper
imen
tally
. Tra
nsiti
on m
etal
s co
uld
be a
naly
sed
usin
g re
dox
titra
tions
.
• A
im 8
: Eco
nom
ic im
pact
of t
he c
orro
sion
of i
ron.
Topi
c 13
: The
per
iodi
c ta
ble—
the
tran
sitio
n m
etal
s 4
hour
s
Add
ition
al h
ighe
r lev
el
Topic 13: The periodic table—the transition metals
Chemistry guide 79
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: d
-orb
itals
hav
e th
e sa
me
ener
gy in
an
isol
ated
ato
m, b
ut s
plit
into
two
sub-
leve
ls in
a c
ompl
ex io
n. T
he e
lect
ric fi
eld
of li
gand
s m
ay c
ause
the
d-or
bita
ls in
co
mpl
ex io
ns to
spl
it so
that
the
ener
gy o
f an
elec
tron
trans
ition
bet
wee
n th
em c
orre
spon
ds to
a p
hoto
n of
vis
ible
ligh
t.
13.2
Col
oure
d co
mpl
exes
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Mod
els
and
theo
ries—
the
colo
ur o
f tra
nsiti
on m
etal
com
plex
es c
an b
e ex
plai
ned
thro
ugh
the
use
of m
odel
s an
d th
eorie
s ba
sed
on h
ow e
lect
rons
are
dis
tribu
ted
in d
-orb
itals
. (1
.10)
Tran
sdis
cipl
inar
y—co
lour
link
ed to
sym
met
ry c
an b
e ex
plor
ed in
the
scie
nces
, arc
hite
ctur
e, a
nd th
e ar
ts. (
4.1)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• Th
e d
sub-
leve
l spl
its in
to tw
o se
ts o
f orb
itals
of d
iffer
ent e
nerg
y in
a c
ompl
ex
ion.
• C
ompl
exes
of d
-blo
ck e
lem
ents
are
col
oure
d, a
s lig
ht is
abs
orbe
d w
hen
an
elec
tron
is e
xcite
d be
twee
n th
e d-
orbi
tals
.
• Th
e co
lour
abs
orbe
d is
com
plem
enta
ry to
the
colo
ur o
bser
ved.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
effe
ct o
f the
iden
tity
of th
e m
etal
ion,
the
oxid
atio
n nu
mbe
r of
the
met
al a
nd th
e id
entit
y of
the
ligan
d on
the
colo
ur o
f tra
nsiti
on m
etal
ion
com
plex
es.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
effe
ct o
f diff
eren
t lig
ands
on
the
split
ting
of th
e d-
orbi
tals
in
trans
ition
met
al c
ompl
exes
and
col
our o
bser
ved
usin
g th
e sp
ectro
chem
ical
se
ries.
Gui
danc
e:
• Th
e sp
ectro
chem
ical
ser
ies
is g
iven
in th
e da
ta b
ookl
et in
sec
tion
15. A
list
of
poly
dent
ate
ligan
ds is
giv
en in
the
data
boo
klet
in s
ectio
n 16
.
• S
tude
nts
are
not e
xpec
ted
to re
call
the
colo
ur o
f spe
cific
com
plex
ions
.
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 2.
2—el
ectro
n co
nfig
urat
ion
of a
tom
s an
d io
ns
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: The
col
ours
of a
rang
e of
com
plex
ions
, of e
lem
ents
suc
h as
Cr,
Fe, C
o,
Ni a
nd C
u co
uld
be in
vest
igat
ed.
• A
im 7
: Com
plex
ions
cou
ld b
e in
vest
igat
ed u
sing
a s
pect
rom
eter
dat
a lo
gger
.
• A
im 8
: The
con
cent
ratio
n of
toxi
c tra
nsiti
on m
etal
ions
nee
ds to
be
care
fully
m
onito
red
in e
nviro
nmen
tal s
yste
ms.
Topic 13: The periodic table—the transition metals
Chemistry guide80
13.2
Col
oure
d co
mpl
exes
• Th
e re
latio
n be
twee
n th
e co
lour
obs
erve
d an
d ab
sorb
ed is
illu
stra
ted
by th
e co
lour
whe
el in
the
data
boo
klet
in s
ectio
n 17
.
• S
tude
nts
are
not e
xpec
ted
to k
now
the
diffe
rent
spl
ittin
g pa
ttern
s an
d th
eir
rela
tion
to th
e co
ordi
natio
n nu
mbe
r. O
nly
the
split
ting
of th
e 3d
orb
itals
in a
n oc
tahe
dral
cry
stal
fiel
d is
requ
ired.
Topic 14: Chemical bonding and structure
Chemistry guide 8181
Topi
c 14
: Che
mic
al b
ondi
ng a
nd s
truc
ture
7
hour
s
Add
ition
al h
ighe
r lev
el
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: L
arge
r stru
ctur
es a
nd m
ore
in-d
epth
exp
lana
tions
of b
ondi
ng s
yste
ms
ofte
n re
quire
mor
e so
phis
ticat
ed c
once
pts
and
theo
ries
of b
ondi
ng.
14.1
Fur
ther
asp
ects
of c
oval
ent b
ondi
ng a
nd s
truc
ture
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Prin
cipl
e of
Occ
am’s
razo
r—bo
ndin
g th
eorie
s ha
ve b
een
mod
ified
ove
r tim
e. N
ewer
theo
ries
need
to re
mai
n as
sim
ple
as p
ossi
ble
whi
le m
axim
izin
g ex
plan
ator
y po
wer
, for
ex
ampl
e th
e id
ea o
f for
mal
cha
rge.
(2.7
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• C
oval
ent b
onds
resu
lt fro
m th
e ov
erla
p of
ato
mic
orb
itals
. A s
igm
a bo
nd (
) is
form
ed b
y th
e di
rect
hea
d-on
/end
-to-e
nd o
verla
p of
ato
mic
orb
itals
, res
ultin
g in
el
ectro
n de
nsity
con
cent
rate
d be
twee
n th
e nu
clei
of t
he b
ondi
ng a
tom
s. A
pi
bond
(π) i
s fo
rmed
by
the
side
way
s ov
erla
p of
ato
mic
orb
itals
, res
ultin
g in
el
ectro
n de
nsity
abo
ve a
nd b
elow
the
plan
e of
the
nucl
ei o
f the
bon
ding
ato
ms.
• Fo
rmal
cha
rge
(FC
) can
be
used
to d
ecid
e w
hich
Lew
is (e
lect
ron
dot)
stru
ctur
e is
pre
ferre
d fro
m s
ever
al. T
he F
C is
the
char
ge a
n at
om w
ould
hav
e if
all a
tom
s in
the
mol
ecul
e ha
d th
e sa
me
elec
trone
gativ
ity. F
C =
(Num
ber o
f val
ence
el
ectro
ns)-½
(Num
ber o
f bon
ding
ele
ctro
ns)-
(Num
ber o
f non
-bon
ding
el
ectro
ns).
The
Lew
is (e
lect
ron
dot)
stru
ctur
e w
ith th
e at
oms
havi
ng F
C v
alue
s cl
oses
t to
zero
is p
refe
rred.
• E
xcep
tions
to th
e oc
tet r
ule
incl
ude
som
e sp
ecie
s ha
ving
inco
mpl
ete
octe
ts
and
expa
nded
oct
ets.
• D
eloc
aliz
atio
n in
volv
es e
lect
rons
that
are
sha
red
by/b
etw
een
mor
e th
an o
ne
pair
in a
mol
ecul
e or
ion
as o
ppos
ed to
bei
ng lo
caliz
ed b
etw
een
a pa
ir of
at
oms.
• R
eson
ance
invo
lves
usi
ng tw
o or
mor
e Le
wis
(ele
ctro
n do
t) st
ruct
ures
to
repr
esen
t a p
artic
ular
mol
ecul
e or
ion.
A re
sona
nce
stru
ctur
e is
one
of t
wo
or
mor
e al
tern
ativ
e Le
wis
(ele
ctro
n do
t) st
ruct
ures
for a
mol
ecul
e or
ion
that
ca
nnot
be
desc
ribed
fully
with
one
Lew
is (e
lect
ron
dot)
stru
ctur
e al
one.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• H
ow h
as o
zone
dep
letio
n ch
ange
d ov
er ti
me?
Wha
t hav
e w
e do
ne a
s a
glob
al
com
mun
ity to
redu
ce o
zone
dep
letio
n?
• To
wha
t ext
ent i
s oz
one
depl
etio
n an
exa
mpl
e of
bot
h a
succ
ess
and
a fa
ilure
fo
r sol
ving
an
inte
rnat
iona
l env
ironm
enta
l con
cern
?
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• C
oval
ent b
ondi
ng c
an b
e de
scrib
ed u
sing
val
ence
bon
d or
mol
ecul
ar o
rbita
l th
eory
. To
wha
t ext
ent i
s ha
ving
alte
rnat
ive
way
s of
des
crib
ing
the
sam
e ph
enom
ena
a st
reng
th o
r a w
eakn
ess?
Util
izat
ion:
• D
rug
actio
n an
d lin
ks to
a m
olec
ule’
s st
ruct
ure.
• V
isio
n sc
ienc
e an
d lin
ks to
a m
olec
ule’
s st
ruct
ure.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
cs 4
.2 a
nd 4
.3—
Lew
is (e
lect
ron
dot)
stru
ctur
es, V
SEP
R th
eory
, res
onan
ce a
nd
bond
and
mol
ecul
ar p
olar
ity
Topi
c 10
.1—
shap
es o
f org
anic
mol
ecul
es
Topi
c 13
.1—
trans
ition
met
al c
hem
istry
Topic 14: Chemical bonding and structure
Chemistry guide82
14.1
Fur
ther
asp
ects
of c
oval
ent b
ondi
ng a
nd s
truc
ture
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• P
redi
ctio
n w
heth
er s
igm
a (
) or p
i (π
) bon
ds a
re fo
rmed
from
the
linea
r co
mbi
natio
n of
ato
mic
orb
itals
.
• D
educ
tion
of th
e Le
wis
(ele
ctro
n do
t) st
ruct
ures
of m
olec
ules
and
ions
sho
win
g al
l val
ence
ele
ctro
ns fo
r up
to s
ix e
lect
ron
pairs
on
each
ato
m.
• A
pplic
atio
n of
FC
to a
scer
tain
whi
ch L
ewis
(ele
ctro
n do
t) st
ruct
ure
is p
refe
rred
from
diff
eren
t Lew
is (e
lect
ron
dot)
stru
ctur
es.
• D
educ
tion
usin
g VS
EP
R th
eory
of t
he e
lect
ron
dom
ain
geom
etry
and
mol
ecul
ar
geom
etry
with
five
and
six
ele
ctro
n do
mai
ns a
nd a
ssoc
iate
d bo
nd a
ngle
s.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
wav
elen
gth
of li
ght r
equi
red
to d
isso
ciat
e ox
ygen
and
ozo
ne.
• D
escr
iptio
n of
the
mec
hani
sm o
f the
cat
alys
is o
f ozo
ne d
eple
tion
whe
n ca
taly
sed
by C
FCs
and
NO
x.
Gui
danc
e:
• Th
e lin
ear c
ombi
natio
n of
ato
mic
orb
itals
to fo
rm m
olec
ular
orb
itals
sho
uld
be
cove
red
in th
e co
ntex
t of t
he fo
rmat
ion
of s
igm
a (
) and
pi (
π) b
onds
.
• M
olec
ular
pol
ariti
es o
f geo
met
ries
corre
spon
ding
to fi
ve a
nd s
ix e
lect
ron
dom
ains
sho
uld
also
be
cove
red.
Aim
s:
• A
im 1
: Glo
bal i
mpa
ct o
f ozo
ne d
eple
tion.
• A
im 7
: Com
pute
r sim
ulat
ions
can
be
used
to m
odel
stru
ctur
es p
redi
cted
by
VS
EP
R th
eory
.
• A
im 8
: Mor
al, e
thic
al, s
ocia
l, ec
onom
ic a
nd e
nviro
nmen
tal i
mpl
icat
ions
of
ozon
e de
plet
ion
and
its s
olut
ion.
Topic 14: Chemical bonding and structure
Chemistry guide 83
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: H
ybrid
izat
ion
resu
lts fr
om th
e m
ixin
g of
ato
mic
orb
itals
to fo
rm th
e sa
me
num
ber o
f new
equ
ival
ent h
ybrid
orb
itals
that
can
hav
e th
e sa
me
mea
n en
ergy
as
the
cont
ribut
ing
atom
ic o
rbita
ls.
14.2
Hyb
ridiz
atio
n
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
The
need
to re
gard
theo
ries
as u
ncer
tain
—hy
brid
izat
ion
in v
alen
ce b
ond
theo
ry c
an h
elp
expl
ain
mol
ecul
ar g
eom
etrie
s, b
ut is
lim
ited.
Qua
ntum
mec
hani
cs in
volv
es s
ever
al
theo
ries
expl
aini
ng th
e sa
me
phen
omen
a, d
epen
ding
on
spec
ific
requ
irem
ents
. (2.
2)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• A
hyb
rid o
rbita
l res
ults
from
the
mix
ing
of d
iffer
ent t
ypes
of a
tom
ic o
rbita
ls o
n th
e sa
me
atom
.
App
licat
ions
:
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
form
atio
n of
sp3 ,
sp2 a
nd s
p hy
brid
orb
itals
in m
etha
ne,
ethe
ne a
nd e
thyn
e.
• Id
entif
icat
ion
and
expl
anat
ion
of th
e re
latio
nshi
ps b
etw
een
Lew
is (e
lect
ron
dot)
stru
ctur
es, e
lect
ron
dom
ains
, mol
ecul
ar g
eom
etrie
s an
d ty
pes
of h
ybrid
izat
ion.
Gui
danc
e:
• S
tude
nts
need
onl
y co
nsid
er s
peci
es w
ith s
p3 , sp
2 and
sp
hybr
idiz
atio
n.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• H
ybrid
izat
ion
is a
mat
hem
atic
al d
evic
e w
hich
allo
ws
us to
rela
te th
e bo
ndin
g in
a
mol
ecul
e to
its
sym
met
ry. W
hat i
s th
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n th
e na
tura
l sc
ienc
es, m
athe
mat
ics
and
the
natu
ral w
orld
? W
hich
role
doe
s sy
mm
etry
pla
y in
the
diffe
rent
are
as o
f kno
wle
dge?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 4.
3—Le
wis
(ele
ctro
n do
t) st
ruct
ures
, VS
EP
R th
eory
, res
onan
ce a
nd b
ond
and
mol
ecul
ar p
olar
ity
Topi
c 10
.1—
shap
es o
f org
anic
mol
ecul
es
Topi
c 13
.1—
trans
ition
met
al c
hem
istry
Aim
s:
• A
im 7
: Com
pute
r sim
ulat
ions
cou
ld b
e us
ed to
mod
el h
ybrid
orb
itals
.
Topic 15: Energetics/thermochemistry
Chemistry guide84
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he c
once
pt o
f the
ene
rgy
chan
ge in
a s
ingl
e st
ep r
eact
ion
bein
g eq
uiva
lent
to th
e su
mm
atio
n of
sm
alle
r st
eps
can
be a
pplie
d to
cha
nges
invo
lvin
g io
nic
com
poun
ds.
15.1
Ene
rgy
cycl
es
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Mak
ing
quan
titat
ive
mea
sure
men
ts w
ith re
plic
ates
to e
nsur
e re
liabi
lity—
ener
gy c
ycle
s al
low
for t
he c
alcu
latio
n of
val
ues
that
can
not b
e de
term
ined
dire
ctly
. (3.
2)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• R
epre
sent
ativ
e eq
uatio
ns (e
g M
+ (g)
M+ (a
q)) c
an b
e us
ed fo
r ent
halp
y/en
ergy
of
hydr
atio
n, io
niza
tion,
ato
miza
tion,
ele
ctro
n af
finity
, lat
tice,
cov
alen
t bon
d an
d so
lutio
n.
• E
ntha
lpy
of s
olut
ion,
hyd
ratio
n en
thal
py a
nd la
ttice
ent
halp
y ar
e re
late
d in
an
ener
gy c
ycle
.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• C
onst
ruct
ion
of B
orn-
Hab
er c
ycle
s fo
r gro
up 1
and
2 o
xide
s an
d ch
lorid
es.
• C
onst
ruct
ion
of e
nerg
y cy
cles
from
hyd
ratio
n, la
ttice
and
sol
utio
n en
thal
py. F
or
exam
ple
diss
olut
ion
of s
olid
NaO
H o
r NH
4Cl i
n w
ater
.
• C
alcu
latio
n of
ent
halp
y ch
ange
s fro
m B
orn-
Hab
er o
r dis
solu
tion
ener
gy c
ycle
s.
• R
elat
e si
ze a
nd c
harg
e of
ions
to la
ttice
and
hyd
ratio
n en
thal
pies
.
• P
erfo
rm la
b ex
perim
ents
whi
ch c
ould
incl
ude
sing
le re
plac
emen
t rea
ctio
ns in
aq
ueou
s so
lutio
ns.
Gui
danc
e:
• P
olar
izin
g ef
fect
of s
ome
ions
pro
duci
ng c
oval
ent c
hara
cter
in s
ome
larg
ely
ioni
c su
bsta
nces
will
not
be
asse
ssed
.
• Th
e fo
llow
ing
enth
alpy
/ene
rgy
term
s sh
ould
be
cove
red:
ioni
zatio
n, a
tom
izat
ion,
el
ectro
n af
finity
, lat
tice,
cov
alen
t bon
d, h
ydra
tion
and
solu
tion.
• V
alue
for l
attic
e en
thal
pies
(sec
tion
18),
enth
alpi
es o
f aqu
eous
sol
utio
ns
(sec
tion
19) a
nd e
ntha
lpie
s of
hyd
ratio
n (s
ectio
n 20
) are
giv
en in
the
data
bo
okle
t.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
e im
porta
nce
of b
eing
abl
e to
obt
ain
mea
sure
men
ts o
f som
ethi
ng w
hich
ca
nnot
be
mea
sure
d di
rect
ly is
sig
nific
ant e
very
whe
re. B
oreh
ole
tem
pera
ture
s,
snow
cov
er d
epth
, gla
cier
rece
ssio
n, ra
tes
of e
vapo
ratio
n an
d pr
ecip
itatio
n cy
cles
are
am
ong
som
e in
dire
ct in
dica
tors
of g
loba
l war
min
g. W
hy is
it
impo
rtant
for c
ount
ries
to c
olla
bora
te to
com
bat g
loba
l pro
blem
s lik
e gl
obal
w
arm
ing?
Util
izat
ion:
• O
ther
ene
rgy
cycl
es—
carb
on c
ycle
, the
Kre
bs c
ycle
and
ele
ctro
n tra
nsfe
r in
biol
ogy.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
cs 1
.2 a
nd 1
.3—
stoi
chio
met
ric re
latio
nshi
ps
Topi
c 3.
2—io
niza
tion
ener
gy, a
tom
ic a
nd io
nic
radi
i To
pic
5.3—
bond
ent
halp
y
Aim
s:
• A
im 4
: Dis
cuss
the
sour
ce o
f acc
epte
d va
lues
and
use
this
idea
to c
ritiq
ue
expe
rimen
ts.
• A
im 6
: A p
ossi
ble
expe
rimen
t is
to c
alcu
late
eith
er th
e en
thal
py o
f cr
ysta
lliza
tion
of w
ater
or t
he h
eat c
apac
ity o
f wat
er w
hen
a cu
be o
f ice
is
adde
d to
hot
wat
er.
• A
im 7
: Use
of d
ata
logg
ers
to re
cord
tem
pera
ture
cha
nges
. Use
of d
atab
ases
to
sou
rce
acce
pted
val
ues.
Topi
c 15
: Ene
rget
ics/
ther
moc
hem
istr
y 7
hour
s
Add
ition
al h
ighe
r lev
el
Topic 15: Energetics/thermochemistry
Chemistry guide 85
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: A
reac
tion
is s
pont
aneo
us if
the
over
all t
rans
form
atio
n le
ads
to a
n in
crea
se in
tota
l ent
ropy
(sys
tem
plu
s su
rroun
ding
s). T
he d
irect
ion
of s
pont
aneo
us c
hang
e al
way
s in
crea
ses
the
tota
l ent
ropy
of t
he u
nive
rse
at th
e ex
pens
e of
ene
rgy
avai
labl
e to
do
usef
ul w
ork.
Thi
s is
kno
wn
as th
e se
cond
law
of t
herm
odyn
amic
s.
15.2
Ent
ropy
and
spo
ntan
eity
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Theo
ries
can
be s
uper
sede
d—th
e id
ea o
f ent
ropy
has
evo
lved
thro
ugh
the
year
s as
a re
sult
of d
evel
opm
ents
in s
tatis
tics
and
prob
abili
ty. (
2.2)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• E
ntro
py (S
) ref
ers
to th
e di
strib
utio
n of
ava
ilabl
e en
ergy
am
ong
the
parti
cles
. Th
e m
ore
way
s th
e en
ergy
can
be
dist
ribut
ed th
e hi
gher
the
entro
py.
• G
ibbs
free
ene
rgy
(G) r
elat
es th
e en
ergy
that
can
be
obta
ined
from
a c
hem
ical
re
actio
n to
the
chan
ge in
ent
halp
y (Δ
H),
chan
ge in
ent
ropy
(ΔS
), an
d ab
solu
te
tem
pera
ture
(T).
• E
ntro
py o
f gas
>liq
uid>
solid
und
er s
ame
cond
ition
s.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• P
redi
ctio
n of
whe
ther
a c
hang
e w
ill re
sult
in a
n in
crea
se o
r dec
reas
e in
ent
ropy
by
con
side
ring
the
stat
es o
f the
reac
tant
s an
d pr
oduc
ts.
• C
alcu
latio
n of
ent
ropy
cha
nges
(ΔS
) fro
m g
iven
sta
ndar
d en
tropy
val
ues
(Sº)
.
• A
pplic
atio
n of
∆𝐺𝐺°
= ∆
𝐻𝐻° −𝑇𝑇∆
𝑆𝑆° in p
redi
ctin
g sp
onta
neity
and
cal
cula
tion
of
vario
us c
ondi
tions
of e
ntha
lpy
and
tem
pera
ture
that
will
affe
ct th
is.
• R
elat
ion
of Δ
G to
pos
ition
of e
quili
briu
m.
Gui
danc
e:
• E
xam
ine
vario
us re
actio
n co
nditi
ons
that
affe
ct Δ
G.
• Δ
G is
a c
onve
nien
t way
to ta
ke in
to a
ccou
nt b
oth
the
dire
ct e
ntro
py c
hang
e re
sulti
ng fr
om th
e tra
nsfo
rmat
ion
of th
e ch
emic
als,
and
the
indi
rect
ent
ropy
ch
ange
of t
he s
urro
undi
ngs
as a
resu
lt of
the
gain
/loss
of h
eat e
nerg
y.
• Th
erm
odyn
amic
dat
a is
giv
en in
sec
tion
12 o
f the
dat
a bo
okle
t.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• S
usta
inab
le e
nerg
y is
a U
N in
itiat
ive
with
a g
oal o
f dou
blin
g of
glo
bal
sust
aina
ble
ener
gy re
sour
ces
by 2
030.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• E
ntro
py is
a te
chni
cal t
erm
whi
ch h
as a
pre
cise
mea
ning
. How
impo
rtant
are
su
ch te
chni
cal t
erm
s in
diff
eren
t are
as o
f kno
wle
dge?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 5.
2—H
ess’
s La
w
Topi
c 5.
3—bo
nd e
ntha
lpy
Topi
c 7.
1—eq
uilib
rium
O
ptio
n C
.1—
qual
ity o
f ene
rgy
Phy
sics
opt
ion
B.2
—th
erm
odyn
amic
s
Aim
s:
• A
ims
1, 4
and
7: U
se o
f dat
abas
es to
rese
arch
hyp
othe
tical
reac
tions
cap
able
of
gen
erat
ing
free
ener
gy.
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ents
inve
stig
atin
g en
doth
erm
ic a
nd e
xoth
erm
ic p
roce
sses
cou
ld
be ru
n nu
mer
ous
times
to c
ompa
re re
liabi
lity
of re
petit
ive
data
and
com
pare
to
theo
retic
al v
alue
s.
Topic 16: Chemical kinetics
Chemistry guide86
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: R
ate
expr
essi
ons
can
only
be
dete
rmin
ed e
mpi
rical
ly a
nd th
ese
limit
poss
ible
reac
tion
mec
hani
sms.
In p
artic
ular
cas
es, s
uch
as a
line
ar c
hain
of e
lem
enta
ry
reac
tions
, no
equi
libria
and
onl
y on
e si
gnifi
cant
act
ivat
ion
barri
er, t
he ra
te e
quat
ion
is e
quiv
alen
t to
the
slow
est s
tep
of th
e re
actio
n.
16.1
Rat
e ex
pres
sion
and
reac
tion
mec
hani
sm
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Prin
cipl
e of
Occ
am’s
razo
r—ne
wer
theo
ries
need
to re
mai
n as
sim
ple
as p
ossi
ble
whi
le m
axim
izin
g ex
plan
ator
y po
wer
. The
low
pro
babi
lity
of th
ree
mol
ecul
e co
llisi
ons
mea
ns s
tepw
ise
reac
tion
mec
hani
sms
are
mor
e lik
ely.
(2.7
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• R
eact
ions
may
occ
ur b
y m
ore
than
one
ste
p an
d th
e sl
owes
t ste
p de
term
ines
th
e ra
te o
f rea
ctio
n (ra
te d
eter
min
ing
step
/RD
S).
• Th
e m
olec
ular
ity o
f an
elem
enta
ry s
tep
is th
e nu
mbe
r of r
eact
ant p
artic
les
taki
ng p
art i
n th
at s
tep.
• Th
e or
der o
f a re
actio
n ca
n be
eith
er in
tege
r or f
ract
iona
l in
natu
re. T
he o
rder
of
a re
actio
n ca
n de
scrib
e, w
ith re
spec
t to
a re
acta
nt, t
he n
umbe
r of p
artic
les
taki
ng p
art i
n th
e ra
te-d
eter
min
ing
step
.
• R
ate
equa
tions
can
onl
y be
det
erm
ined
exp
erim
enta
lly.
• Th
e va
lue
of th
e ra
te c
onst
ant (
k) is
affe
cted
by
tem
pera
ture
and
its
units
are
de
term
ined
from
the
over
all o
rder
of t
he re
actio
n.
• C
atal
ysts
alte
r a re
actio
n m
echa
nism
, int
rodu
cing
a s
tep
with
low
er a
ctiv
atio
n en
ergy
.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
educ
tion
of th
e ra
te e
xpre
ssio
n fo
r an
equa
tion
from
exp
erim
enta
l dat
a an
d so
lvin
g pr
oble
ms
invo
lvin
g th
e ra
te e
xpre
ssio
n.
• S
ketc
hing
, ide
ntify
ing,
and
ana
lysi
ng g
raph
ical
repr
esen
tatio
ns fo
r zer
o, fi
rst
and
seco
nd o
rder
reac
tions
.
• E
valu
atio
n of
pro
pose
d re
actio
n m
echa
nism
s to
be
cons
iste
nt w
ith k
inet
ic a
nd
stoi
chio
met
ric d
ata.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
e fir
st c
atal
yst u
sed
in in
dust
ry w
as fo
r the
pro
duct
ion
of s
ulfu
ric a
cid.
Sul
furic
ac
id p
rodu
ctio
n cl
osel
y m
irror
ed a
cou
ntry
’s e
cono
mic
hea
lth fo
r a lo
ng ti
me.
W
hat a
re s
ome
curre
nt in
dica
tors
of a
cou
ntry
’s e
cono
mic
hea
lth?
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• R
eact
ion
mec
hani
sm c
an b
e su
ppor
ted
by in
dire
ct e
vide
nce.
Wha
t is
the
role
of
empi
rical
evi
denc
e in
sci
entif
ic th
eorie
s? C
an w
e ev
er b
e ce
rtain
in s
cien
ce?
Util
izat
ion:
• C
ance
r res
earc
h is
all
abou
t ide
ntify
ing
mec
hani
sms;
for c
arci
noge
ns a
s w
ell a
s ca
ncer
-kill
ing
agen
ts a
nd in
hibi
tors
.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 20
.1—
orga
nic
mec
hani
sms
espe
cial
ly S
N1
and
SN2
Opt
ion
A.3
—ca
taly
sts
Bio
logy
topi
c 8.
1—en
zym
es a
ctin
g as
cat
alys
ts
Aim
s:
• A
im 7
: Dat
abas
es, d
ata
logg
ers
and
othe
r IC
T ap
plic
atio
ns c
an b
e us
ed to
re
sear
ch p
ropo
sed
mec
hani
sms
for l
ab w
ork
perfo
rmed
and
to c
arry
out
virt
ual
expe
rimen
ts to
inve
stig
ate
fact
ors
whi
ch in
fluen
ce ra
te e
quat
ions
.
Topi
c 16
: Che
mic
al k
inet
ics
6 ho
urs
Add
ition
al h
ighe
r lev
el
Topic 16: Chemical kinetics
Chemistry guide 87
16.1
Rat
e ex
pres
sion
and
reac
tion
mec
hani
sm
Gui
danc
e:
• C
alcu
latio
ns w
ill b
e lim
ited
to o
rder
s w
ith w
hole
num
ber v
alue
s.
• C
onsi
der c
once
ntra
tion
agai
nst t
ime
and
rate
aga
inst
con
cent
ratio
n gr
aphs
.
• U
se p
oten
tial e
nerg
y le
vel p
rofil
es to
illu
stra
te m
ulti-
step
reac
tions
; sho
win
g th
e hi
gher
Ea i
n th
e ra
te-d
eter
min
ing
step
in th
e pr
ofile
.
• C
atal
ysts
are
invo
lved
in th
e ra
te-d
eter
min
ing
step
.
• R
eact
ions
whe
re th
e ra
te-d
eter
min
ing
step
is n
ot th
e fir
st s
tep
shou
ld b
e co
nsid
ered
.
• A
ny e
xper
imen
t whi
ch a
llow
s st
uden
ts to
var
y co
ncen
tratio
ns to
see
the
effe
ct
upon
the
rate
and
hen
ce d
eter
min
e a
rate
equ
atio
n is
app
ropr
iate
.
Topic 16: Chemical kinetics
Chemistry guide88
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he a
ctiv
atio
n en
ergy
of a
reac
tion
can
be d
eter
min
ed fr
om th
e ef
fect
of t
empe
ratu
re o
n re
actio
n ra
te.
16.2
Act
ivat
ion
ener
gy
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Theo
ries
can
be s
uppo
rted
or fa
lsifi
ed a
nd re
plac
ed b
y ne
w th
eorie
s—ch
angi
ng th
e te
mpe
ratu
re o
f a re
actio
n ha
s a
muc
h gr
eate
r effe
ct o
n th
e ra
te o
f rea
ctio
n th
an c
an b
e ex
plai
ned
by it
s ef
fect
on
collis
ion
rate
s. T
his
resu
lted
in th
e de
velo
pmen
t of t
he A
rrhen
ius
equa
tion
whi
ch p
ropo
ses
a qu
antit
ativ
e m
odel
to e
xpla
in th
e ef
fect
of t
empe
ratu
re
chan
ge o
n re
actio
n ra
te. (
2.5)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• Th
e A
rrhen
ius
equa
tion
uses
the
tem
pera
ture
dep
ende
nce
of th
e ra
te c
onst
ant
to d
eter
min
e th
e ac
tivat
ion
ener
gy.
• A
gra
ph o
f 1/T
aga
inst
ln k
is a
line
ar p
lot w
ith g
radi
ent –
Ea /
R a
nd in
terc
ept,
lnA
.
• Th
e fre
quen
cy fa
ctor
(or p
re-e
xpon
entia
l fac
tor)
(A) t
akes
into
acc
ount
the
frequ
ency
of c
ollis
ions
with
pro
per o
rient
atio
ns.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• A
naly
sing
gra
phic
al re
pres
enta
tion
of th
e A
rrhen
ius
equa
tion
in it
s lin
ear f
orm
lnk
= -E
aRT
+ln
A.
• U
sing
the
Arrh
eniu
s eq
uatio
n 𝑘𝑘
= 𝐴𝐴
𝑒𝑒−𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅.
• D
escr
ibin
g th
e re
latio
nshi
ps b
etw
een
tem
pera
ture
and
rate
con
stan
t; fre
quen
cy
fact
or a
nd c
ompl
exity
of m
olec
ules
col
lidin
g.
• D
eter
min
ing
and
eval
uatin
g va
lues
of a
ctiv
atio
n en
ergy
and
freq
uenc
y fa
ctor
s fro
m d
ata.
Gui
danc
e:
• U
se e
nerg
y le
vel d
iagr
ams
to il
lust
rate
mul
ti-st
ep re
actio
ns s
how
ing
the
RD
S in
th
e di
agra
m.
• C
onsi
der v
ario
us d
ata
sour
ces
in u
sing
the
linea
r exp
ress
ion
lnk
= -E
aRT
+ln
A.
The
expr
essi
on ln
𝑘𝑘 1 𝑘𝑘 2=
𝐸𝐸 𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅(1 𝑇𝑇 2
−1 𝑇𝑇 1
) is
give
n in
the
data
boo
klet
.
Util
izat
ion:
• Th
e fla
shin
g lig
ht o
f fire
flies
is p
rodu
ced
by a
che
mic
al p
roce
ss in
volv
ing
enzy
mes
.
• Th
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n th
e “lo
ck a
nd k
ey” h
ypot
hesi
s of
enz
ymes
and
the
Arrh
eniu
s eq
uatio
n.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 6.
1—co
llisi
on th
eory
Aim
s:
• A
ims
4 an
d 7:
Use
of s
imul
atio
ns a
nd v
irtua
l exp
erim
ents
to s
tudy
effe
ct o
f te
mpe
ratu
re a
nd s
teric
fact
ors
on ra
tes
of re
actio
n.
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e th
ose
invo
lvin
g th
e co
llect
ion
of te
mpe
ratu
re
read
ings
to o
btai
n su
ffici
ent d
ata
for a
gra
ph.
• A
im 7
: Gra
phin
g ca
lcul
ator
s ca
n be
em
ploy
ed to
eas
ily in
put a
nd a
naly
se d
ata
for E
a and
freq
uenc
y fa
ctor
val
ues.
Topic 17: Equilibrium
Chemistry guide 8989
Topi
c 17
: Equ
ilibr
ium
4
hour
s
Add
ition
al h
ighe
r lev
el
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he p
ositi
on o
f equ
ilibr
ium
can
be
quan
tifie
d by
the
equi
libriu
m la
w. T
he e
quili
briu
m c
onst
ant f
or a
par
ticul
ar re
actio
n on
ly d
epen
ds o
n th
e te
mpe
ratu
re.
17.1
The
equ
ilibr
ium
law
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Em
ploy
ing
quan
titat
ive
reas
onin
g—ex
perim
enta
lly d
eter
min
ed ra
te e
xpre
ssio
ns fo
r for
war
d an
d ba
ckw
ard
reac
tions
can
be
dedu
ced
dire
ctly
from
the
stoi
chio
met
ric
equa
tions
and
allo
w L
e C
hâte
lier’s
prin
cipl
e to
be
appl
ied.
(1.8
, 1.9
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• Le
Châ
telie
r’s p
rinci
ple
for c
hang
es in
con
cent
ratio
n ca
n be
exp
lain
ed b
y th
e eq
uilib
rium
law
.
• Th
e po
sitio
n of
equ
ilibr
ium
cor
resp
onds
to a
max
imum
val
ue o
f ent
ropy
and
a
min
imum
in th
e va
lue
of th
e G
ibbs
free
ene
rgy.
• Th
e G
ibbs
free
ene
rgy
chan
ge o
f a re
actio
n an
d th
e eq
uilib
rium
con
stan
t can
bo
th b
e us
ed to
mea
sure
the
posi
tion
of a
n eq
uilib
rium
reac
tion
and
are
rela
ted
by th
e eq
uatio
n, ∆
Gᴏ=
-RT
lnK
.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• S
olut
ion
of h
omog
eneo
us e
quili
briu
m p
robl
ems
usin
g th
e ex
pres
sion
for K
c.
• R
elat
ions
hip
betw
een
∆Gᴏ
and
the
equi
libriu
m c
onst
ant.
• C
alcu
latio
ns u
sing
the
equa
tion
∆Gᴏ
= −
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ln
𝐾𝐾.
Gui
danc
e:
• Th
e ex
pres
sion
∆Gᴏ
= −
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ln
𝐾𝐾 is
giv
en in
the
data
boo
klet
in s
ectio
n 1.
• S
tude
nts
will
not
be
expe
cted
to d
eriv
e th
e ex
pres
sion
∆Gᴏ
= −
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ln
𝐾𝐾.
• Th
e us
e of
qua
drat
ic e
quat
ions
will
not
be
asse
ssed
.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• Th
e eq
uilib
rium
law
can
be
dedu
ced
by a
ssum
ing
that
the
orde
r of t
he fo
rwar
d an
d ba
ckw
ard
reac
tion
mat
ches
the
coef
ficie
nts
in th
e ch
emic
al e
quat
ion.
Wha
t is
the
role
of d
educ
tive
reas
onin
g in
sci
ence
?
• W
e ca
n us
e m
athe
mat
ics
succ
essf
ully
to m
odel
equ
ilibr
ium
sys
tem
s. Is
this
be
caus
e w
e cr
eate
mat
hem
atic
s to
mirr
or re
ality
or b
ecau
se th
e re
ality
is
intri
nsic
ally
mat
hem
atic
al?
• M
any
prob
lem
s in
sci
ence
can
onl
y be
sol
ved
whe
n as
sum
ptio
ns a
re m
ade
whi
ch s
impl
ify th
e m
athe
mat
ics.
Wha
t is
the
role
of i
ntui
tion
in p
robl
em s
olvi
ng?
Util
izat
ion:
• Th
e co
ncep
t of a
clo
sed
syst
em in
dyn
amic
equ
ilibr
ium
can
be
appl
ied
to a
ra
nge
of s
yste
ms
in th
e bi
olog
ical
, env
ironm
enta
l and
hum
an s
cien
ces.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 1.
3—st
oich
iom
etric
equ
atio
ns
Topi
c 7.
1—eq
uilib
rium
To
pic
18.2
—w
eak
acid
and
bas
e eq
uilib
ria
Opt
ion
A.1
0—K
sp
Opt
ions
B.7
and
D.4
—bu
ffer c
alcu
latio
ns
Topic 17: Equilibrium
Chemistry guide90
17.1
The
equ
ilibr
ium
law
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: The
equ
ilibr
ium
con
stan
t for
an
este
rific
atio
n re
actio
n an
d ot
her
reac
tions
cou
ld b
e ex
perim
enta
lly in
vest
igat
ed.
• A
im 7
: The
con
cept
of a
dyn
amic
equ
ilibr
ium
can
be
illus
trate
d w
ith c
ompu
ter
anim
atio
ns.
Topic 18: Acids and bases
Chemistry guide 9191
Add
ition
al h
ighe
r lev
el
Topi
c 18
: Aci
ds a
nd b
ases
10
hou
rs
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he a
cid–
base
con
cept
can
be
exte
nded
to re
actio
ns th
at d
o no
t inv
olve
pro
ton
trans
fer.
18.1
Lew
is a
cids
and
bas
es
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Theo
ries
can
be s
uppo
rted,
fals
ified
or r
epla
ced
by n
ew th
eorie
s—ac
id–b
ase
theo
ries
can
be e
xten
ded
to a
wid
er fi
eld
of a
pplic
atio
ns b
y co
nsid
erin
g lo
ne p
airs
of e
lect
rons
. Le
wis
theo
ry d
oesn
't fa
lsify
Brø
nste
d–Lo
wry
but
ext
ends
it. (
2.5)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• A
Lew
is a
cid
is a
lone
pai
r acc
epto
r and
a L
ewis
bas
e is
a lo
ne p
air d
onor
.
• W
hen
a Le
wis
bas
e re
acts
with
a L
ewis
aci
d a
coor
dina
te b
ond
is fo
rmed
.
• A
nuc
leop
hile
is a
Lew
is b
ase
and
an e
lect
roph
ile is
a L
ewis
aci
d.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• A
pplic
atio
n of
Lew
is’ a
cid–
base
theo
ry to
inor
gani
c an
d or
gani
c ch
emis
try to
id
entif
y th
e ro
le o
f the
reac
ting
spec
ies.
Gui
danc
e:
• B
oth
orga
nic
and
inor
gani
c ex
ampl
es s
houl
d be
stu
died
.
• R
elat
ions
bet
wee
n B
røns
ted–
Low
ry a
nd L
ewis
aci
ds a
nd b
ases
sho
uld
be
disc
usse
d.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• A
cid–
base
theo
ry h
as d
evel
oped
from
the
idea
s of
peo
ple
from
diff
eren
t par
ts
of th
e w
orld
thro
ugh
both
col
labo
ratio
n an
d co
mpe
titio
n.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• Th
e sa
me
phen
omen
on c
an s
omet
imes
be
expl
ored
from
diff
eren
t pe
rspe
ctiv
es, a
nd e
xpla
ined
by
diffe
rent
theo
ries.
For
exa
mpl
e, d
o w
e ju
dge
com
petin
g th
eorie
s by
thei
r uni
vers
ality
, sim
plic
ity o
r ele
ganc
e?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
cs 4
.2 a
nd 4
.3—
cova
lent
mol
ecul
es a
nd L
ewis
dot
dia
gram
s
Topi
c 13
.2—
trans
ition
met
al c
ompl
exes
To
pic
20.1
—nu
cleo
phile
s
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Tra
nsiti
on m
etal
com
plex
es c
ould
be
expe
rimen
tally
exp
lore
d.
• A
im 7
: Ani
mat
ions
can
be
used
to d
istin
guis
h be
twee
n th
e di
ffere
nt a
cid–
base
th
eorie
s.
Topic 18: Acids and bases
Chemistry guide92
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he e
quili
briu
m la
w c
an b
e ap
plie
d to
aci
d–ba
se re
actio
ns. N
umer
ical
pro
blem
s ca
n be
sim
plifi
ed b
y m
akin
g as
sum
ptio
ns a
bout
the
rela
tive
conc
entra
tions
of
the
spec
ies
invo
lved
. The
use
of l
ogar
ithm
s is
als
o si
gnifi
cant
her
e.
18.2
Cal
cula
tions
invo
lvin
g ac
ids
and
base
s
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Obt
aini
ng e
vide
nce
for s
cien
tific
theo
ries—
appl
icat
ion
of th
e eq
uilib
rium
law
allo
ws
stre
ngth
s of
aci
ds a
nd b
ases
to b
e de
term
ined
and
rela
ted
to th
eir m
olec
ular
stru
ctur
e.
(1.9
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• Th
e ex
pres
sion
for t
he d
isso
ciat
ion
cons
tant
of a
wea
k ac
id (K
a) a
nd a
wea
k ba
se (K
b).
• Fo
r a c
onju
gate
aci
d ba
se p
air,
Ka ×
Kb =
Kw.
• Th
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n K
a an
d pK
a is
(pK
a = -l
og K
a), a
nd b
etw
een
Kb an
d pK
b is
(pK
b = -l
og K
b).
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• S
olut
ion
of p
robl
ems
invo
lvin
g [H
+ (aq
)], [O
H– (
aq)],
pH
, pO
H, K
a, pK
a, K
b an
d pK
b.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
rela
tive
stre
ngth
s of
aci
ds a
nd b
ases
usi
ng v
alue
s of
Ka,
pKa,
Kb a
nd p
Kb.
Gui
danc
e:
• Th
e va
lue
Kw d
epen
ds o
n th
e te
mpe
ratu
re.
• Th
e ca
lcul
atio
n of
pH
in b
uffe
r sol
utio
ns w
ill o
nly
be a
sses
sed
in o
ptio
ns B
.7
and
D.4
.
• O
nly
exam
ples
invo
lvin
g th
e tra
nsfe
r of o
ne p
roto
n w
ill b
e as
sess
ed.
• C
alcu
latio
ns o
f pH
at t
empe
ratu
res
othe
r tha
n 29
8 K
can
be
asse
ssed
.
• S
tude
nts
shou
ld s
tate
whe
n ap
prox
imat
ions
are
use
d in
equ
ilibr
ium
ca
lcul
atio
ns.
• Th
e us
e of
qua
drat
ic e
quat
ions
will
not
be
asse
ssed
.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• M
athe
mat
ics
is a
uni
vers
al la
ngua
ge. T
he m
athe
mat
ical
nat
ure
of th
is to
pic
help
s ch
emis
ts s
peak
ing
diffe
rent
nat
ive
lang
uage
s to
com
mun
icat
e m
ore
obje
ctiv
ely.
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 8.
1—co
njug
ate
acid
–bas
e pa
irs
Topi
c 8.
3—th
e pH
con
cept
To
pic
8.4—
stro
ng a
nd w
eak
acid
s an
d ba
ses
Opt
ions
B.7
and
D.4
—bu
ffers
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: The
pro
perti
es o
f stro
ng a
nd w
eak
acid
s co
uld
be in
vest
igat
ed
expe
rimen
tally
.
Topic 18: Acids and bases
Chemistry guide 93
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: p
H c
urve
s ca
n be
inve
stig
ated
exp
erim
enta
lly b
ut a
re m
athe
mat
ical
ly d
eter
min
ed b
y th
e di
ssoc
iatio
n co
nsta
nts
of th
e ac
id a
nd b
ase.
An
indi
cato
r w
ith a
n ap
prop
riate
end
poi
nt c
an b
e us
ed to
det
erm
ine
the
equi
vale
nce
poin
t of t
he re
actio
n.
18.3
pH
cur
ves
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Incr
ease
d po
wer
of i
nstru
men
tatio
n an
d ad
vanc
es in
ava
ilabl
e te
chni
ques
—de
velo
pmen
t in
pH m
eter
tech
nolo
gy h
as a
llow
ed fo
r mor
e re
liabl
e an
d re
ady
mea
sure
men
t of
pH. (
3.7)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• Th
e ch
arac
teris
tics
of th
e pH
cur
ves
prod
uced
by
the
diffe
rent
com
bina
tions
of
stro
ng a
nd w
eak
acid
s an
d ba
ses.
• A
n ac
id–b
ase
indi
cato
r is
a w
eak
acid
or a
wea
k ba
se w
here
the
com
pone
nts
of
the
conj
ugat
e ac
id–b
ase
pair
have
diff
eren
t col
ours
.
• Th
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n th
e pH
rang
e of
an
acid
–bas
e in
dica
tor,
whi
ch is
a
wea
k ac
id, a
nd it
s pK
a val
ue.
• Th
e bu
ffer r
egio
n on
the
pH c
urve
repr
esen
ts th
e re
gion
whe
re s
mal
l add
ition
s of
aci
d or
bas
e re
sult
in li
ttle
or n
o ch
ange
in p
H.
• Th
e co
mpo
sitio
n an
d ac
tion
of a
buf
fer s
olut
ion.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• Th
e ge
nera
l sha
pes
of g
raph
s of
pH
aga
inst
vol
ume
for t
itrat
ions
invo
lvin
g st
rong
and
wea
k ac
ids
and
base
s w
ith a
n ex
plan
atio
n of
thei
r im
porta
nt
feat
ures
.
• S
elec
tion
of a
n ap
prop
riate
indi
cato
r for
a ti
tratio
n, g
iven
the
equi
vale
nce
poin
t of
the
titra
tion
and
the
end
poin
t of t
he in
dica
tor.
• W
hile
the
natu
re o
f the
aci
d–ba
se b
uffe
r alw
ays
rem
ains
the
sam
e, b
uffe
r so
lutio
ns c
an b
e pr
epar
ed b
y ei
ther
mix
ing
a w
eak
acid
/bas
e w
ith a
sol
utio
n of
a
salt
cont
aini
ng it
s co
njug
ate,
or b
y pa
rtial
neu
traliz
atio
n of
a w
eak
acid
/bas
e w
ith a
stro
ng a
cid/
base
.
• P
redi
ctio
n of
the
rela
tive
pH o
f aqu
eous
sal
t sol
utio
ns fo
rmed
by
the
diffe
rent
co
mbi
natio
ns o
f stro
ng a
nd w
eak
acid
and
bas
e.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• Is
a p
H c
urve
an
accu
rate
des
crip
tion
of re
ality
or a
n ar
tific
ial r
epre
sent
atio
n?
Doe
s sc
ienc
e of
fer a
repr
esen
tatio
n of
real
ity?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 5.
1—th
erm
omet
ric/c
ondu
ctio
met
ric ti
tratio
ns
Topi
c 16
.2—
Wha
t are
the
unus
ual m
athe
mat
ical
feat
ures
of a
pH
cur
ve?
Stu
dent
s sh
ould
als
o be
fam
iliar
with
the
use
of n
atur
al lo
gs w
hen
usin
g th
e A
rrhen
ius
expr
essi
on in
topi
c 16
.2
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e in
vest
igat
ion
of p
H c
urve
s, d
eter
min
atio
n of
th
e pK
a of a
wea
k ac
id, p
repa
ratio
n an
d in
vest
igat
ion
of a
buf
fer s
olut
ion
and
the
dete
rmin
atio
n of
the
pKa o
f an
indi
cato
r.
• A
im 7
: Dat
a lo
ggin
g, d
atab
ases
, spr
eads
heet
s an
d si
mul
atio
ns c
an a
ll be
use
d.
For e
xam
ple,
the
equi
vale
nce
poin
t cou
ld b
e de
term
ined
by
usin
g a
cond
uctiv
ity
prob
e or
a te
mpe
ratu
re p
robe
.
Topic 18: Acids and bases
Chemistry guide94
18.3
pH
cur
ves
Gui
danc
e:
• O
nly
exam
ples
invo
lvin
g th
e tra
nsfe
r of o
ne p
roto
n w
ill b
e as
sess
ed. I
mpo
rtant
fe
atur
es a
re:
– in
terc
ept w
ith p
H a
xis
– eq
uiva
lenc
e po
int
– bu
ffer r
egio
n
– po
ints
whe
re p
Ka =
pH
or p
Kb =
pO
H.
• Fo
r an
indi
cato
r whi
ch is
a w
eak
acid
:
– H
In(a
q)
H+ (
aq) +
In- (a
q)
Col
our A
Col
our B
– Th
e co
lour
cha
nge
can
be c
onsi
dere
d to
tak
e pl
ace
over
a r
ange
of
pKa ±
1.
• Fo
r an
indi
cato
r whi
ch is
a w
eak
base
:
B+(a
q) +
OH- (a
q)
– B
OH
(aq)
Col
our A
C
olou
r B
• E
xam
ples
of i
ndic
ator
s ar
e lis
ted
in th
e da
ta b
ookl
et in
sec
tion
22.
• S
alts
form
ed fr
om th
e fo
ur p
ossi
ble
com
bina
tions
of s
trong
and
wea
k ac
ids
and
base
s sh
ould
be
cons
ider
ed. C
alcu
latio
ns a
re n
ot re
quire
d.
Topic 19: Redox processes
Chemistry guide 9595
Add
ition
al h
ighe
r lev
el
Topi
c 19
: Red
ox p
roce
sses
6
hour
s
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: E
nerg
y co
nver
sions
bet
wee
n el
ectr
ical
and
che
mic
al e
nerg
y lie
at t
he c
ore
of e
lect
roch
emic
al c
ells.
19
.1 E
lect
roch
emic
al c
ells
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Em
ploy
ing
quan
titat
ive
reas
onin
g—el
ectro
de p
oten
tials
and
the
stan
dard
hyd
roge
n el
ectro
de. (
3.1)
Col
labo
ratio
n an
d et
hica
l im
plic
atio
ns—
scie
ntis
ts h
ave
colla
bora
ted
to w
ork
on e
lect
roch
emic
al c
ell t
echn
olog
ies
and
have
to c
onsi
der t
he e
nviro
nmen
tal a
nd e
thic
al
impl
icat
ions
of u
sing
fuel
cel
ls a
nd m
icro
bial
fuel
cel
ls. (
4.5)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• A
vol
taic
cel
l gen
erat
es a
n el
ectro
mot
ive
forc
e (E
MF)
resu
lting
in th
e m
ovem
ent
of e
lect
rons
from
the
anod
e (n
egat
ive
elec
trode
) to
the
cath
ode
(pos
itive
el
ectro
de) v
ia th
e ex
tern
al c
ircui
t. Th
e E
MF
is te
rmed
the
cell
pote
ntia
l (E
º).
• Th
e st
anda
rd h
ydro
gen
elec
trode
(SH
E) c
onsi
sts
of a
n in
ert p
latin
um e
lect
rode
in
con
tact
with
1 m
ol d
m-3
hyd
roge
n io
n an
d hy
drog
en g
as a
t 100
kP
a an
d 29
8 K
. The
sta
ndar
d el
ectro
de p
oten
tial (
Eº)
is th
e po
tent
ial (
volta
ge) o
f the
re
duct
ion
half-
equa
tion
unde
r sta
ndar
d co
nditi
ons
mea
sure
d re
lativ
e to
the
SH
E. S
olut
e co
ncen
tratio
n is
1 m
ol d
m-3
or 1
00 k
Pa
for g
ases
. Eº o
f the
SH
E is
0
V.
• W
hen
aque
ous
solu
tions
are
ele
ctro
lyse
d, w
ater
can
be
oxid
ized
to o
xyge
n at
th
e an
ode
and
redu
ced
to h
ydro
gen
at th
e ca
thod
e.
• ∆𝐺𝐺
°=
−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛° .Whe
n E
º is
posi
tive,
G
º is n
egat
ive
indi
cativ
e of
a s
pont
aneo
us
proc
ess.
Whe
n E
º is
nega
tive,
G
º is p
ositi
ve in
dica
tive
of a
non
-spo
ntan
eous
pr
oces
s. W
hen
Eº i
s 0,
then
G
º is 0
.
• C
urre
nt, d
urat
ion
of e
lect
roly
sis
and
char
ge o
n th
e io
n af
fect
the
amou
nt o
f pr
oduc
t for
med
at t
he e
lect
rode
s du
ring
elec
troly
sis.
• El
ectro
plat
ing
invo
lves
the
elec
troly
tic c
oatin
g of
an
obje
ct w
ith a
met
allic
thin
laye
r.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• M
any
elec
troch
emic
al c
ells
can
act
as
ener
gy s
ourc
es a
llevi
atin
g th
e w
orld
’s
ener
gy p
robl
ems
but s
ome
cells
suc
h as
sup
er-e
ffici
ent m
icro
bial
fuel
cel
ls
(MFC
s) (a
lso
term
ed b
iolo
gica
l fue
l cel
ls) c
an c
ontri
bute
to c
lean
-up
of th
e en
viro
nmen
t. H
ow d
o na
tiona
l gov
ernm
ents
and
the
inte
rnat
iona
l com
mun
ity
deci
de o
n re
sear
ch p
riorit
ies
for f
undi
ng p
urpo
ses?
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• Th
e S
HE
is a
n ex
ampl
e of
an
arbi
trary
refe
renc
e. W
ould
our
sci
entif
ic
know
ledg
e be
the
sam
e if
we
chos
e di
ffere
nt re
fere
nces
?
Util
izat
ion:
• E
lect
ropl
atin
g.
• E
lect
roch
emic
al p
roce
sses
in d
entis
try.
• R
ustin
g of
met
als.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
cs 1
.2 a
nd 1
.3—
prob
lem
s in
volv
ing
Avo
gadr
o’s
cons
tant
, am
ount
of s
ubst
ance
an
d th
e id
eal g
as e
quat
ion
Topi
c 9.
1—re
dox
proc
esse
s
Topic 19: Redox processes
Chemistry guide96
19.1
Ele
ctro
chem
ical
cel
ls
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• C
alcu
latio
n of
cel
l pot
entia
ls u
sing
sta
ndar
d el
ectro
de p
oten
tials
.
• P
redi
ctio
n of
whe
ther
a re
actio
n is
spo
ntan
eous
or n
ot u
sing
Eo v
alue
s.
• D
eter
min
atio
n of
sta
ndar
d fre
e-en
ergy
cha
nges
(G
o ) u
sing
sta
ndar
d el
ectro
de
pote
ntia
ls.
• Ex
plan
atio
n of
the
prod
ucts
form
ed d
urin
g th
e el
ectro
lysis
of a
queo
us s
olut
ions
.
• P
erfo
rm la
b ex
perim
ents
that
cou
ld in
clud
e si
ngle
repl
acem
ent r
eact
ions
in
aque
ous
solu
tions
.
• D
eter
min
atio
n of
the
rela
tive
amou
nts
of p
rodu
cts
form
ed d
urin
g el
ectro
lytic
pr
oces
ses.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
proc
ess
of e
lect
ropl
atin
g.
Gui
danc
e:
• E
lect
roly
tic p
roce
sses
to b
e co
vere
d in
theo
ry s
houl
d in
clud
e th
e el
ectro
lysi
s of
aq
ueou
s so
lutio
ns (e
g so
dium
chl
orid
e, c
oppe
r(II)
sulfa
te e
tc) a
nd w
ater
usi
ng
both
iner
t pla
tinum
or g
raph
ite e
lect
rode
s an
d co
pper
ele
ctro
des.
Exp
lana
tions
sh
ould
refe
r to
Eº v
alue
s, n
atur
e of
the
elec
trode
and
con
cent
ratio
n of
the
elec
troly
te.
• ∆𝐺𝐺
°=
−𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛° is
give
n in
the
data
boo
klet
in s
ectio
n 1.
• Fa
rada
y’s
cons
tant
= 9
6 50
0 C
mol
-1 is
giv
en in
the
data
boo
klet
in s
ectio
n 2.
• Th
e te
rm “c
ells
in s
erie
s” s
houl
d be
und
erst
ood.
Topi
c 15
.2—
spon
tane
ity o
f a re
actio
n O
ptio
n C
.6—
Ner
nst e
quat
ion
Bio
logy
opt
ion
B.3
—en
viro
nmen
tal p
rote
ctio
n; w
aste
trea
tmen
t and
mic
robi
al fu
el
cells
Aim
s:
• A
im 8
: Bio
logi
cal f
uel c
ells
can
pro
duce
ele
ctric
al e
nerg
y to
pow
er e
lect
rical
de
vice
s, h
ouse
s, fa
ctor
ies
etc.
The
y ca
n as
sist
in e
nviro
nmen
tal c
lean
-up.
M
icro
bial
fuel
cel
ls (M
FCs)
pow
ered
by
mic
robe
s in
sew
age
can
clea
n up
se
wag
e w
hich
may
resu
lt in
cos
t-fre
e w
aste
wat
er tr
eatm
ent.
Topic 20: Organic chemistry
Chemistry guide 9797
Add
ition
al h
ighe
r lev
el
Topi
c 20
: Org
anic
che
mis
try
12 h
ours
Topic 20 – Organic chemistry
Chemistry guide98
20.1
Typ
es o
f org
anic
reac
tions
• M
arko
vnik
ov’s
rule
can
be
appl
ied
to p
redi
ct th
e m
ajor
pro
duct
in
elec
troph
ilic
addi
tion
reac
tions
of u
nsym
met
rical
alk
enes
with
hyd
roge
n ha
lides
and
inte
rhal
ogen
s. T
he fo
rmat
ion
of th
e m
ajor
pro
duct
can
be
expl
aine
d in
term
s of
the
rela
tive
stab
ility
of p
ossi
ble
carb
ocat
ions
in th
e re
actio
n m
echa
nism
.
Ele
ctro
phili
c S
ubst
itutio
n R
eact
ions
:
• Be
nzen
e is
the
sim
ples
t aro
mat
ic h
ydro
carb
on c
ompo
und
(or a
rene
) and
has
a
delo
caliz
ed s
truct
ure
of
bon
ds a
roun
d its
ring
. Eac
h ca
rbon
to c
arbo
n bo
nd
has
a bo
nd o
rder
of 1
.5. B
enze
ne is
sus
cept
ible
to a
ttack
by
elec
troph
iles.
Red
uctio
n R
eact
ions
:
• C
arbo
xylic
aci
ds c
an b
e re
duce
d to
prim
ary
alco
hols
(via
the
alde
hyde
). K
eton
es c
an b
e re
duce
d to
sec
onda
ry a
lcoh
ols.
Typ
ical
redu
cing
age
nts
are
lithi
um a
lum
iniu
m h
ydrid
e (u
sed
to re
duce
car
boxy
lic a
cids
) and
sod
ium
bo
rohy
drid
e.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
Nuc
leop
hilic
Sub
stitu
tion
Rea
ctio
ns:
• E
xpla
natio
n of
why
hyd
roxi
de is
a b
ette
r nuc
leop
hile
than
wat
er.
• D
educ
tion
of th
e m
echa
nism
of t
he n
ucle
ophi
lic s
ubst
itutio
n re
actio
ns o
f ha
loge
noal
kane
s w
ith a
queo
us s
odiu
m h
ydro
xide
in te
rms
of S
N1
and
SN2
mec
hani
sms.
Exp
lana
tion
of h
ow th
e ra
te d
epen
ds o
n th
e id
entit
y of
the
halo
gen
(ie th
e le
avin
g gr
oup)
, whe
ther
the
halo
geno
alka
ne is
prim
ary,
se
cond
ary
or te
rtiar
y an
d th
e ch
oice
of s
olve
nt.
• O
utlin
e of
the
diffe
renc
e be
twee
n pr
otic
and
apr
otic
sol
vent
s.
Ele
ctro
phili
c A
dditi
on R
eact
ions
:
• D
educ
tion
of th
e m
echa
nism
of t
he e
lect
roph
ilic
addi
tion
reac
tions
of a
lken
es
with
hal
ogen
s/in
terh
alog
ens
and
hydr
ogen
hal
ides
.
• A
im 6
: A ra
nge
of e
xper
imen
ts o
f org
anic
syn
thet
ic re
actio
ns e
xplo
ring
vario
us
type
s of
reac
tions
and
func
tiona
l gro
up in
terc
onve
rsio
ns c
ould
be
done
. Cor
e te
chni
ques
of o
rgan
ic c
hem
istry
cou
ld in
clud
e re
flux,
dis
tilla
tion,
filtr
atio
n,
purif
icat
ion
(incl
udin
g ch
rom
atog
raph
ic te
chni
ques
), se
para
tions
and
ext
ract
ions
.
• A
im 6
: Syn
thes
is (o
r rea
ctio
n) in
the
labo
rato
ry o
f an
exam
ple
of a
wid
ely
used
dr
ug o
r med
icin
e (e
g as
pirin
) or a
hou
seho
ld p
rodu
ct (e
g fa
ding
of t
omat
o ke
tchu
p—el
ectro
phili
c ad
ditio
n re
actio
n of
bro
min
e).
Topic 20: Organic chemistry
Chemistry guide 99
20.1
Typ
es o
f org
anic
reac
tions
Ele
ctro
phili
c S
ubst
itutio
n R
eact
ions
:
• D
educ
tion
of th
e m
echa
nism
of t
he n
itrat
ion
(ele
ctro
phili
c su
bstit
utio
n)
reac
tion
of b
enze
ne (u
sing
a m
ixtu
re o
f con
cent
rate
d ni
tric
acid
and
sul
furic
ac
id).
Red
uctio
n R
eact
ions
:
• W
ritin
g re
duct
ion
reac
tions
of c
arbo
nyl c
onta
inin
g co
mpo
unds
: ald
ehyd
es
and
keto
nes
to p
rimar
y an
d se
cond
ary
alco
hols
and
car
boxy
lic a
cids
to
alco
hols
, usi
ng s
uita
ble
redu
cing
age
nts.
• C
onve
rsio
n of
nitr
oben
zene
to p
heny
lam
ine
via
a tw
o-st
age
reac
tion.
Gui
danc
e:
• R
efer
ence
sho
uld
be m
ade
to h
eter
olyt
ic fi
ssio
n fo
r SN1
reac
tions
.
• Th
e di
ffere
nce
betw
een
hom
olyt
ic a
nd h
eter
olyt
ic fi
ssio
n sh
ould
be
unde
rsto
od.
• Th
e di
ffere
nce
betw
een
curly
arro
ws
and
fish-
hook
s in
reac
tion
mec
hani
sms
shou
ld b
e em
phas
ized
.
• U
se o
f par
tial c
harg
es (
+ an
d -
) and
wed
ge-d
ash
thre
e-di
men
sion
al
repr
esen
tatio
ns (u
sing
tape
red
bond
s as
sho
wn
belo
w) s
houl
d be
en
cour
aged
whe
re a
ppro
pria
te in
exp
lain
ing
reac
tion
mec
hani
sms.
• Ty
pica
l con
ditio
ns a
nd re
agen
ts o
f all
reac
tions
sho
uld
be k
now
n (e
g ca
taly
sts,
redu
cing
age
nts,
reflu
x et
c.).
How
ever
, mor
e pr
ecis
e de
tails
suc
h as
spe
cific
tem
pera
ture
s ne
ed n
ot b
e in
clud
ed.
Topic 20: Organic chemistry
Chemistry guide100
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: O
rgan
ic s
ynth
esis
is th
e sy
stem
atic
pre
para
tion
of a
com
poun
d fro
m a
wid
ely
avai
labl
e st
artin
g m
ater
ial o
r the
syn
thes
is o
f a c
ompo
und
via
a sy
nthe
tic ro
ute
that
ofte
n ca
n in
volv
e a
serie
s of
diff
eren
t ste
ps.
20.2
Syn
thet
ic ro
utes
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Sci
entif
ic m
etho
d—in
syn
thet
ic d
esig
n, th
e th
inki
ng p
roce
ss o
f the
org
anic
che
mis
t is
one
whi
ch in
voke
s re
tro-s
ynth
esis
and
the
abili
ty to
thin
k in
a re
vers
e-lik
e m
anne
r. (1
.3)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• Th
e sy
nthe
sis
of a
n or
gani
c co
mpo
und
stem
s fro
m a
read
ily a
vaila
ble
star
ting
mat
eria
l via
a s
erie
s of
dis
cret
e st
eps.
Fun
ctio
nal g
roup
inte
rcon
vers
ions
are
th
e ba
sis
of s
uch
synt
hetic
rout
es.
• R
etro
-syn
thes
is o
f org
anic
com
poun
ds.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
educ
tion
of m
ulti-
step
syn
thet
ic ro
utes
giv
en s
tarti
ng re
agen
ts a
nd th
e pr
oduc
t(s).
Gui
danc
e:
• C
onve
rsio
ns w
ith m
ore
than
four
sta
ges
will
not
be
asse
ssed
in s
ynth
etic
ro
utes
.
• R
eact
ion
type
s ca
n co
ver a
ny o
f the
reac
tions
cov
ered
in to
pic
10 a
nd s
ub-to
pic
20.1
.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• H
ow im
porta
nt a
re n
atur
al p
rodu
cts
to d
evel
opin
g co
untri
es?
Exp
lore
som
e sp
ecifi
c ex
ampl
es o
f nat
ural
pro
duct
s av
aila
ble
in d
evel
opin
g co
untri
es w
hich
ar
e im
porta
nt to
the
deve
lope
d w
orld
.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• A
retro
-syn
thet
ic a
ppro
ach
is o
ften
used
in th
e de
sign
of s
ynth
etic
rout
es. W
hat
are
the
role
s of
imag
inat
ion,
intu
ition
and
reas
onin
g in
find
ing
solu
tions
to
prac
tical
pro
blem
s?
Util
izat
ion:
• N
atur
al p
rodu
cts
are
com
poun
ds is
olat
ed fr
om n
atur
al s
ourc
es a
nd in
clud
e ta
xol,
mes
calin
e an
d ca
psai
cin.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
cs 1
0.1
and
10.2
—or
gani
c ch
emis
try
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Mul
tiple
sta
ge o
rgan
ic s
ynth
etic
rout
e se
ries
of e
xper
imen
ts (u
p to
a
max
imum
of f
our s
tage
s).
Topic 20: Organic chemistry
Chemistry guide 101
Ess
entia
l ide
a: S
tere
oiso
mer
ism
invo
lves
isom
ers
whi
ch h
ave
diffe
rent
arr
ange
men
ts o
f ato
ms
in s
pace
but
do
not d
iffer
in c
onne
ctiv
ity o
r bon
d m
ultip
licity
(ie
whe
ther
sin
gle,
do
uble
or t
riple
) bet
wee
n th
e is
omer
s th
emse
lves
.
20.3
Ste
reoi
som
eris
m
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Tran
sdis
cipl
inar
y—th
e th
ree-
dim
ensi
onal
sha
pe o
f an
orga
nic
mol
ecul
e is
the
foun
datio
n pi
llar o
f its
stru
ctur
e an
d of
ten
its p
rope
rties
. Muc
h of
the
hum
an b
ody
is c
hira
l. (4
.1)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• S
tere
oiso
mer
s ar
e su
bdiv
ided
into
two
clas
ses—
conf
orm
atio
nal i
som
ers,
whi
ch
inte
rcon
vert
by ro
tatio
n ab
out a
σ b
ond
and
conf
igur
atio
nal i
som
ers
that
in
terc
onve
rt on
ly b
y br
eaki
ng a
nd re
form
ing
a bo
nd.
Con
figur
atio
nal i
som
ers
are
furth
er s
ubdi
vide
d in
to c
is-tr
ans
and
E/Z
isom
ers
and
optic
al is
omer
s.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• H
ave
drug
s an
d m
edic
ines
in s
ome
coun
tries
bee
n so
ld a
nd a
dmin
iste
red
as
race
mat
es in
stea
d of
as
the
desi
red
enan
tiom
er w
ith th
e as
soci
ated
ther
apeu
tic
activ
ity?
Can
you
thin
k of
any
dru
gs o
r med
icin
es w
hich
may
ser
ve a
s go
od
case
stu
dies
for t
his?
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• Th
e ex
iste
nce
of o
ptic
al is
omer
s pr
ovid
e in
dire
ct e
vide
nce
for a
tetra
hedr
ally
bo
nded
car
bon
atom
. Whi
ch w
ays
of k
now
ing
allo
w u
s to
con
nect
indi
rect
ev
iden
ce to
our
theo
ries?
• S
tere
oiso
mer
ism
can
be
inve
stig
ated
by
phys
ical
and
com
pute
r mod
els.
Wha
t is
the
role
of s
uch
mod
els
in o
ther
are
as o
f kno
wle
dge?
• O
ne o
f the
cha
lleng
es fo
r the
sci
entis
t and
the
artis
t is
to re
pres
ent t
he th
ree-
dim
ensi
onal
wor
ld in
two
dim
ensi
ons.
Wha
t are
the
sim
ilarit
ies
and
diffe
renc
es
in th
e tw
o ap
proa
ches
? W
hat i
s th
e ro
le o
f the
diff
eren
t way
s of
kno
win
g in
the
two
appr
oach
es?
Util
izat
ion:
• M
any
of th
e dr
ugs
deriv
ed fr
om n
atur
al s
ourc
es a
re c
hira
l and
incl
ude
nico
tine,
do
pam
ine,
thyr
oxin
e an
d na
prox
en.
• Th
e ro
le o
f ste
reoc
hem
istry
in v
isio
n sc
ienc
e an
d fo
od s
cien
ce.
• In
man
y pe
rfum
es, s
tere
oche
mis
try o
ften
can
be d
eem
ed m
ore
impo
rtant
than
ch
emic
al c
ompo
sitio
n.
Isom
eris
m
Ster
eois
omer
ism
Conf
igur
atio
nal
Isom
eris
mCo
nfor
mat
iona
l Is
omer
ism
Stru
ctur
al
Isom
eris
m
Topic 20: Organic chemistry
Chemistry guide102
20.3
Ste
reoi
som
eris
m
• C
is-tr
ans
isom
ers
can
occu
r in
alke
nes
or c
yclo
alka
nes
(or h
eter
oana
logu
es)
and
diffe
r in
the
posi
tions
of a
tom
s (o
r gro
ups)
rela
tive
to a
refe
renc
e pl
ane.
A
ccor
ding
to IU
PA
C, E
/Z is
omer
s re
fer t
o al
kene
s of
the
form
R1R
2C=C
R3R
4 (R
1 ≠
R2,
R3
≠ R
4) w
here
nei
ther
R1
nor R
2 ne
ed b
e di
ffere
nt fr
om R
3 or
R4.
• A
chi
ral c
arbo
n is
a c
arbo
n jo
ined
to fo
ur d
iffer
ent a
tom
s or
gro
ups.
• A
n op
tical
ly a
ctiv
e co
mpo
und
can
rota
te th
e pl
ane
of p
olar
ized
ligh
t as
it pa
sses
th
roug
h a
solu
tion
of th
e co
mpo
und.
Opt
ical
isom
ers
are
enan
tiom
ers.
E
nant
iom
ers
are
non-
supe
rimpo
seab
le m
irror
imag
es o
f eac
h ot
her.
Dia
ster
eom
ers
are
not m
irror
imag
es o
f eac
h ot
her.
• A
race
mic
mix
ture
(or r
acem
ate)
is a
mix
ture
of t
wo
enan
tiom
ers
in e
qual
am
ount
s an
d is
opt
ical
ly in
activ
e.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• C
onst
ruct
ion
of 3
-D m
odel
s (r
eal o
r virt
ual)
of a
wid
e ra
nge
of s
tere
oiso
mer
s.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
ste
reoi
som
eris
m in
non
-cyc
lic a
lken
es a
nd C
3 an
d C
4 cy
cloa
lkan
es.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
cs 1
0.1
and
10.2
—or
gani
c ch
emis
try
Opt
ion
B.4
—ca
rboh
ydra
tes
Opt
ion
B.1
0—st
ereo
chem
istry
in b
iom
olec
ules
O
ptio
n D
.7—
impo
rtanc
e of
chi
ralit
y an
d dr
ug a
ctio
n
Aim
s
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e th
e sy
nthe
sis
and
char
acte
rizat
ion
of a
n en
antio
mer
(eg
(-) m
enth
ol) o
r the
reso
lutio
n of
a ra
cem
ic m
ixtu
re.
Topic 20: Organic chemistry
Chemistry guide 103
20.3
Ste
reoi
som
eris
m
• C
ompa
rison
bet
wee
n th
e ph
ysic
al a
nd c
hem
ical
pro
perti
es o
f ena
ntio
mer
s.
• D
escr
iptio
n an
d ex
plan
atio
n of
opt
ical
isom
ers
in s
impl
e or
gani
c m
olec
ules
.
• D
istin
ctio
n be
twee
n op
tical
isom
ers
usin
g a
pola
rimet
er.
Gui
danc
e:
• Th
e te
rm g
eom
etric
isom
ers
as re
com
men
ded
by IU
PA
C is
now
obs
olet
e an
d ci
s-tra
ns is
omer
s an
d E
/Z is
omer
s sh
ould
be
enco
urag
ed in
the
teac
hing
pr
ogra
mm
e.
• In
the
E/Z
sys
tem
, the
gro
up o
f hig
hest
Cah
n–In
gold
–Pre
log
prio
rity
atta
ched
to
one
of th
e te
rmin
al d
oubl
y bo
nded
ato
ms
of th
e al
kene
(ie
R1
or R
2) is
co
mpa
red
with
the
grou
p of
hig
hest
pre
cede
nce
atta
ched
to th
e ot
her (
ie R
3 or
R
4). T
he s
tere
oiso
mer
is Z
if th
e gr
oups
lie
on th
e sa
me
side
of a
refe
renc
e pl
ane
pass
ing
thro
ugh
the
doub
le b
ond
and
perp
endi
cula
r to
the
plan
e co
ntai
ning
the
bond
s lin
king
the
grou
ps to
the
doub
le-b
onde
d at
oms;
the
othe
r st
ereo
isom
er is
des
igna
ted
as E
.
• W
edge
-das
h ty
pe re
pres
enta
tions
invo
lvin
g ta
pere
d bo
nds
shou
ld b
e us
ed fo
r re
pres
enta
tions
of o
ptic
al is
omer
s.
Topic 21: Measurement and analysis
Chemistry guide104
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: A
lthou
gh s
pect
rosc
opic
cha
ract
eriz
atio
n te
chni
ques
form
the
back
bone
of s
truct
ural
iden
tific
atio
n of
com
poun
ds, t
ypic
ally
no
one
tech
niqu
e re
sults
in a
full
stru
ctur
al id
entif
icat
ion
of a
mol
ecul
e.
21.1
Spe
ctro
scop
ic id
entif
icat
ion
of o
rgan
ic c
ompo
unds
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Impr
ovem
ents
in m
oder
n in
stru
men
tatio
n—ad
vanc
es in
spe
ctro
scop
ic te
chni
ques
(IR
, 1 H N
MR
and
MS)
hav
e re
sulte
d in
det
aile
d kn
owle
dge
of th
e st
ruct
ure
of c
ompo
unds
. (1.
8)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• S
truct
ural
iden
tific
atio
n of
com
poun
ds in
volv
es s
ever
al d
iffer
ent a
naly
tical
te
chni
ques
incl
udin
g IR
, 1 H N
MR
and
MS
.
• In
a h
igh
reso
lutio
n 1 H
NM
R s
pect
rum
, sin
gle
peak
s pr
esen
t in
low
reso
lutio
n ca
n sp
lit in
to fu
rther
clu
ster
s of
pea
ks.
• Th
e st
ruct
ural
tech
niqu
e of
sin
gle
crys
tal X
-ray
crys
tallo
grap
hy c
an b
e us
ed to
id
entif
y th
e bo
nd le
ngth
s an
d bo
nd a
ngle
s of
cry
stal
line
com
poun
ds.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
use
of te
tram
ethy
lsila
ne (T
MS
) as
the
refe
renc
e st
anda
rd.
• D
educ
tion
of th
e st
ruct
ure
of a
com
poun
d gi
ven
info
rmat
ion
from
a ra
nge
of
anal
ytic
al c
hara
cter
izat
ion
tech
niqu
es (X
-ray
crys
tallo
grap
hy, I
R, 1 H
NM
R a
nd
MS
).
Gui
danc
e:
• S
tude
nts
shou
ld b
e ab
le to
inte
rpre
t the
follo
win
g fro
m 1 H
NM
R s
pect
ra:
num
ber o
f pea
ks, a
rea
unde
r eac
h pe
ak, c
hem
ical
shi
ft an
d sp
littin
g pa
ttern
s.
Trea
tmen
t of s
pin-
spin
cou
plin
g co
nsta
nts
will
not
be
asse
ssed
but
stu
dent
s sh
ould
be
fam
iliar
with
sin
glet
s, d
oubl
ets,
trip
lets
and
qua
rtets
.
• H
igh
reso
lutio
n 1 H
NM
R s
houl
d be
cov
ered
.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
e ch
emic
al c
omm
unity
ofte
n sh
ares
che
mic
al s
truct
ural
info
rmat
ion
on th
e in
tern
atio
nal s
tage
. The
Cam
brid
ge C
ryst
allo
grap
hic
Dat
abas
e, C
hem
Spi
der
deve
lope
d by
the
Roy
al S
ocie
ty o
f Che
mis
try a
nd th
e P
rote
in D
ata
Ban
k (R
CS
B P
DB
) (at
Bro
okha
ven
Nat
iona
l Lab
orat
ory,
US
A) a
re e
xam
ples
whi
ch
high
light
the
inte
rnat
iona
l nat
ure
of th
e sc
ient
ific
com
mun
ity.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• Th
e in
tens
ity ra
tio o
f the
line
s in
the
high
reso
lutio
n N
MR
spe
ctru
m is
giv
en b
y th
e nu
mbe
rs in
Pas
cal's
tria
ngle
, a m
athe
mat
ical
pat
tern
kno
wn
inde
pend
ently
ov
er a
thou
sand
yea
rs a
go b
y a
num
ber o
f diff
eren
t cul
ture
s. W
hy is
m
athe
mat
ics
such
an
effe
ctiv
e to
ol in
sci
ence
? Is
mat
hem
atic
s th
e sc
ienc
e of
pa
ttern
s?
Util
izat
ion:
• P
roto
ns in
wat
er m
olec
ules
with
in h
uman
cel
ls c
an b
e de
tect
ed b
y m
agne
tic
reso
nanc
e im
agin
g (M
RI),
giv
ing
a th
ree-
dim
ensi
onal
vie
w o
f org
ans
in th
e hu
man
bod
y. W
hy is
MR
I rep
laci
ng c
ompu
teriz
ed to
mog
raph
y (C
T) s
cans
for
som
e ap
plic
atio
ns b
ut is
use
d as
a c
ompl
emen
tary
tech
niqu
e fo
r oth
ers?
• M
S (a
nd o
ther
tech
niqu
es s
uch
as T
LC, G
C, G
C-M
S a
nd H
PLC
) can
be
used
in
fore
nsic
inve
stig
atio
ns a
t crim
e sc
enes
.
• A
naly
tical
tech
niqu
es c
an b
e us
ed to
test
for d
rug
abus
e by
hig
h-pe
rform
ance
at
hlet
es.
Add
ition
al h
ighe
r lev
el
Topi
c 21
: Mea
sure
men
t and
ana
lysis
2
hour
s
Topic 21: Measurement and analysis
Chemistry guide 105
21.1
Spe
ctro
scop
ic id
entif
icat
ion
of o
rgan
ic c
ompo
unds
• Th
e pr
ecis
e de
tails
of s
ingl
e cr
ysta
l X-ra
y cr
ysta
llogr
aphy
nee
d no
t be
know
n in
de
tail,
but
stu
dent
s sh
ould
be
awar
e of
the
exis
tenc
e of
this
stru
ctur
al te
chni
que
in th
e w
ider
con
text
of s
truct
ural
iden
tific
atio
n of
bot
h in
orga
nic
and
orga
nic
com
poun
ds.
• Th
e op
erat
ing
prin
cipl
es a
re n
ot re
quire
d fo
r any
of t
hese
met
hods
.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 11
.3—
spec
trosc
opic
iden
tific
atio
n of
com
poun
ds
Opt
ion
B.2
—ch
rom
atog
raph
y an
d pr
otei
n se
para
tion
O
ptio
n B
.9—
chro
mat
ogra
phy
and
pigm
ents
O
ptio
n D
.7—
chira
l aux
iliar
ies
Aim
s:
• A
im 7
: Spe
ctra
l dat
abas
es c
an b
e us
ed h
ere.
Core topics
Chemistry guide106
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: M
ater
ials
sci
ence
invo
lves
und
erst
andi
ng th
e pr
oper
ties
of a
mat
eria
l, an
d th
en a
pply
ing
thos
e pr
oper
ties
to d
esire
d st
ruct
ures
.
A.1
Mat
eria
ls s
cien
ce in
trod
uctio
n
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Impr
ovem
ents
in te
chno
logy
—di
ffere
nt m
ater
ials
wer
e us
ed fo
r diff
eren
t pur
pose
s be
fore
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f a s
cien
tific
und
erst
andi
ng o
f the
ir pr
oper
ties.
(1.8
)
Pat
tern
s in
sci
ence
—hi
stor
y ha
s ch
arac
teriz
ed c
ivili
zatio
ns b
y th
e m
ater
ials
they
use
d: S
tone
Age
, Bro
nze
Age
and
Iron
Age
. The
re a
re v
ario
us w
ays
of c
lass
ifyin
g m
ater
ials
ac
cord
ing
to d
esire
d pa
ttern
s. (3
.1)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• M
ater
ials
are
cla
ssifi
ed b
ased
on
thei
r use
s, p
rope
rties
, or b
ondi
ng a
nd
stru
ctur
e.
• Th
e pr
oper
ties
of a
mat
eria
l bas
ed o
n th
e de
gree
of c
oval
ent,
ioni
c or
met
allic
ch
arac
ter i
n a
com
poun
d ca
n be
ded
uced
from
its
posi
tion
on a
bon
ding
tri
angl
e.
• C
ompo
site
s ar
e m
ixtu
res
in w
hich
mat
eria
ls a
re c
ompo
sed
of tw
o di
stin
ct
phas
es, a
rein
forc
ing
phas
e th
at is
em
bedd
ed in
a m
atrix
pha
se.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• U
se o
f bon
d tri
angl
e di
agra
ms
for b
inar
y co
mpo
unds
from
ele
ctro
nega
tivity
da
ta.
• E
valu
atio
n of
var
ious
way
s of
cla
ssify
ing
mat
eria
ls.
• R
elat
ing
phys
ical
cha
ract
eris
tics
(mel
ting
poin
t, pe
rmea
bilit
y, c
ondu
ctiv
ity,
elas
ticity
, brit
tlene
ss) o
f a m
ater
ial t
o its
bon
ding
and
stru
ctur
es (p
acki
ng
arra
ngem
ents
, ele
ctro
n m
obili
ty, a
bilit
y of
ato
ms
to s
lide
rela
tive
to o
ne
anot
her).
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• W
hat m
ater
ials
wer
e us
ed b
y an
cien
t civ
iliza
tions
, suc
h as
the
Azt
ecs,
Rom
ans,
an
d C
hine
se?
Eve
n th
ough
thes
e an
cien
t civ
iliza
tions
wer
e lo
cate
d in
ge
ogra
phic
ally
div
erse
loca
tions
, the
mat
eria
ls th
ey u
sed
wer
e si
mila
r.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• A
lthou
gh it
is c
onve
nien
t to
clas
sify
mat
eria
ls in
to c
ateg
orie
s no
sin
gle
clas
sific
atio
n is
“per
fect
”. H
ow d
o w
e ev
alua
te th
e di
ffere
nt c
lass
ifica
tion
syst
ems
we
use
in th
e di
ffere
nt a
reas
of k
now
ledg
e? H
ow d
oes
our n
eed
to
cate
goriz
e th
e w
orld
hel
p an
d hi
nder
the
purs
uit o
f kno
wle
dge?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 4.
2—th
e ro
le o
f ele
ctro
nega
tivity
in b
ondi
ng ty
pes
Core
topi
cs
Opt
ion
A: M
ater
ials
15
/25
hour
s
Core topics
Chemistry guide 107
A.1
Mat
eria
ls s
cien
ce in
trod
uctio
n
Gui
danc
e:
• P
erm
eabi
lity
to m
oist
ure
shou
ld b
e co
nsid
ered
with
resp
ect t
o bo
ndin
g an
d si
mpl
e pa
ckin
g ar
rang
emen
ts.
• C
onsi
der p
rope
rties
of m
etal
s, p
olym
ers
and
cera
mic
s in
term
s of
met
allic
, co
vale
nt, a
nd io
nic
bond
ing.
• S
ee s
ectio
n 29
of t
he d
ata
book
let f
or a
tria
ngul
ar b
ondi
ng d
iagr
am.
Aim
s:
• A
ims
1 an
d 3:
Inve
stig
atio
n of
tetra
hedr
a of
stru
ctur
e an
d bo
ndin
g ty
pes
and
whe
re c
oval
ent n
etw
orks
and
pol
ymer
s fit
on
thes
e di
agra
ms.
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e in
vest
igat
ing
the
stre
tchi
ng o
f rub
ber b
ands
un
der d
iffer
ent c
hem
ical
env
ironm
ents
, or p
rope
rties
of m
etal
s, p
olym
ers,
ce
ram
ics,
or c
ompo
site
s, m
akin
g th
in c
oncr
ete
slab
s fro
m v
ario
us ra
tios
of
cem
ent,
grav
el, a
nd s
and
and
inve
stig
atin
g th
e br
eaki
ng s
treng
th u
pon
dryi
ng.
Core topics
Chemistry guide108
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: M
etal
s ca
n be
ext
ract
ed fr
om th
eir
ores
and
allo
yed
for
desi
red
char
acte
ristic
s. IC
P-M
S/O
ES
Spe
ctro
scop
y io
nize
s m
etal
s an
d us
es m
ass
and
emis
sion
sp
ectra
for a
naly
sis.
A.2
Met
als
and
indu
ctiv
ely
coup
led
plas
ma
(ICP)
spe
ctro
scop
y
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Dev
elop
men
t of n
ew in
stru
men
ts a
nd te
chni
ques
—IC
P s
pect
rosc
opy,
dev
elop
ed fr
om a
n un
ders
tand
ing
of s
cien
tific
prin
cipl
es, c
an b
e us
ed to
iden
tify
and
quan
tify
trace
am
ount
s of
met
als.
(1.8
)
Det
ails
of d
ata—
with
the
disc
over
y th
at tr
ace
amou
nts
of c
erta
in m
ater
ials
can
gre
atly
enh
ance
a m
etal
’s p
erfo
rman
ce, a
lloyi
ng w
as in
itial
ly m
ore
of a
n ar
t tha
n a
scie
nce.
(3
.1)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• R
educ
tion
by c
oke
(car
bon)
, a m
ore
reac
tive
met
al, o
r ele
ctro
lysi
s ar
e m
eans
of
obta
inin
g so
me
met
als
from
thei
r ore
s.
• Th
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n ch
arge
and
the
num
ber o
f mol
es o
f ele
ctro
ns is
giv
en
by F
arad
ay’s
con
stan
t, F.
• A
lloys
are
hom
ogen
eous
mix
ture
s of
met
als
with
oth
er m
etal
s or
non
-met
als.
• D
iam
agne
tic a
nd p
aram
agne
tic c
ompo
unds
diff
er in
ele
ctro
n sp
in p
airin
g an
d th
eir b
ehav
iour
in m
agne
tic fi
elds
.
• Tr
ace
amou
nts
of m
etal
s ca
n be
iden
tifie
d an
d qu
antif
ied
by io
nizi
ng th
em w
ith
argo
n ga
s pl
asm
a in
Indu
ctiv
ely
Cou
pled
Pla
sma
(ICP
) Spe
ctro
scop
y us
ing
Mas
s S
pect
rosc
opy
ICP
-MS
and
Opt
ical
Em
issi
on S
pect
rosc
opy
ICP
-OE
S.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
educ
tion
of re
dox
equa
tions
for t
he re
duct
ion
of m
etal
s.
• R
elat
ing
the
met
hod
of e
xtra
ctio
n to
the
posi
tion
of a
met
al o
n th
e ac
tivity
se
ries.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
prod
uctio
n of
alu
min
ium
by
the
elec
troly
sis
of a
lum
ina
in
mol
ten
cryo
lite
• E
xpla
natio
n of
how
allo
ying
alte
rs p
rope
rties
of m
etal
s.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
e us
e of
rare
ear
th m
etal
s, o
r exo
tic m
iner
als,
has
gro
wn
dram
atic
ally
. The
y ar
e us
ed in
gre
en te
chno
logy
, med
icin
es, l
aser
s, w
eapo
ns te
chno
logy
and
el
sew
here
. The
y ar
e ex
pens
ive
to o
btai
n bu
t gro
win
g in
dem
and.
Wha
t ha
ppen
s if
rare
ear
th re
serv
es a
re c
ontro
lled
only
by
a fe
w c
ount
ries
but a
re
used
by
man
y co
untri
es?
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• W
hat f
acto
rs/o
utco
mes
sho
uld
be u
sed
to d
eter
min
e ho
w ti
me,
mon
ey, a
nd
effo
rt is
spe
nt o
n sc
ient
ific
rese
arch
? W
ho d
ecid
es w
hich
kno
wle
dge
is to
be
purs
ued?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
cs 2
.1 a
nd 1
2.1—
mas
s sp
ectro
met
ry
Topi
c 2.
2—em
issi
on s
pect
ra
Topi
c 9.
1—ox
idat
ion
and
redu
ctio
n
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e ca
lcul
atin
g th
e Fa
rada
y co
nsta
nt v
ia
elec
troly
sis
of a
queo
us c
oppe
r sul
fate
, sol
ving
for t
he c
once
ntra
tion
of a
nic
kel
or c
oppe
r sol
utio
n us
ing
Bee
r’s la
w a
nd s
pect
roph
otom
etry
. Ana
lysi
s of
allo
y co
mpo
sitio
n la
bs c
ould
als
o be
con
duct
ed s
uch
as c
olor
imet
ric d
eter
min
atio
n of
m
anga
nese
in a
pap
er c
lip o
r gra
vim
etric
ana
lysi
s of
silv
er o
r cop
per i
n a
coin
.
Core topics
Chemistry guide 109
A.2
Met
als
and
indu
ctiv
ely
coup
led
plas
ma
(ICP)
spe
ctro
scop
y
• S
olvi
ng s
toic
hiom
etric
pro
blem
s us
ing
Fara
day’
s co
nsta
nt b
ased
on
mas
s de
posi
ts in
ele
ctro
lysi
s.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
par
amag
netis
m a
nd d
iam
agne
tism
in re
latio
n to
ele
ctro
n st
ruct
ure
of m
etal
s.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
plas
ma
stat
e an
d its
pro
duct
ion
in IC
P- M
S/O
ES
.
• Id
entif
y m
etal
s an
d ab
unda
nces
from
sim
ple
data
and
cal
ibra
tion
curv
es
prov
ided
from
ICP
-MS
and
ICP
-OE
S.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
sepa
ratio
n an
d qu
antif
icat
ion
of m
etal
lic io
ns b
y M
S a
nd
OE
S.
• U
ses
of IC
P-M
S a
nd IC
P-O
ES
.
Gui
danc
e:
• Fa
rada
y’s
cons
tant
is g
iven
in th
e da
ta b
ookl
et in
sec
tion
2.
• D
etai
ls o
f ope
ratin
g pa
rts o
f IC
P-M
S a
nd IC
P-O
ES
inst
rum
ents
will
not
be
asse
ssed
.
• O
nly
anal
ysis
of m
etal
s sh
ould
be
cove
red.
• Th
e im
porta
nce
of c
alib
ratio
n sh
ould
be
cove
red.
• A
im 7
: Ani
mat
ions
invo
lvin
g IC
P c
ould
be
used
.
• A
im 7
: Sim
ulat
ions
and
virt
ual e
xper
imen
ts c
ould
be
used
to in
vest
igat
e se
mic
ondu
ctor
s.
Core topics
Chemistry guide110
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: C
atal
ysts
wor
k by
pro
vidi
ng a
n al
tern
ate
reac
tion
path
way
for t
he re
actio
n. C
atal
ysts
alw
ays
incr
ease
the
rate
of t
he re
actio
n an
d ar
e le
ft un
chan
ged
at th
e en
d of
the
reac
tion.
A.3
Cat
alys
ts
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Use
of m
odel
s—ca
taly
sts
wer
e us
ed to
incr
ease
reac
tion
rate
s be
fore
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f an
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
how
they
wor
k. T
his
led
to m
odel
s th
at a
re c
onst
antly
bei
ng
test
ed a
nd im
prov
ed. (
1.10
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• R
eact
ants
ads
orb
onto
het
erog
eneo
us c
atal
ysts
at a
ctiv
e si
tes
and
the
prod
ucts
des
orb.
• H
omog
eneo
us c
atal
ysts
che
mic
ally
com
bine
with
the
reac
tant
s to
form
a
tem
pora
ry a
ctiv
ated
com
plex
or a
reac
tion
inte
rmed
iate
.
• Tr
ansi
tion
met
al c
atal
ytic
pro
perti
es d
epen
d on
the
adso
rptio
n/ab
sorp
tion
prop
ertie
s of
the
met
al a
nd th
e va
riabl
e ox
idat
ion
stat
es.
• Ze
olite
s ac
t as
sele
ctiv
e ca
taly
sts
beca
use
of th
eir c
age
stru
ctur
e.
• C
atal
ytic
par
ticle
s ar
e ne
arly
alw
ays
nano
parti
cles
that
hav
e la
rge
surfa
ce
area
s pe
r uni
t mas
s.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• E
xpla
natio
n of
fact
ors
invo
lved
in c
hoos
ing
a ca
taly
st fo
r a p
roce
ss.
• D
escr
iptio
n of
how
met
als
wor
k as
het
erog
eneo
us c
atal
ysts
.
• D
escr
iptio
n of
the
bene
fits
of n
anoc
atal
ysts
in in
dust
ry.
Gui
danc
e:
• C
onsi
der c
atal
ytic
pro
perti
es s
uch
as s
elec
tivity
for o
nly
the
desi
red
prod
uct,
effic
ienc
y, a
bilit
y to
wor
k in
mild
/sev
ere
cond
ition
s, e
nviro
nmen
tal i
mpa
ct a
nd
impu
ritie
s.
• Th
e us
e of
car
bon
nano
cata
lyst
s sh
ould
be
cove
red.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• P
alla
dium
, pla
tinum
and
rhod
ium
are
com
mon
cat
alys
ts th
at a
re u
sed
in
cata
lytic
con
verte
rs. B
ecau
se o
f the
val
ue o
f the
se m
etal
s, c
atal
ytic
con
verte
r th
efts
are
on
the
rise.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• S
ome
mat
eria
ls u
sed
as e
ffect
ive
cata
lyst
s ar
e to
xic
and
harm
ful t
o th
e en
viro
nmen
t. Is
env
ironm
enta
l deg
rada
tion
just
ified
in th
e pu
rsui
t of
know
ledg
e?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
cs 6
.1 a
nd 1
6.1—
reac
tion
mec
hani
sms
Topi
c 10
.2—
este
rific
atio
n an
d hy
drog
enat
ion
reac
tions
To
pic
16.2
—ac
tivat
ion
ener
gy
Opt
ion
B.1
0—hy
drog
enat
ion
of fa
ts
Aim
s:
• A
ims
1 an
d 3:
Inve
stig
ate
vario
us c
atal
ysts
for b
oth
the
bene
fits
and
risks
.
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e in
vest
igat
ing
the
deco
mpo
sitio
n of
pot
assi
um
sodi
um ta
rtrat
e w
ith c
obal
t chl
orid
e an
d th
e de
com
posi
tion
of h
ydro
gen
pero
xide
with
man
gane
se (I
V) o
xide
.
• A
im 6
: An
ion
exch
ange
usi
ng z
eolit
e co
uld
be e
xplo
red.
• A
im 7
: Virt
ual e
xper
imen
ts a
nd s
imul
atio
ns in
volv
ing
nano
parti
cles
as
cata
lyst
s co
uld
be d
one
here
.
Core topics
Chemistry guide 111
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: L
iqui
d cr
ysta
ls a
re fl
uids
that
hav
e ph
ysic
al p
rope
rties
whi
ch a
re d
epen
dent
on
mol
ecul
ar o
rient
atio
n re
lativ
e to
som
e fix
ed a
xis
in th
e m
ater
ial.
A.4
Liq
uid
crys
tals
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce
Ser
endi
pity
and
sci
entif
ic d
isco
verie
s—Fr
iedr
ich
Rei
nitz
er a
ccid
ently
dis
cove
red
flow
ing
liqui
d cr
ysta
ls in
188
8 w
hile
exp
erim
entin
g on
cho
lest
erol
ben
zoat
e. (1
.4)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• Li
quid
cry
stal
s ar
e flu
ids
that
hav
e ph
ysic
al p
rope
rties
(ele
ctric
al, o
ptic
al a
nd
elas
ticity
) tha
t are
dep
ende
nt o
n m
olec
ular
orie
ntat
ion
to s
ome
fixed
axi
s in
the
mat
eria
l.
• Th
erm
otro
pic
liqui
d-cr
ysta
l mat
eria
ls a
re p
ure
subs
tanc
es th
at s
how
liqu
id-
crys
tal b
ehav
iour
ove
r a te
mpe
ratu
re ra
nge.
• Ly
otro
pic
liqui
d cr
ysta
ls a
re s
olut
ions
that
sho
w th
e liq
uid-
crys
tal s
tate
ove
r a
(cer
tain
) ran
ge o
f con
cent
ratio
ns.
• N
emat
ic li
quid
cry
stal
pha
se is
cha
ract
eriz
ed b
y ro
d sh
aped
mol
ecul
es w
hich
ar
e ra
ndom
ly d
istri
bute
d bu
t on
aver
age
alig
n in
the
sam
e di
rect
ion.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
prop
ertie
s ne
eded
for a
sub
stan
ce to
be
used
in li
quid
-cry
stal
di
spla
ys (L
CD
).
• E
xpla
natio
n of
liqu
id-c
ryst
al b
ehav
iour
on
a m
olec
ular
leve
l.
Gu i
danc
e:
• P
rope
rties
nee
ded
for l
iqui
d cr
ysta
ls in
clud
e: c
hem
ical
ly s
tabl
e, a
pha
se w
hich
is
sta
ble
over
a s
uita
ble
tem
pera
ture
rang
e, p
olar
so
they
can
cha
nge
orie
ntat
ion
whe
n an
ele
ctric
fiel
d is
app
lied,
and
rapi
d sw
itchi
ng s
peed
.
• S
oap
and
wat
er is
an
exam
ple
of ly
otro
pic
liqui
d cr
ysta
ls a
nd th
e bi
phen
yl
nitri
les
are
exam
ples
of t
herm
otro
pic
liqui
d cr
ysta
ls.
• Li
quid
cry
stal
beh
avio
ur s
houl
d be
lim
ited
to th
e bi
phen
yl n
itrile
s.
• S
mec
tics
and
othe
r liq
uid
crys
tals
type
s ne
ed n
ot b
e di
scus
sed.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
e pr
oduc
tion
of m
any
elec
troni
c go
ods
is c
once
ntra
ted
in a
reas
of t
he w
orld
w
here
the
wor
king
con
ditio
ns m
ay n
ot b
e id
eal.
Sho
uld
ther
e be
inte
rnat
iona
lly
set l
abou
r sta
ndar
ds fo
r all
wor
kers
? W
hat i
mpl
icat
ions
wou
ld th
is h
ave
on th
e co
st o
f con
sum
er g
oods
?
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• D
evel
opm
ents
in te
chno
logy
mea
n th
at w
e ca
n st
ore
mor
e an
d m
ore
info
rmat
ion
avai
labl
e on
an
incr
easi
ngly
sm
alle
r sca
le. D
oes
this
mea
n th
at w
e ca
n ac
cess
mor
e kn
owle
dge?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 20
.3—
chira
lity
and
ster
eois
omer
s
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e in
vest
igat
ing
a th
erm
otro
pic
liqui
d cr
ysta
l and
th
e te
mpe
ratu
re ra
nge
whi
ch a
ffect
s th
ese
crys
tals
.
• A
im 7
: Com
pute
r ani
mat
ions
cou
ld b
e us
ed to
inve
stig
ate
ther
mot
ropi
c liq
uid
crys
tals
.
Core topics
Chemistry guide112
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: P
olym
ers
are
mad
e up
of r
epea
ting
mon
omer
uni
ts w
hich
can
be
man
ipul
ated
in v
ario
us w
ays
to g
ive
stru
ctur
es w
ith d
esire
d pr
oper
ties.
A.5
Pol
ymer
s
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Adv
ance
s in
tech
nolo
gy—
as a
resu
lt of
adv
ance
s in
tech
nolo
gy (X
-ray
diffr
actio
n, s
cann
ing
tunn
ellin
g el
ectro
n m
icro
scop
es, e
tc),
scie
ntis
ts h
ave
been
abl
e to
und
erst
and
wha
t occ
urs
on th
e m
olec
ular
leve
l and
man
ipul
ate
mat
ter i
n ne
w w
ays.
Thi
s al
low
s ne
w p
olym
ers
to b
e de
velo
ped.
(3.7
)
Theo
ries
can
be s
uper
sede
d—S
taud
inge
r's p
ropo
sal o
f mac
rom
olec
ules
mad
e of
man
y re
peat
ing
units
was
inte
gral
in th
e de
velo
pmen
t of p
olym
er s
cien
ce. (
1.9)
Eth
ics
and
risk
asse
ssm
ent—
poly
mer
dev
elop
men
t and
use
has
gro
wn
quic
ker t
han
an u
nder
stan
ding
of t
he ri
sks
invo
lved
, suc
h as
recy
clin
g or
pos
sibl
e ca
rcin
ogen
ic
prop
ertie
s. (4
.5)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• Th
erm
opla
stic
s so
ften
whe
n he
ated
and
har
den
whe
n co
oled
.
• A
ther
mos
ettin
g po
lym
er is
a p
repo
lym
er in
a s
oft s
olid
or v
isco
us s
tate
that
ch
ange
s irr
ever
sibl
y in
to a
har
dene
d th
erm
oset
by
curin
g.
• E
last
omer
s ar
e fle
xibl
e an
d ca
n be
def
orm
ed u
nder
forc
e bu
t will
retu
rn to
ne
arly
thei
r orig
inal
sha
pe o
nce
the
stre
ss is
rele
ased
.
• H
igh
dens
ity p
olye
then
e (H
DP
E) h
as n
o br
anch
ing
allo
win
g ch
ains
to b
e pa
cked
toge
ther
.
• Lo
w d
ensi
ty p
olye
then
e (L
DP
E) h
as s
ome
bran
chin
g an
d is
mor
e fle
xibl
e.
• P
last
iciz
ers
adde
d to
a p
olym
er in
crea
se th
e fle
xibi
lity
by w
eake
ning
the
inte
rmol
ecul
ar fo
rces
bet
wee
n th
e po
lym
er c
hain
s.
• A
tom
eco
nom
y is
a m
easu
re o
f effi
cien
cy a
pplie
d in
gre
en c
hem
istry
.
• Is
otac
tic a
dditi
on p
olym
ers
have
sub
stitu
ents
on
the
sam
e si
de.
• A
tact
ic a
dditi
on p
olym
ers
have
the
subs
titue
nts
rand
omly
pla
ced.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
escr
iptio
n of
the
use
of p
last
iciz
ers
in p
olyv
inyl
chl
orid
e an
d vo
latil
e hy
droc
arbo
ns in
the
form
atio
n of
exp
ande
d po
lyst
yren
e.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• P
last
ics
wer
e vi
rtual
ly u
nhea
rd o
f prio
r to
the
seco
nd w
orld
war
. How
has
the
intro
duct
ion
of p
last
ics
affe
cted
the
wor
ld e
cono
mic
ally
, soc
ially
and
en
viro
nmen
tally
?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
cs 1
0.2
and
20.1
—ad
ditio
n an
d co
nden
satio
n re
actio
ns
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Phy
sica
l pro
perti
es o
f hig
h an
d lo
w d
ensi
ty p
olye
then
e co
uld
be
inve
stig
ated
or s
ynth
esis
of a
pol
yest
er, p
olya
mid
e or
oth
er p
olym
er c
ould
be
quan
titat
ivel
y pe
rform
ed to
mea
sure
ato
m e
ffici
ency
.
Core topics
Chemistry guide 113
A.5
Pol
ymer
s
• S
olvi
ng p
robl
ems
and
eval
uatin
g at
om e
cono
my
in s
ynth
esis
reac
tions
.
• D
escr
iptio
n of
how
the
prop
ertie
s of
pol
ymer
s de
pend
on
thei
r stru
ctur
al
feat
ures
.
• D
escr
iptio
n of
way
s of
mod
ifyin
g th
e pr
oper
ties
of p
olym
ers,
incl
udin
g LD
PE
an
d H
DP
E.
• D
educ
tion
of s
truct
ures
of p
olym
ers
form
ed fr
om p
olym
eriz
ing
2-m
ethy
lpro
pene
.
Gui
danc
e:
• Th
e eq
uatio
n fo
r per
cent
ato
m e
cono
my
is p
rovi
ded
in th
e da
ta b
ookl
et in
se
ctio
n 1.
• C
onsi
der o
nly
poly
styr
ene
foam
s as
exa
mpl
es o
f pol
ymer
pro
perty
m
anip
ulat
ion.
Core topics
Chemistry guide114
Esse
ntia
l id
ea:
Che
mic
al t
echn
ique
s po
sitio
n at
oms
in m
olec
ules
usi
ng c
hem
ical
rea
ctio
ns w
hils
t ph
ysic
al t
echn
ique
s al
low
ato
ms/
mol
ecul
es t
o be
man
ipul
ated
and
po
sitio
ned
to s
peci
fic re
quire
men
ts.
A.6
Nan
otec
hnol
ogy
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Impr
ovem
ents
in a
ppar
atus
—hi
gh p
ower
ele
ctro
n m
icro
scop
es h
ave
allo
wed
for t
he s
tudy
of p
ositi
onin
g of
ato
ms.
(1.8
)
The
need
to re
gard
theo
ries
as u
ncer
tain
—th
e ro
le o
f tria
l and
erro
r in
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f nan
otub
es a
nd th
eir a
ssoc
iate
d th
eorie
s. (2
.2)
“The
prin
cipl
es o
f phy
sics
, as
far a
s I c
an s
ee, d
o no
t spe
ak a
gain
st th
e po
ssib
ility
of m
anoe
uvrin
g th
ings
ato
m b
y at
om. I
t is
not a
n at
tem
pt to
vio
late
any
law
s; it
is
som
ethi
ng, i
n pr
inci
ple,
that
can
be
done
; but
in p
ract
ice,
it h
as n
ot b
een
done
bec
ause
we
are
too
big.
” —
Ric
hard
Fey
nman
, Nob
el P
rize
win
ner i
n P
hysi
cs
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• M
olec
ular
sel
f-ass
embl
y is
the
botto
m-u
p as
sem
bly
of n
anop
artic
les
and
can
occu
r by
sele
ctiv
ely
atta
chin
g m
olec
ules
to s
peci
fic s
urfa
ces.
Sel
f-ass
embl
y ca
n al
so o
ccur
spo
ntan
eous
ly in
sol
utio
n.
• P
ossi
ble
met
hods
of p
rodu
cing
nan
otub
es a
re a
rc d
isch
arge
, che
mic
al v
apou
r de
posi
tion
(CV
D) a
nd h
igh
pres
sure
car
bon
mon
oxid
e (H
IPC
O).
• A
rc d
isch
arge
invo
lves
eith
er v
apor
izin
g th
e su
rface
of o
ne o
f the
car
bon
elec
trode
s, o
r dis
char
ging
an
arc
thro
ugh
met
al e
lect
rode
s su
bmer
sed
in a
hy
droc
arbo
n so
lven
t, w
hich
form
s a
smal
l rod
-sha
ped
depo
sit o
n th
e an
ode.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
istin
guis
hing
bet
wee
n ph
ysic
al a
nd c
hem
ical
tech
niqu
es in
man
ipul
atin
g at
oms
to fo
rm m
olec
ules
.
• D
escr
iptio
n of
the
stru
ctur
e an
d pr
oper
ties
of c
arbo
n na
notu
bes.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
why
an
iner
t gas
, and
not
oxy
gen,
is n
eces
sary
for C
VD
pr
epar
atio
n of
car
bon
nano
tube
s.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
prod
uctio
n of
car
bon
from
hyd
roca
rbon
sol
vent
s in
arc
di
scha
rge
by o
xida
tion
at th
e an
ode.
• D
educ
tion
of e
quat
ions
for t
he p
rodu
ctio
n of
car
bon
atom
s fro
m H
IPC
O.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• S
ome
stud
ies
have
sho
wn
that
inha
ling
nano
parti
cle
dust
can
be
as h
arm
ful a
s as
best
os. S
houl
d na
note
chno
logy
be
regu
late
d or
will
this
hin
der r
esea
rch?
• In
tern
atio
nal c
olla
bora
tion
in s
pace
exp
lora
tion
is g
row
ing.
Wou
ld a
car
bon
nano
tube
spa
ce e
leva
tor b
e fe
asib
le, o
r wan
ted?
Wha
t are
the
impl
icat
ions
?
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• Th
e us
e of
the
scan
ning
tunn
ellin
g m
icro
scop
e ha
s al
low
ed u
s to
“see
” in
divi
dual
ato
ms,
whi
ch w
as p
revi
ousl
y th
ough
t to
be u
natta
inab
le. H
ow d
o th
ese
adva
nces
in te
chno
logy
cha
nge
our v
iew
of w
hat k
now
ledg
e is
at
tain
able
?
• S
ome
peop
le a
re c
once
rned
abo
ut th
e po
ssib
le im
plic
atio
n of
nan
otec
hnol
ogy.
H
ow d
o w
e ev
alua
te th
e po
ssib
le c
onse
quen
ces
of fu
ture
dev
elop
men
ts in
this
ar
ea?
Is th
e kn
owle
dge
we
need
pub
licly
ava
ilabl
e or
do
we
rely
on
the
auth
ority
of e
xper
ts?
Util
izat
ion:
• P
rote
in s
ynth
esis
in c
ells
is a
form
of n
anot
echn
olog
y w
ith ri
boso
mes
act
ing
as
mol
ecul
ar a
ssem
bler
s.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
cs 4
.3—
mol
ecul
ar p
olar
ity
Core topics
Chemistry guide 115
A.6
Nan
otec
hnol
ogy
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
som
e im
plic
atio
ns a
nd a
pplic
atio
ns o
f nan
otec
hnol
ogy.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
why
nan
otub
es a
re s
trong
and
goo
d co
nduc
tors
of e
lect
ricity
.
Gui
danc
e:
• P
ossi
ble
impl
icat
ions
of n
anot
echn
olog
y in
clud
e un
certa
inty
as
to to
xici
ty le
vels
on
a n
anos
cale
, unk
now
n he
alth
risk
s w
ith n
ew m
ater
ials
, con
cern
that
hum
an
defe
nce
syst
ems
are
not e
ffect
ive
agai
nst p
artic
les
on th
e na
nosc
ale,
re
spon
sibi
litie
s of
the
indu
strie
s an
d go
vern
men
ts in
volv
ed in
this
rese
arch
.
• C
ondu
ctiv
ity o
f gra
phen
e an
d fu
llere
nes
can
be e
xpla
ined
in te
rms
of
delo
caliz
atio
n of
ele
ctro
ns. A
n ex
plan
atio
n ba
sed
on h
ybrid
izat
ion
is n
ot
requ
ired.
Aim
s:
• A
ims
1, 8
and
9: I
nves
tigat
e th
e th
eore
tical
and
larg
e sc
ale
man
ufac
turin
g of
na
note
chno
logy
pro
duct
s an
d th
eir i
mpl
icat
ions
. Exa
mpl
es c
ould
incl
ude
spor
ting
equi
pmen
t, m
edic
inal
pro
duct
s, c
onst
ruct
ion,
env
ironm
enta
l cle
anin
g,
robo
tics,
wea
ponr
y or
oth
er th
eore
tical
com
mer
cial
use
s.
• A
ims
7, 8
and
9: A
nim
atio
ns, s
imul
atio
ns, a
nd v
ideo
s of
nan
otub
e m
anuf
actu
re
and
uses
sho
uld
be u
sed.
Core topics
Chemistry guide116
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: A
lthou
gh m
ater
ials
sci
ence
gen
erat
es m
any
usef
ul n
ew p
rodu
cts
ther
e ar
e ch
alle
nges
ass
ocia
ted
with
recy
clin
g of
and
hig
h le
vels
of t
oxic
ity o
f som
e of
th
ese
mat
eria
ls.
A.7
Env
ironm
enta
l im
pact
—pl
astic
s
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Ris
ks a
nd p
robl
ems—
scie
ntifi
c re
sear
ch o
ften
proc
eeds
with
per
ceiv
ed b
enef
its in
min
d, b
ut th
e ris
ks a
nd im
plic
atio
ns a
lso
need
to b
e co
nsid
ered
. (4.
8)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• P
last
ics
do n
ot d
egra
de e
asily
bec
ause
of t
heir
stro
ng c
oval
ent b
onds
.
• B
urni
ng o
f pol
yvin
yl c
hlor
ide
rele
ases
dio
xins
, HC
l gas
and
inco
mpl
ete
hydr
ocar
bon
com
bust
ion
prod
ucts
.
• D
ioxi
ns c
onta
in u
nsat
urat
ed s
ix-m
embe
r het
eroc
yclic
ring
s w
ith tw
o ox
ygen
at
oms,
usu
ally
in p
ositi
ons
1 an
d 4.
• C
hlor
inat
ed d
ioxi
ns a
re h
orm
one
disr
uptin
g, le
adin
g to
cel
lula
r and
gen
etic
da
mag
e.
• P
last
ics
requ
ire m
ore
proc
essi
ng to
be
recy
cled
than
oth
er m
ater
ials
.
• P
last
ics
are
recy
cled
bas
ed o
n di
ffere
nt re
sin
type
s.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
educ
tion
of th
e eq
uatio
n fo
r any
giv
en c
ombu
stio
n re
actio
n.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
why
the
recy
clin
g of
pol
ymer
s is
an
ener
gy in
tens
ive
proc
ess.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
envi
ronm
enta
l im
pact
of t
he u
se o
f pla
stic
s.
• C
ompa
rison
of t
he s
truct
ures
of p
olyc
hlor
inat
ed b
iphe
nyls
(PC
Bs)
and
dio
xins
.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
heal
th c
once
rns
of u
sing
vol
atile
pla
stic
izer
s in
pol
ymer
pr
oduc
tion.
• D
istin
guis
h po
ssib
le R
esin
Iden
tific
atio
n C
odes
(RIC
s) o
f pla
stic
s fro
m a
n IR
sp
ectru
m.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
e in
tern
atio
nal s
ymbo
l for
recy
cle,
reus
e an
d re
duce
is a
Mob
ius
strip
de
sign
ed in
the
late
196
0s. H
owev
er, g
loba
l rec
ogni
tion
of th
is s
ymbo
l ran
ks
wel
l bel
ow o
ther
sym
bols
. Wha
t fac
tors
influ
ence
the
reco
gniti
on o
f sym
bols
?
• H
ow c
an n
atio
ns a
ddre
ss th
e pr
oble
m o
f the
pla
stic
gyr
e in
the
Pac
ific
Oce
an?
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• Th
e pr
oduc
ts o
f sci
ence
and
tech
nolo
gy c
an h
ave
a ne
gativ
e im
pact
on
the
envi
ronm
ent.
Are
sci
entis
ts e
thic
ally
resp
onsi
ble
for t
he im
pact
of t
heir
prod
ucts
?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 9.
1—re
dox
reac
tions
To
pic
10.1
—or
gani
c co
mpo
unds
To
pic
11.3
—in
frare
d sp
ectro
scop
y B
iolo
gy o
ptio
n C
.3—
impa
ct o
f hum
ans
on e
cosy
stem
s
Aim
s:
• A
im 7
: Dat
abas
e of
RIC
cod
es a
nd IR
spe
ctra
can
be
used
.
• A
im 8
: The
dev
elop
men
t of g
reen
che
mis
try h
as ra
ised
the
awar
enes
s of
the
envi
ronm
enta
l and
the
ethi
cal i
mpl
icat
ions
of u
sing
sci
ence
and
tech
nolo
gy.
Core topics
Chemistry guide 117
A.7
Env
ironm
enta
l im
pact
—pl
astic
s
Gui
danc
e:
• D
ioxi
ns d
o no
t dec
ompo
se in
the
envi
ronm
ent a
nd c
an b
e pa
ssed
on
in th
e fo
od c
hain
.
• C
onsi
der p
olyc
hlor
inat
ed d
iben
zodi
oxin
s (P
CD
D) a
nd P
CB
s as
exa
mpl
es o
f ca
rcin
ogen
ic c
hlor
inat
ed d
ioxi
ns o
r dio
xin-
like
subs
tanc
es.
• C
onsi
der p
htha
late
est
ers
as e
xam
ples
of p
last
iciz
ers.
• H
ouse
fire
s ca
n re
leas
e m
any
toxi
ns d
ue to
pla
stic
s (s
how
er c
urta
ins,
etc
). Lo
w
smok
e ze
ro h
alog
en c
ablin
g is
ofte
n us
ed in
wiri
ng to
pre
vent
thes
e ha
zard
s.
• R
esin
Iden
tific
atio
n C
odes
(RIC
s) a
re in
the
data
boo
klet
in s
ectio
n 30
.
• S
truct
ures
of v
ario
us m
ater
ials
mol
ecul
es a
re in
the
data
boo
klet
in s
ectio
n 31
.
Additonal higher level topics
Chemistry guide118
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: S
uper
cond
uctiv
ity is
zer
o el
ectri
cal r
esis
tanc
e an
d ex
puls
ion
of m
agne
tic fi
elds
. X-ra
y cr
ysta
llogr
aphy
can
be
used
to a
naly
se s
truct
ures
.
A.8
Sup
erco
nduc
ting
met
als
and
X-ra
y cr
ysta
llogr
aphy
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Impo
rtanc
e of
theo
ries—
supe
rcon
duct
ing
mat
eria
ls, w
ith z
ero
elec
trica
l res
ista
nce
belo
w a
cer
tain
tem
pera
ture
, pro
vide
a g
ood
exam
ple
of th
eorie
s ne
edin
g to
be
mod
ified
to
fit n
ew d
ata.
It is
impo
rtant
to u
nder
stan
d th
e ba
sic
scie
ntifi
c pr
inci
ples
beh
ind
mod
ern
inst
rum
ents
. (2.
2)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• S
uper
cond
ucto
rs a
re m
ater
ials
that
offe
r no
resi
stan
ce to
ele
ctric
cur
rent
s be
low
a c
ritic
al te
mpe
ratu
re.
• Th
e M
eiss
ner e
ffect
is th
e ab
ility
of a
sup
erco
nduc
tor t
o cr
eate
a m
irror
imag
e m
agne
tic fi
eld
of a
n ex
tern
al fi
eld,
thus
exp
ellin
g it.
• R
esis
tanc
e in
met
allic
con
duct
ors
is c
ause
d by
col
lisio
ns b
etw
een
elec
trons
an
d po
sitiv
e io
ns o
f the
latti
ce.
• Th
e B
arde
en–C
oope
r–S
chrie
ffer (
BC
S) t
heor
y ex
plai
ns th
at b
elow
the
criti
cal
tem
pera
ture
ele
ctro
ns in
sup
erco
nduc
tors
form
Coo
per p
airs
whi
ch m
ove
freel
y th
roug
h th
e su
perc
ondu
ctor
.
• Ty
pe 1
sup
erco
nduc
tors
hav
e sh
arp
trans
ition
s to
sup
erco
nduc
tivity
whe
reas
Ty
pe 2
sup
erco
nduc
tors
hav
e m
ore
grad
ual t
rans
ition
s.
• X-
ray
diffr
actio
n ca
n be
use
d to
ana
lyse
stru
ctur
es o
f met
allic
and
ioni
c co
mpo
unds
.
• C
ryst
al la
ttice
s co
ntai
n si
mpl
e re
peat
ing
unit
cells
.
• A
tom
s on
face
s an
d ed
ges
of u
nit c
ells
are
sha
red.
• Th
e nu
mbe
r of n
eare
st n
eigh
bour
s of
an
atom
/ion
is it
s co
ordi
natio
n nu
mbe
r.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• A
naly
tical
tech
niqu
es h
ave
appl
icat
ions
in fo
rens
ics,
min
eral
exp
lora
tion,
m
edic
ine
and
else
whe
re. H
ow d
oes
the
uneq
ual a
cces
s to
adv
ance
d te
chno
logy
affe
ct w
orld
eco
nom
ies?
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• X-
ray
diffr
actio
n ha
s al
low
ed u
s to
pro
be th
e w
orld
bey
ond
the
biol
ogic
al li
mits
of
our
sen
ses.
How
relia
ble
is o
ur k
now
ledg
e of
the
mic
rosc
opic
wor
ld
com
pare
d to
wha
t we
know
at t
he m
acro
scop
ic le
vel?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 2.
2—P
auli
excl
usio
n pr
inci
ple
Topi
c 3.
2—at
omic
radi
us a
nd p
erio
dici
ty
Topi
c 21
.1—
X-ra
y cr
ysta
llogr
aphy
P
hysi
cs to
pic
4.2—
trave
lling
wav
es
Aim
s:
• A
im 7
: Ani
mat
ions
and
sim
ulat
ions
wou
ld b
e ve
ry u
sefu
l to
expl
ain
supe
rcon
duct
ivity
and
X-ra
y cr
ysta
llogr
aphy
.
Addi
tiona
l hig
her l
evel
topi
cs
Opt
ion
A:
Mat
eria
ls
15/2
5 ho
urs
Additonal higher level topics
Chemistry guide 119
A.8
Sup
erco
nduc
ting
met
als
and
X-ra
y cr
ysta
llogr
aphy
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• A
naly
sis
of re
sist
ance
ver
sus
tem
pera
ture
dat
a fo
r Typ
e 1
and
Type
2
supe
rcon
duct
ors.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
sup
erco
nduc
tivity
in te
rms
of C
oope
r pai
rs m
ovin
g th
roug
h a
posi
tive
ion
latti
ce.
• D
educ
tion
or c
onst
ruct
ion
of u
nit c
ell s
truct
ures
from
cry
stal
stru
ctur
e in
form
atio
n.
• A
pplic
atio
n of
the
Bra
gg e
quat
ion,
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
=2𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛𝑑𝑑,
in m
etal
lic s
truct
ures
.
• D
eter
min
atio
n of
the
dens
ity o
f a p
ure
met
al fr
om it
s at
omic
radi
i and
cry
stal
pa
ckin
g st
ruct
ure.
Gui
danc
e:
• O
nly
a si
mpl
e ex
plan
atio
n of
BC
S th
eory
with
Coo
per p
airs
is re
quire
d. A
t low
te
mpe
ratu
res
the
posi
tive
ions
in th
e la
ttice
are
dis
torte
d sl
ight
ly b
y a
pass
ing
elec
tron.
A s
econ
d el
ectro
n is
attr
acte
d to
this
slig
ht p
ositi
ve d
efor
mat
ion
and
a co
uplin
g of
thes
e tw
o el
ectro
ns o
ccur
s.
• O
pera
ting
prin
cipl
es o
f X-ra
y cr
ysta
llogr
aphy
are
not
requ
ired.
• O
nly
pure
met
als
with
sim
ple
cubi
c ce
lls, b
ody
cent
red
cubi
c ce
lls (B
CC
) and
fa
ce c
entre
d cu
bic
cells
(FC
C) s
houl
d be
cov
ered
.
• P
erov
skite
cry
stal
line
stru
ctur
es o
f man
y su
perc
ondu
ctor
s ca
n be
ana
lyse
d by
X-
ray
crys
tallo
grap
hy b
ut th
ese
will
not
be
asse
ssed
.
• B
ragg
's e
quat
ion
will
onl
y be
app
lied
to s
impl
e cu
bic
stru
ctur
es.
Additonal higher level topics
Chemistry guide120
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: C
onde
nsat
ion
poly
mer
s ar
e fo
rmed
by
the
loss
of s
mal
l mol
ecul
es a
s fu
nctio
nal g
roup
s fro
m m
onom
ers
join
.
A.9
Con
dens
atio
n po
lym
ers
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Spe
cula
tion—
we
have
had
the
Sto
ne A
ge, I
ron
Age
and
Bro
nze
Age
. Is
it po
ssib
le th
at to
day’
s ag
e is
the
Age
of P
olym
ers,
as
scie
nce
cont
inue
s to
man
ipul
ate
mat
ter f
or
desi
red
purp
oses
? (1
.5)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• C
onde
nsat
ion
poly
mer
s re
quire
two
func
tiona
l gro
ups
on e
ach
mon
omer
.
• N
H3,
HC
l and
H2O
are
pos
sibl
e pr
oduc
ts o
f con
dens
atio
n re
actio
ns.
• K
evla
r® is
a p
olya
mid
e w
ith a
stro
ng a
nd o
rder
ed s
truct
ure.
The
hyd
roge
n bo
nds
betw
een
O a
nd N
can
be
brok
en w
ith th
e us
e of
con
cent
rate
d su
lfuric
ac
id.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
istin
guis
hing
bet
wee
n ad
ditio
n an
d co
nden
satio
n po
lym
ers.
• C
ompl
etio
n an
d de
scrip
tions
of e
quat
ions
to s
how
how
con
dens
atio
n po
lym
ers
are
form
ed.
• D
educ
tion
of th
e st
ruct
ures
of p
olya
mid
es a
nd p
olye
ster
s fro
m th
eir r
espe
ctiv
e m
onom
ers.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
Kev
lar®
’s s
treng
th a
nd it
s so
lubi
lity
in c
once
ntra
ted
sulfu
ric a
cid.
Gui
danc
e:
• C
onsi
der g
reen
che
mis
try p
olym
ers.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• D
oes
scie
nce,
eco
nom
ics
or p
oliti
cs p
lay
the
mos
t ess
entia
l rol
e in
rese
arch
, su
ch a
s th
e de
velo
pmen
t of n
ew p
olym
ers?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 10
.2—
addi
tion
and
cond
ensa
tion
reac
tions
To
pic
20.2
—sy
nthe
sis
tech
niqu
es
Opt
ion
A.5
—po
lym
ers
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Syn
thes
is o
f nyl
on c
ould
be
perfo
rmed
.
Additonal higher level topics
Chemistry guide 121
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
oxic
ity a
nd c
arci
noge
nic
prop
ertie
s of
hea
vy m
etal
s ar
e th
e re
sult
of th
eir a
bilit
y to
form
coo
rdin
ated
com
poun
ds, h
ave
vario
us o
xida
tion
stat
es a
nd a
ct a
s ca
taly
sts
in th
e hu
man
bod
y.
A.1
0 En
viro
nmen
tal i
mpa
ct—
heav
y m
etal
s
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Ris
ks a
nd p
robl
ems—
scie
ntifi
c re
sear
ch o
ften
proc
eeds
with
per
ceiv
ed b
enef
its in
min
d, b
ut th
e ris
ks a
nd im
plic
atio
ns a
lso
need
to b
e co
nsid
ered
. (4.
8)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• To
xic
dose
s of
tran
sitio
n m
etal
s ca
n di
stur
b th
e no
rmal
oxi
datio
n/re
duct
ion
bala
nce
in c
ells
thro
ugh
vario
us m
echa
nism
s.
• So
me
met
hods
of r
emov
ing
heav
y m
etal
s ar
e pr
ecip
itatio
n, a
dsor
ptio
n, a
nd c
hela
tion.
• P
olyd
enta
te li
gand
s fo
rm m
ore
stab
le c
ompl
exes
than
sim
ilar m
onod
enta
te
ligan
ds d
ue to
the
chel
ate
effe
ct, w
hich
can
be
expl
aine
d by
con
side
ring
entro
py c
hang
es.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• E
xpla
natio
n of
how
che
latin
g su
bsta
nces
can
be
used
to re
mov
e he
avy
met
als.
• D
educ
tion
of th
e nu
mbe
r of c
oord
inat
e bo
nds
a lig
and
can
form
with
a c
entra
l m
etal
ion.
• C
alcu
latio
ns in
volv
ing
Ksp
as
an a
pplic
atio
n of
rem
ovin
g m
etal
s in
sol
utio
n.
• C
ompa
re a
nd c
ontra
st th
e Fe
nton
and
Hab
er–W
eiss
reac
tion
mec
hani
sm.
Gui
danc
e:
• E
than
e-1,
2-di
amin
e ac
ts a
s a
bide
ntat
e lig
and
and
ED
TA4-
act
s as
hex
aden
tate
lig
and.
• Th
e H
aber
–Wei
ss re
actio
n ge
nera
tes
free
radi
cals
nat
ural
ly in
bio
logi
cal
proc
esse
s. T
rans
ition
met
als
can
cata
lyse
the
reac
tion
with
the
iron-
cata
lyse
d (F
ento
n) re
actio
n be
ing
the
mec
hani
sm fo
r gen
erat
ing
reac
tive
hydr
oxyl
ra
dica
ls.
• K
sp v
alue
s ar
e in
the
data
boo
klet
in s
ectio
n 32
.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• W
hat r
espo
nsib
ility
do
scie
ntis
ts h
ave
for t
he im
pact
of t
heir
ende
avou
rs o
n th
e pl
anet
?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 9.
1—re
dox
reac
tions
To
pic
13.2
—tra
nsiti
on m
etal
com
plex
es
Bio
logy
opt
ion
C.3
—im
pact
of h
uman
s on
eco
syst
ems
Aim
s:
• A
ims
1 an
d 8:
Inve
stig
atio
ns o
f was
te w
ater
trea
tmen
t.
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e in
vest
igat
ions
of K
sp.
Core topics
Chemistry guide122
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: M
etab
olic
reac
tions
invo
lve
a co
mpl
ex in
terp
lay
betw
een
man
y di
ffere
nt c
ompo
nent
s in
hig
hly
cont
rolle
d en
viro
nmen
ts.
B.1
Intr
oduc
tion
to b
ioch
emis
try
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Use
of d
ata—
bioc
hem
ical
sys
tem
s ha
ve a
larg
e nu
mbe
r of d
iffer
ent r
eact
ions
occ
urrin
g in
the
sam
e pl
ace
at th
e sa
me
time.
As
tech
nolo
gies
hav
e de
velo
ped,
mor
e da
ta h
as
been
col
lect
ed le
adin
g to
the
disc
over
y of
pat
tern
s of
reac
tions
in m
etab
olis
m. (
3.1)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• Th
e di
vers
e fu
nctio
ns o
f bio
logi
cal m
olec
ules
dep
end
on th
eir s
truct
ures
and
sh
apes
.
• M
etab
olic
reac
tions
take
pla
ce in
hig
hly
cont
rolle
d aq
ueou
s en
viro
nmen
ts.
• R
eact
ions
of b
reak
dow
n ar
e ca
lled
cata
bolis
m a
nd re
actio
ns o
f syn
thes
is a
re
calle
d an
abol
ism
.
• B
iopo
lym
ers
form
by
cond
ensa
tion
reac
tions
and
are
bro
ken
dow
n by
hy
drol
ysis
reac
tions
.
• P
hoto
synt
hesi
s is
the
synt
hesi
s of
ene
rgy-
rich
mol
ecul
es fr
om c
arbo
n di
oxid
e an
d w
ater
usi
ng li
ght e
nerg
y.
• R
espi
ratio
n is
a c
ompl
ex s
et o
f met
abol
ic p
roce
sses
pro
vidi
ng e
nerg
y fo
r cel
ls.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls :
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
diffe
renc
e be
twee
n co
nden
satio
n an
d hy
drol
ysis
reac
tions
.
• Th
e us
e of
sum
mar
y eq
uatio
ns o
f pho
tosy
nthe
sis
and
resp
iratio
n to
exp
lain
the
pote
ntia
l bal
anci
ng o
f oxy
gen
and
carb
on d
ioxi
de in
the
atm
osph
ere.
Gui
danc
e:
• In
term
edia
tes
of a
erob
ic re
spira
tion
and
phot
osyn
thes
is a
re n
ot re
quire
d.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• M
etab
olic
reac
tions
in th
e hu
man
bod
y ar
e de
pend
ent o
n th
e su
pply
of
nutri
ents
thro
ugh
a re
gula
r bal
ance
d di
et. G
loba
lly th
ere
are
sign
ifica
nt
diffe
renc
es in
the
avai
labi
lity
of n
utrit
ious
food
, whi
ch h
ave
maj
or a
nd d
iver
se
impa
cts
on h
uman
hea
lth.
Util
izat
ion:
• B
ioch
emis
try is
fund
amen
tal t
o th
e st
udy
of m
any
othe
r sub
ject
s, in
clud
ing
gene
tics,
imm
unol
ogy,
pha
rmac
olog
y, n
utrit
ion
and
agric
ultu
re.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 10
.2—
SN re
actio
ns (c
onde
nsat
ion
and
hydr
olys
is)
Topi
c 13
.2 a
nd O
ptio
n B
.9—
met
al c
ompl
exes
and
ligh
t abs
orpt
ion
Opt
ion
C.8
—el
ectro
nic
conj
ugat
ion
and
ligh
t abs
orpt
ion
Core
topi
cs
Opt
ion
B: B
ioch
emis
try
15/2
5 ho
urs
Core topics
Chemistry guide 123
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: P
rote
ins
are
the
mos
t div
erse
of t
he b
iopo
lym
ers
resp
onsi
ble
for m
etab
olis
m a
nd s
truct
ural
inte
grity
of l
ivin
g or
gani
sms.
B.2
Pro
tein
s an
d en
zym
es
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Col
labo
ratio
n an
d pe
er re
view
—se
vera
l diff
eren
t exp
erim
ents
on
seve
ral c
ontin
ents
led
to th
e co
nclu
sion
that
DN
A, a
nd n
ot p
rote
in a
s or
igin
ally
thou
ght,
carri
ed th
e in
form
atio
n fo
r inh
erita
nce.
(4.4
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• P
rote
ins
are
poly
mer
s of
2-a
min
o ac
ids,
join
ed b
y am
ide
links
(als
o kn
own
as
pept
ide
bond
s).
• A
min
o ac
ids
are
amph
oter
ic a
nd c
an e
xist
as
zwitt
erio
ns, c
atio
ns a
nd a
nion
s.
• P
rote
in s
truct
ures
are
div
erse
and
are
des
crib
ed a
t the
prim
ary,
sec
onda
ry,
terti
ary
and
quat
erna
ry le
vels
.
• A
pro
tein
’s th
ree-
dim
ensi
onal
sha
pe d
eter
min
es it
s ro
le in
stru
ctur
al
com
pone
nts
or in
met
abol
ic p
roce
sses
.
• M
ost e
nzym
es a
re p
rote
ins
that
act
as
cata
lyst
s by
bin
ding
spe
cific
ally
to a
su
bstra
te a
t the
act
ive
site
.
• A
s en
zym
e ac
tivity
dep
ends
on
the
conf
orm
atio
n, it
is s
ensi
tive
to c
hang
es in
te
mpe
ratu
re a
nd p
H a
nd th
e pr
esen
ce o
f hea
vy m
etal
ions
.
• C
hrom
atog
raph
y se
para
tion
is b
ased
on
diffe
rent
phy
sica
l and
che
mic
al
prin
cipl
es.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
educ
tion
of th
e st
ruct
ural
form
ulas
of r
eact
ants
and
pro
duct
s in
con
dens
atio
n re
actio
ns o
f am
ino
acid
s, a
nd h
ydro
lysi
s re
actio
ns o
f pep
tides
.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
solu
bilit
ies
and
mel
ting
poin
ts o
f am
ino
acid
s in
term
s of
zw
itter
ions
.
• A
pplic
atio
n of
the
rela
tions
hips
bet
wee
n ch
arge
, pH
and
isoe
lect
ric p
oint
for
amin
o ac
ids
and
prot
eins
.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
e U
nive
rsal
Pro
tein
Res
ourc
e (U
niP
rot)
is a
con
sorti
um o
f bio
info
rmat
ics
inst
itute
s. It
s m
issi
on is
to a
ct a
s a
reso
urce
for t
he s
cien
tific
com
mun
ity b
y pr
ovid
ing
com
preh
ensi
ve, h
igh-
qual
ity a
nd fr
eely
acc
essi
ble
data
on
prot
ein
sequ
ence
and
func
tiona
l inf
orm
atio
n.
Util
izat
ion:
• M
any
synt
hetic
mat
eria
ls a
re p
olya
mid
es. E
xam
ples
incl
ude
nylo
n an
d K
evla
r®.
• E
lect
roph
ores
is is
use
d in
som
e m
edic
al d
iagn
ostic
s to
iden
tify
patte
rns
of
unus
ual p
rote
in c
onte
nt in
blo
od s
erum
or u
rine.
• Th
e fir
st p
rote
in to
be
sequ
ence
d w
as in
sulin
by
Fred
eric
k S
ange
r in
1951
, in
a pr
oces
s th
at to
ok o
ver t
en y
ears
. Tod
ay, p
rote
in s
eque
ncin
g is
a ro
utin
e an
d ve
ry e
ffici
ent p
roce
ss, a
nd is
a m
ajor
par
t of t
he s
tudy
kno
wn
as p
rote
omic
s.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
cs 8
.3 a
nd 1
8.2—
pH a
nd p
Ka a
nd p
Kb v
alue
s To
pic
20.3
—st
ereo
isom
eris
m
Opt
ion
A.9
—co
nden
satio
n po
lym
ers
Opt
ion
B.9
—ch
rom
atog
raph
y B
iolo
gy to
pics
2.4
, 2.5
and
8.1
—pr
otei
ns a
nd e
nzym
es
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
volv
e hy
drol
ysis
of a
pro
tein
, sep
arat
ion
and
iden
tific
atio
n of
am
ino
acid
mix
ture
s by
pap
er c
hrom
atog
raph
y, o
r gel
el
ectro
phor
esis
of p
rote
ins
and
DN
A.
• A
im 7
: Dat
a lo
ggin
g ex
perim
ents
invo
lvin
g ab
sorp
tion/
conc
entra
tion
stud
ies
for
prot
ein
cont
ent u
sing
the
Biu
ret r
eage
nt.
Core topics
Chemistry guide124
B.2
Pro
tein
s an
d en
zym
es
• D
escr
iptio
n of
the
four
leve
ls o
f pro
tein
stru
ctur
e, in
clud
ing
the
orig
in a
nd ty
pes
of b
onds
and
inte
ract
ions
invo
lved
.
• D
educ
tion
and
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
gra
phs
of e
nzym
e ac
tivity
invo
lvin
g ch
ange
s in
su
bstra
te c
once
ntra
tion,
pH
and
tem
pera
ture
.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
proc
esse
s of
pap
er c
hrom
atog
raph
y an
d ge
l ele
ctro
phor
esis
in
am
ino
acid
and
pro
tein
sep
arat
ion
and
iden
tific
atio
n.
Gui
danc
e:
• Th
e na
mes
and
stru
ctur
al fo
rmul
as o
f the
am
ino
acid
s ar
e gi
ven
in th
e da
ta
book
let i
n se
ctio
n 33
.
• R
efer
ence
sho
uld
be m
ade
to a
lpha
hel
ix a
nd b
eta
plea
ted
shee
t, an
d to
fib
rous
and
glo
bula
r pro
tein
s w
ith e
xam
ples
of e
ach.
• In
pap
er c
hrom
atog
raph
y th
e us
e of
Rf v
alue
s an
d lo
catin
g ag
ents
sho
uld
be
cove
red.
• In
enz
yme
kine
tics
Km a
nd V
max
are
not
requ
ired.
• A
im 7
: Sim
ulat
ions
can
be
used
for g
el e
lect
roph
ores
is.
Core topics
Chemistry guide 125
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: L
ipid
s ar
e a
broa
d gr
oup
of b
iom
olec
ules
that
are
larg
ely
non-
pola
r and
ther
efor
e in
solu
ble
in w
ater
.
B.3
Lip
ids
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Sig
nific
ance
of s
cien
ce e
xpla
natio
ns to
the
publ
ic—
long
-term
stu
dies
hav
e le
d to
kno
wle
dge
of th
e ne
gativ
e ef
fect
s of
die
ts h
igh
in s
atur
ated
fat,
chol
este
rol,
and
trans
-fat.
This
has
led
to n
ew fo
od p
rodu
cts.
(5.2
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• Fa
ts a
re m
ore
redu
ced
than
car
bohy
drat
es a
nd s
o yi
eld
mor
e en
ergy
whe
n ox
idiz
ed.
• Tr
igly
cerid
es a
re p
rodu
ced
by c
onde
nsat
ion
of g
lyce
rol w
ith th
ree
fatty
aci
ds
and
cont
ain
este
r lin
ks. F
atty
aci
ds c
an b
e sa
tura
ted,
mon
ouns
atur
ated
or
poly
unsa
tura
ted.
• P
hosp
holip
ids
are
deriv
ativ
es o
f trig
lyce
rides
.
• H
ydro
lysi
s of
trig
lyce
rides
and
pho
spho
lipid
s ca
n oc
cur u
sing
enz
ymes
or i
n al
kalin
e or
aci
dic
cond
ition
s.
• S
tero
ids
have
a c
hara
cter
istic
fuse
d rin
g st
ruct
ure,
kno
wn
as a
ste
roid
al
back
bone
.
• Li
pids
act
as
stru
ctur
al c
ompo
nent
s of
cel
l mem
bran
es, i
n en
ergy
sto
rage
, th
erm
al a
nd e
lect
rical
insu
latio
n, a
s tra
nspo
rters
of l
ipid
sol
uble
vita
min
s an
d as
ho
rmon
es.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
educ
tion
of th
e st
ruct
ural
form
ulas
of r
eact
ants
and
pro
duct
s in
con
dens
atio
n an
d hy
drol
ysis
reac
tions
bet
wee
n gl
ycer
ol a
nd fa
tty a
cids
and
/or p
hosp
hate
.
• P
redi
ctio
n of
the
rela
tive
mel
ting
poin
ts o
f fat
s an
d oi
ls fr
om th
eir s
truct
ures
.
• C
ompa
rison
of t
he p
roce
sses
of h
ydro
lytic
and
oxi
dativ
e ra
ncid
ity in
fats
with
re
spec
t to
the
site
of r
eact
ivity
in th
e m
olec
ules
and
the
cond
ition
s th
at fa
vour
th
e re
actio
n.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
ere
are
larg
e gl
obal
and
cul
tura
l diff
eren
ces
in th
e di
etar
y so
urce
s of
lipi
ds
and
met
hods
use
d to
pre
vent
ranc
idity
.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• D
iffer
ent c
ount
ries
have
ver
y di
ffere
nt s
tand
ards
tow
ards
food
labe
lling
. Is
acce
ss to
info
rmat
ion
a hu
man
righ
t? W
hat k
now
ledg
e sh
ould
be
univ
ersa
lly
avai
labl
e?
• W
hat a
re th
e di
ffere
nt re
spon
sibi
litie
s of
gov
ernm
ent,
indu
stry
, the
med
ical
pr
ofes
sion
and
the
indi
vidu
al in
mak
ing
heal
thy
choi
ces
abou
t die
t? P
ublic
bo
dies
can
pro
tect
the
indi
vidu
al b
ut a
lso
limit
thei
r fre
edom
. How
do
we
know
w
hat i
s be
st fo
r soc
iety
and
the
indi
vidu
al?
Util
izat
ion:
• A
lkal
ine
hydr
olys
is o
f fat
s is
use
d in
the
proc
ess
of s
oap-
mak
ing,
kno
wn
as
sapo
nific
atio
n.
• S
tero
id a
buse
, esp
ecia
lly in
spo
rts, a
nd m
etho
ds fo
r det
ectio
n.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
cs 1
0.1
and
10.2
—fu
nctio
nal g
roup
s, h
ydro
gena
tion
of a
lken
es
Topi
c 10
.2—
free
radi
cal m
echa
nism
s To
pic
20.3
—co
nfig
urat
iona
l iso
mer
ism
B
iolo
gy to
pic
2.3—
lipid
s
Core topics
Chemistry guide126
B.3
Lip
ids
• A
pplic
atio
n of
the
conc
ept o
f iod
ine
num
ber t
o de
term
ine
the
unsa
tura
tion
of a
fa
t.
• C
ompa
rison
of c
arbo
hydr
ates
and
lipi
ds a
s en
ergy
sto
rage
mol
ecul
es w
ith
resp
ect t
o th
eir s
olub
ility
and
ene
rgy
dens
ity.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
impa
ct o
f lip
ids
on h
ealth
, inc
ludi
ng th
e ro
les
of d
ieta
ry h
igh-
dens
ity li
popr
otei
n (H
DL)
and
low
-den
sity
lipo
prot
ein
(LD
L) c
hole
ster
ol,
satu
rate
d, u
nsat
urat
ed a
nd tr
ans-
fat a
nd th
e us
e an
d ab
use
of s
tero
ids.
Gui
danc
e:
• Th
e st
ruct
ures
of s
ome
fatty
aci
ds a
re g
iven
in th
e da
ta b
ookl
et in
sec
tion
34.
• S
peci
fic n
amed
exa
mpl
es o
f fat
s an
d oi
ls d
o no
t hav
e to
be
lear
ned.
• Th
e st
ruct
ural
diff
eren
ces
betw
een
cis-
and
tran
s-fa
ts a
re n
ot re
quire
d.
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e th
e ca
lcul
atio
n of
the
iodi
ne n
umbe
r of f
ats
to
mea
sure
deg
ree
of u
nsat
urat
ion,
cal
orim
etric
exp
erim
ents
on
diffe
rent
fats
and
oi
ls, o
r the
sep
arat
ion
of li
pids
from
com
mon
food
sou
rces
usi
ng d
iffer
ent
solv
ents
and
a s
epar
atin
g fu
nnel
.
Core topics
Chemistry guide 127
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: C
arbo
hydr
ates
are
oxy
gen-
rich
biom
olec
ules
, whi
ch p
lay
a ce
ntra
l rol
e in
met
abol
ic re
actio
ns o
f ene
rgy
trans
fer.
B.4
Car
bohy
drat
es
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Con
stru
ct m
odel
s/vi
sual
izat
ions
—un
ders
tand
ing
the
ster
eoch
emis
try o
f car
bohy
drat
es is
ess
entia
l to
unde
rsta
ndin
g th
eir s
truct
ural
role
s in
cel
ls. H
awor
th p
roje
ctio
ns h
elp
focu
s on
the
natu
re a
nd p
ositi
on o
f atta
ched
gro
ups
by m
akin
g ca
rbon
and
hyd
roge
n im
plic
it. (1
.10)
Obt
aini
ng e
vide
nce
for s
cien
tific
theo
ries—
cons
ider
the
stru
ctur
al ro
le o
f car
bohy
drat
es. (
1.8)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• C
arbo
hydr
ates
hav
e th
e ge
nera
l for
mul
a C
x(H2O
) y.
• H
awor
th p
roje
ctio
ns re
pres
ent t
he c
yclic
stru
ctur
es o
f mon
osac
char
ides
.
• M
onos
acch
arid
es c
onta
in e
ither
an
alde
hyde
gro
up (a
ldos
e) o
r a k
eton
e gr
oup
(ket
ose)
and
sev
eral
–O
H g
roup
s.
• S
traig
ht c
hain
form
s of
sug
ars
cycl
ize
in s
olut
ion
to fo
rm ri
ng s
truct
ures
co
ntai
ning
an
ethe
r lin
kage
.
• G
lyco
sidi
c bo
nds
form
bet
wee
n m
onos
acch
arid
es fo
rmin
g di
sacc
harid
es a
nd
poly
sacc
harid
es.
• C
arbo
hydr
ates
are
use
d as
ene
rgy
sour
ces
and
ener
gy re
serv
es.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
educ
tion
of th
e st
ruct
ural
form
ulas
of d
isac
char
ides
and
pol
ysac
char
ides
from
gi
ven
mon
osac
char
ides
.
• R
elat
ions
hip
of th
e pr
oper
ties
and
func
tions
of m
onos
acch
arid
es a
nd
poly
sacc
harid
es to
thei
r che
mic
al s
truct
ures
.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• S
ugar
is a
maj
or in
tern
atio
nal c
omm
odity
and
is p
rodu
ced
in a
bout
130
diff
eren
t co
untri
es. A
ppro
xim
atel
y th
ree-
quar
ters
of p
rodu
ctio
n co
mes
from
sug
ar c
ane
in tr
opic
al a
nd s
ubtro
pica
l reg
ions
and
the
rem
aind
er c
omes
from
sug
ar b
eet
whi
ch is
cul
tivat
ed in
tem
pera
te c
limat
es.
• D
iabe
tes
is a
chr
onic
dis
ease
that
occ
urs
whe
n th
e bo
dy c
anno
t effe
ctiv
ely
regu
late
blo
od s
ugar
, due
to a
failu
re in
the
prod
uctio
n or
func
tioni
ng o
f ins
ulin
. Th
e W
orld
Hea
lth O
rgan
izat
ion
proj
ects
that
dea
ths
from
dia
bete
s w
ill d
oubl
e be
twee
n 20
05 a
nd 2
030.
• La
ctos
e in
tole
ranc
e is
a c
ondi
tion
in w
hich
the
indi
vidu
al is
not
abl
e to
dig
est
lact
ose,
the
suga
r fou
nd in
milk
and
dai
ry p
rodu
cts.
It is
due
to a
failu
re to
pr
oduc
e su
ffici
ent l
evel
s of
lact
ase,
the
enzy
me
that
hyd
roly
ses
lact
ose
into
gl
ucos
e an
d ga
lact
ose.
Glo
bally
lact
ose
into
lera
nce
is th
e no
rm. I
t is
an
exam
ple
of a
Wes
tern
per
spec
tive
inva
ding
sci
ence
.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• Th
e us
e of
asp
arta
me
as a
n ar
tific
ial s
wee
tene
r has
bee
n co
ntro
vers
ial f
or
man
y ye
ars
as th
e si
de e
ffect
s ar
e no
t ful
ly in
vest
igat
ed. S
houl
d sc
ient
ists
be
held
mor
ally
resp
onsi
ble
for t
he a
dver
se c
onse
quen
ces
of th
eir w
ork?
Core topics
Chemistry guide128
B.4
Car
bohy
drat
es
Gui
danc
e:
• Th
e st
raig
ht c
hain
and
α-ri
ng fo
rms
of g
luco
se a
nd fr
ucto
se a
re g
iven
in th
e da
ta b
ookl
et in
sec
tion
34.
• Th
e co
mpo
nent
mon
osac
char
ides
of s
peci
fic d
isac
char
ides
and
the
linka
ge
deta
ils o
f pol
ysac
char
ides
are
not
requ
ired.
• Th
e di
stin
ctio
n be
twee
n
- and
- f
orm
s an
d th
e st
ruct
ure
of c
ellu
lose
are
not
re
quire
d.
Util
izat
ion:
• C
arbo
hydr
ates
are
use
d in
the
phar
mac
eutic
al in
dust
ry to
bin
d pr
epar
atio
ns
into
tabl
ets.
• E
than
ol is
pro
duce
d as
a b
iofu
el fr
om th
e fe
rmen
tatio
n of
car
bohy
drat
es in
cr
ops
such
as
corn
or s
ugar
can
e.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
cs 1
0.1
and
10.2
—or
gani
c fu
nctio
nal g
roup
s To
pic
20.1
—or
gani
c re
actio
ns
Topi
c 20
.3—
ster
eois
omer
ism
O
ptio
n C
.4—
biof
uels
B
iolo
gy to
pic
2.3—
carb
ohyd
rate
s
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e us
ing
Ben
edic
t’s o
r Feh
ling’
s so
lutio
n te
sts
to
dist
ingu
ish
betw
een
redu
cing
sug
ars
and
non-
redu
cing
sug
ars
or u
sing
iodi
ne
solu
tion
to te
st fo
r the
pre
senc
e of
sta
rch.
• A
im 8
: The
pro
duct
ion
of b
iofu
els
from
cro
ps ra
ises
man
y qu
estio
ns a
bout
re
late
d is
sues
suc
h as
def
ores
tatio
n, s
oil e
rosi
on a
nd s
usta
inab
ility
. The
“foo
d vs
fuel
” deb
ate
refe
rs to
the
cont
rove
rsie
s ar
isin
g fro
m d
evel
opm
ents
that
div
ert
agric
ultu
ral c
rops
into
bio
fuel
pro
duct
ion.
Core topics
Chemistry guide 129
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: V
itam
ins
are
orga
nic
mic
ronu
trien
ts w
ith d
iver
se fu
nctio
ns th
at m
ust b
e ob
tain
ed fr
om th
e di
et.
B.5
Vita
min
s
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Mak
ing
obse
rvat
ions
and
eva
luat
ing
clai
ms—
the
disc
over
y of
vita
min
s (v
ital a
min
es) i
s an
exa
mpl
e of
sci
entis
ts s
eeki
ng a
cau
se fo
r spe
cific
obs
erva
tions
. Thi
s re
sulte
d in
th
e ex
plan
atio
n of
def
icie
ncy
dise
ases
(eg
scur
vy a
nd b
erib
eri).
(1.8
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• V
itam
ins
are
orga
nic
mic
ronu
trien
ts w
hich
(mos
tly) c
anno
t be
synt
hesi
zed
by
the
body
but
mus
t be
obta
ined
from
sui
tabl
e fo
od s
ourc
es.
• Th
e so
lubi
lity
(wat
er o
r fat
) of a
vita
min
can
be
pred
icte
d fro
m it
s st
ruct
ure.
• M
ost v
itam
ins
are
sens
itive
to h
eat.
• V
itam
in d
efic
ienc
ies
in th
e di
et c
ause
par
ticul
ar d
isea
ses
and
affe
ct m
illio
ns o
f pe
ople
wor
ldw
ide.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• C
ompa
rison
of t
he s
truct
ures
of v
itam
ins
A, C
and
D.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
caus
es a
nd e
ffect
s of
vita
min
def
icie
ncie
s in
diff
eren
t co
untri
es a
nd s
ugge
stio
n of
sol
utio
ns.
Gui
danc
e:
• Th
e st
ruct
ures
of v
itam
ins
A, C
and
D a
re p
rovi
ded
in th
e da
ta b
ookl
et s
ectio
n 35
.
• S
peci
fic fo
od s
ourc
es o
f vita
min
s or
nam
es o
f def
icie
ncy
dise
ases
do
not h
ave
to b
e le
arne
d.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
e fo
od s
uppl
emen
ts in
dust
ry, e
spec
ially
the
sale
of v
itam
in p
ills,
has
bec
ome
very
lucr
ativ
e in
man
y co
untri
es.
• V
itam
in D
def
icie
ncy
is in
crea
sing
, par
tly a
s a
resu
lt of
gre
ater
pro
tect
ion
of th
e sk
in fr
om s
unlig
ht.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• W
hat a
re th
e et
hica
l con
side
ratio
ns in
add
ing
supp
lem
ents
to c
omm
only
co
nsum
ed fo
ods,
suc
h as
fluo
ride
to w
ater
or i
odin
e to
sal
t? P
ublic
bod
ies
can
prot
ect t
he in
divi
dual
but
als
o lim
it th
eir f
reed
om. H
ow d
o w
e kn
ow w
hat i
s be
st
for s
ocie
ty a
nd th
e in
divi
dual
?
• Li
nus
Pau
ling
is th
e on
ly m
an to
win
two
indi
vidu
al N
obel
Priz
es. H
is c
laim
that
vi
tam
in C
sup
plem
ents
cou
ld p
reve
nt d
isea
ses
such
as
the
com
mon
col
d le
d to
th
eir w
ides
prea
d us
e. W
hat i
s th
e ro
le o
f aut
horit
y in
com
mun
icat
ing
scie
ntifi
c kn
owle
dge
to th
e pu
blic
?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
cs 4
.1, 4
.2 a
nd 4
.3—
stru
ctur
e an
d ph
ysic
al p
rope
rties
To
pic
10.1
—or
gani
c fu
nctio
nal g
roup
s To
pic
20.3
—co
nfig
urat
iona
l iso
mer
ism
B
iolo
gy o
ptio
n D
.2—
hum
an n
utrit
ion
and
heal
th
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e th
e D
CP
IP d
eter
min
atio
n of
vita
min
C le
vels
in
food
s.
Core topics
Chemistry guide130
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: O
ur in
crea
sing
kno
wle
dge
of b
ioch
emis
try h
as le
d to
sev
eral
env
ironm
enta
l pro
blem
s, w
hile
als
o he
lpin
g to
sol
ve o
ther
s.
B.6
Bio
chem
istr
y an
d th
e en
viro
nmen
t
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Ris
k as
sess
men
t, co
llabo
ratio
n, e
thic
al c
onsi
dera
tions
—it
is th
e re
spon
sibi
lity
of s
cien
tists
to c
onsi
der t
he w
ays
in w
hich
pro
duct
s of
thei
r res
earc
h an
d fin
ding
s ne
gativ
ely
impa
ct th
e en
viro
nmen
t, an
d to
find
way
s to
cou
nter
this
. For
exa
mpl
e, th
e us
e of
enz
ymes
in b
iolo
gica
l det
erge
nts
and
to b
reak
up
oil s
pills
, and
gre
en c
hem
istry
in g
ener
al.
(4.8
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• Xe
nobi
otic
s re
fer t
o ch
emic
als
that
are
foun
d in
an
orga
nism
that
are
not
no
rmal
ly p
rese
nt th
ere.
• B
iode
grad
able
/com
post
able
pla
stic
s ca
n be
con
sum
ed o
r bro
ken
dow
n by
ba
cter
ia o
r oth
er li
ving
org
anis
ms.
• H
ost–
gues
t che
mis
try in
volv
es th
e cr
eatio
n of
syn
thet
ic h
ost m
olec
ules
that
m
imic
som
e of
the
actio
ns p
erfo
rmed
by
enzy
mes
in c
ells
, by
sele
ctiv
ely
bind
ing
to s
peci
fic g
uest
spe
cies
, suc
h as
toxi
c m
ater
ials
in th
e en
viro
nmen
t.
• E
nzym
es h
ave
been
dev
elop
ed to
hel
p in
the
brea
kdow
n of
oil
spill
s an
d ot
her
indu
stria
l was
tes.
• E
nzym
es in
bio
logi
cal d
eter
gent
s ca
n im
prov
e en
ergy
effi
cien
cy b
y en
ablin
g ef
fect
ive
clea
ning
at l
ower
tem
pera
ture
s.
• B
iom
agni
ficat
ion
is th
e in
crea
se in
con
cent
ratio
n of
a s
ubst
ance
in a
food
ch
ain.
• G
reen
che
mis
try, a
lso
calle
d su
stai
nabl
e ch
emis
try, i
s an
app
roac
h to
che
mic
al
rese
arch
and
eng
inee
ring
that
see
ks to
min
imiz
e th
e pr
oduc
tion
and
rele
ase
to
the
envi
ronm
ent o
f haz
ardo
us s
ubst
ance
s.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
incr
easi
ng p
robl
em o
f xen
obio
tics
such
as
antib
iotic
s in
se
wag
e tre
atm
ent p
lant
s.
• D
escr
iptio
n of
the
role
of s
tarc
h in
bio
degr
adab
le p
last
ics.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
e te
rm g
reen
che
mis
try w
as fi
rst c
oine
d in
199
1, a
nd a
ccep
tanc
e of
its
philo
soph
y ha
s le
d to
dev
elop
men
ts in
edu
catio
n an
d le
gisl
atio
n in
man
y co
untri
es.
• U
se o
f the
pes
ticid
e D
DT
is b
anne
d in
mos
t cou
ntrie
s du
e to
its
toxi
c ef
fect
s an
d bi
omag
nific
atio
n. It
s us
e co
ntin
ues,
how
ever
, in
coun
tries
whe
re m
alar
ia
rem
ains
a m
ajor
pub
lic h
ealth
cha
lleng
e.
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 4.
4—in
term
olec
ular
forc
es
Topi
c 10
.1—
natu
ral a
nd s
ynth
etic
org
anic
com
poun
ds
Opt
ions
A.5
and
A.7
—en
viro
nmen
tal i
mpa
ct o
f pla
stic
s O
ptio
n D
.2—
antib
iotic
s
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e th
e co
mpa
rison
of t
he b
reak
dow
n of
bi
odeg
rada
ble
and
non-
biod
egra
dabl
e pl
astic
s in
the
envi
ronm
ent.
• A
im 6
: Ris
k as
sess
men
t, in
clud
ing
the
risks
to th
e en
viro
nmen
t, is
an
esse
ntia
l pa
rt of
all
expe
rimen
tal w
ork.
• A
im 8
: The
dev
elop
men
t of t
he s
cien
ce o
f gre
en c
hem
istry
has
rais
ed
awar
enes
s of
the
envi
ronm
enta
l and
eth
ical
impl
icat
ions
of u
sing
sci
ence
and
te
chno
logy
.
Core topics
Chemistry guide 131
B.6
Bio
chem
istr
y an
d th
e en
viro
nmen
t
• A
pplic
atio
n of
hos
t–gu
est c
hem
istry
to th
e re
mov
al o
f a s
peci
fic p
ollu
tant
in th
e en
viro
nmen
t.
• D
escr
iptio
n of
an
exam
ple
of b
iom
agni
ficat
ion,
incl
udin
g th
e ch
emic
al s
ourc
e of
th
e su
bsta
nce.
Exa
mpl
es c
ould
incl
ude
heav
y m
etal
s or
pes
ticid
es.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
chal
leng
es a
nd c
riter
ia in
ass
essi
ng th
e “g
reen
ness
” of a
su
bsta
nce
used
in b
ioch
emic
al re
sear
ch, i
nclu
ding
the
atom
eco
nom
y.
Gui
danc
e:
• S
peci
fic n
ames
of “
gree
n ch
emic
als”
suc
h as
sol
vent
s ar
e no
t exp
ecte
d.
• Th
e em
phas
is in
exp
lana
tions
of h
ost–
gues
t che
mis
try s
houl
d be
on
non-
cova
lent
bon
ding
with
in th
e su
pram
olec
ule.
Additional higher level topics
Chemistry guide132
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: A
naly
ses
of p
rote
in a
ctiv
ity a
nd c
once
ntra
tion
are
key
area
s of
bio
chem
ical
rese
arch
.
B.7
Pro
tein
s an
d en
zym
es
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Theo
ries
can
be s
uper
sede
d—“lo
ck a
nd k
ey” h
ypot
hesi
s to
“ind
uced
fit”
mod
el fo
r enz
ymes
. (1.
9)
Col
labo
ratio
n an
d et
hica
l con
side
ratio
ns—
scie
ntis
ts c
olla
bora
te to
syn
thes
ize
new
enz
ymes
and
to c
ontro
l des
ired
reac
tions
(ie
was
te c
ontro
l). (4
.5)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• In
hibi
tors
pla
y an
impo
rtant
role
in re
gula
ting
the
activ
ities
of e
nzym
es.
• A
min
o ac
ids
and
prot
eins
can
act
as
buffe
rs in
sol
utio
n.
• P
rote
in a
ssay
s co
mm
only
use
UV
-vis
spe
ctro
scop
y an
d a
calib
ratio
n cu
rve
base
d on
kno
wn
stan
dard
s.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
eter
min
atio
n of
the
max
imum
rate
of r
eact
ion
(Vm
ax) a
nd th
e va
lue
of th
e M
icha
elis
con
stan
t (K
m) f
or a
n en
zym
e by
gra
phic
al m
eans
, and
exp
lana
tion
of
its s
igni
fican
ce.
• C
ompa
rison
of c
ompe
titiv
e an
d no
n-co
mpe
titiv
e in
hibi
tion
of e
nzym
es w
ith
refe
renc
e to
pro
tein
stru
ctur
e, th
e ac
tive
site
and
allo
ster
ic s
ite.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
conc
ept o
f pro
duct
inhi
bitio
n in
met
abol
ic p
athw
ays.
• C
alcu
latio
n of
the
pH o
f buf
fer s
olut
ions
, suc
h as
thos
e us
ed in
pro
tein
ana
lysi
s an
d in
reac
tions
invo
lvin
g am
ino
acid
s in
sol
utio
n.
• D
eter
min
atio
n of
the
conc
entra
tion
of a
pro
tein
in s
olut
ion
from
a c
alib
ratio
n cu
rve
usin
g th
e B
eer–
Lam
bert
law
.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Te
chno
logi
es b
ased
on
enzy
me
activ
ity g
o ba
ck to
anc
ient
tim
es in
man
y pa
rts
of th
e w
orld
. Bre
win
g an
d ch
eese
-mak
ing
are
ofte
n as
soci
ated
with
par
ticul
ar
plac
e na
mes
.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• Th
e te
rm “l
ock-
and-
key”
is a
n ef
fect
ive
met
apho
r but
the
“indu
ced
fit” m
odel
is a
be
tter m
odel
. How
are
met
apho
rs a
nd m
odel
s us
ed in
the
cons
truct
ion
of
know
ledg
e?
Util
izat
ion:
• E
nzym
es a
re w
idel
y us
ed in
indu
stria
l and
dom
estic
app
licat
ions
. Exa
mpl
es
incl
ude
biol
ogic
al d
eter
gent
s, te
xtile
s, fo
ods
and
beve
rage
s, a
nd b
iode
grad
able
pl
astic
s. A
dvan
ces
in p
rote
in e
ngin
eerin
g ha
ve le
d to
the
synt
hesi
s of
enz
ymes
th
at a
re e
ffect
ive
in a
wid
e ra
nge
of c
ondi
tions
.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 6.
1—ch
emic
al k
inet
ics
Topi
cs 8
.1, 8
.3 a
nd 8
.4—
the
pH s
cale
and
con
juga
te a
cids
and
bas
es
Topi
cs 1
8.2
and
18.3
—ac
id–b
ase
calc
ulat
ions
and
pH
cur
ves
Addi
tiona
l hig
her l
evel
topi
cs
Opt
ion
B: B
ioch
emis
try
15/2
5 ho
urs
Additional higher level topics
Chemistry guide 133
B.7
Pro
tein
s an
d en
zym
es
Gui
danc
e:
• Th
e ef
fect
s of
com
petit
ive
and
non-
com
petit
ive
inhi
bito
rs o
n K
m a
nd V
max
val
ues
shou
ld b
e co
vere
d.
• Th
e H
ende
rson
–Has
selb
alch
equ
atio
n is
giv
en in
the
data
boo
klet
in s
ectio
n 1.
• Fo
r UV
-vis
spe
ctro
scop
y, k
now
ledg
e of
par
ticul
ar re
agen
ts a
nd w
avel
engt
hs is
no
t req
uire
d.
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e m
easu
ring
enzy
me
activ
ity w
ith c
hang
ing
cond
ition
s of
tem
pera
ture
, pH
and
hea
vy m
etal
ion
conc
entra
tion.
• A
im 7
: Dat
a-lo
ggin
g ex
perim
ents
with
tem
pera
ture
or p
H p
robe
s to
inve
stig
ate
enzy
me
activ
ity u
nder
diff
eren
t con
ditio
ns; o
r com
pute
r mod
ellin
g of
enz
yme–
subs
trate
inte
ract
ions
.
• A
im 8
: Man
y en
zym
e te
chno
logi
es h
elp
miti
gate
dam
agin
g en
viro
nmen
tal
effe
cts
of c
hem
ical
s, s
uch
as fr
om le
athe
r, pa
per a
nd o
il in
dust
ries.
Additional higher level topics
Chemistry guide134
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: D
NA
is th
e ge
netic
mat
eria
l tha
t exp
ress
es it
self
by c
ontro
lling
the
synt
hesi
s of
pro
tein
s by
the
cell.
B.8
Nuc
leic
aci
ds
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Sci
entif
ic m
etho
d—th
e di
scov
ery
of th
e st
ruct
ure
of D
NA
is a
goo
d ex
ampl
e of
diff
eren
t app
roac
hes
to s
olvi
ng th
e sa
me
prob
lem
. Sci
entis
ts u
sed
mod
els
and
diffr
actio
n ex
perim
ents
to d
evel
op th
e st
ruct
ure
of D
NA
. (1.
3)
Dev
elop
men
ts in
sci
entif
ic re
sear
ch fo
llow
impr
ovem
ents
in a
ppar
atus
—do
uble
hel
ix fr
om X
-ray
diff
ract
ion
prov
ides
exp
lana
tion
for k
now
n fu
nctio
ns o
f DN
A. (
3.7)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• N
ucle
otid
es a
re th
e co
nden
satio
n pr
oduc
ts o
f a p
ento
se s
ugar
, pho
spho
ric a
cid
and
a ni
troge
nous
bas
e—ad
enin
e (A
), gu
anin
e (G
), cy
tosi
ne (C
), th
ymin
e (T
) or
urac
il (U
).
• P
olyn
ucle
otid
es fo
rm b
y co
nden
satio
n re
actio
ns.
• D
NA
is a
dou
ble
helix
of t
wo
poly
nucl
eotid
e st
rand
s he
ld to
geth
er b
y hy
drog
en
bond
s.
• R
NA
is u
sual
ly a
sin
gle
poly
nucl
eotid
e ch
ain
that
con
tain
s ur
acil
in p
lace
of
thym
ine,
and
a s
ugar
ribo
se in
pla
ce o
f deo
xyrib
ose.
• Th
e se
quen
ce o
f bas
es in
DN
A d
eter
min
es th
e pr
imar
y st
ruct
ure
of p
rote
ins
synt
hesi
zed
by th
e ce
ll us
ing
a tri
plet
cod
e, k
now
n as
the
gene
tic c
ode,
whi
ch
is u
nive
rsal
.
• G
enet
ical
ly m
odifi
ed o
rgan
ism
s ha
ve g
enet
ic m
ater
ial t
hat h
as b
een
alte
red
by
gene
tic e
ngin
eerin
g te
chni
ques
, inv
olvi
ng tr
ansf
errin
g D
NA
bet
wee
n sp
ecie
s.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
stab
ility
of D
NA
in te
rms
of th
e in
tera
ctio
ns b
etw
een
its
hydr
ophi
lic a
nd h
ydro
phob
ic c
ompo
nent
s.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
orig
in o
f the
neg
ativ
e ch
arge
on
DN
A a
nd it
s as
soci
atio
n w
ith b
asic
pro
tein
s (h
isto
nes)
in c
hrom
osom
es.
• D
educ
tion
of th
e nu
cleo
tide
sequ
ence
in a
com
plem
enta
ry s
trand
of D
NA
or a
m
olec
ule
of R
NA
from
a g
iven
pol
ynuc
leot
ide
sequ
ence
.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
e H
uman
Gen
ome
Pro
ject
was
an
inte
rnat
iona
l res
earc
h pr
ogra
mm
e w
hose
go
al w
as to
com
plet
e th
e m
appi
ng a
nd s
eque
ncin
g of
all
the
gene
s in
the
hum
an g
enom
e.
• Th
e po
licie
s on
the
labe
lling
of g
enet
ical
ly m
odifi
ed (G
M) f
oods
var
y gr
eatly
in
diffe
rent
cou
ntrie
s.
• M
ost o
f the
gen
etic
ally
mod
ified
org
anis
ms
are
prot
ecte
d by
inte
rnat
iona
l pa
tent
s. W
hat e
ffect
doe
s th
is h
ave
on th
e gl
obal
eco
nom
y an
d sc
ient
ific
com
mun
ity?
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• D
NA
sto
res
info
rmat
ion
but n
ot k
now
ledg
e.
• W
hat a
re th
e di
ffere
nces
bet
wee
n in
form
atio
n an
d kn
owle
dge?
• Th
e N
obel
Priz
e in
Phy
siol
ogy
or M
edic
ine
1962
was
aw
arde
d jo
intly
to C
rick,
W
atso
n an
d W
ilkin
s "fo
r the
ir di
scov
erie
s co
ncer
ning
the
mol
ecul
ar s
truct
ure
of
nucl
eic
acid
s an
d its
sig
nific
ance
for i
nfor
mat
ion
trans
fer i
n liv
ing
mat
eria
l".
Wha
t is
the
role
of c
olla
bora
tion
in a
dvan
cing
kno
wle
dge?
• Th
e ex
iste
nce
of D
NA
dat
abas
es o
pens
up
ques
tions
of i
ndiv
idua
l priv
acy
and
the
exte
nt to
whi
ch g
over
nmen
t has
the
right
of a
cces
s to
per
sona
l inf
orm
atio
n.
Who
has
the
right
to a
cces
s kn
owle
dge
of a
n in
divi
dual
’s D
NA
?
Additional higher level topics
Chemistry guide 135
B.8
Nuc
leic
aci
ds
• E
xpla
natio
n of
how
the
com
plem
enta
ry p
airin
g be
twee
n ba
ses
enab
les
DN
A to
re
plic
ate
itsel
f exa
ctly
.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
bene
fits
and
conc
erns
of u
sing
gen
etic
ally
mod
ified
food
s.
Gui
danc
e:
• S
truct
ures
of t
he n
itrog
enou
s ba
ses
and
ribos
e an
d de
oxyr
ibos
e su
gars
are
gi
ven
in th
e da
ta b
ookl
et in
sec
tion
34.
• K
now
ledg
e of
the
diffe
rent
form
s of
RN
A is
not
requ
ired.
• D
etai
ls o
f the
pro
cess
of D
NA
repl
icat
ion
are
not r
equi
red.
• Li
mit
expr
essi
on o
f DN
A to
the
conc
ept o
f a fo
ur-u
nit b
ase
code
det
erm
inin
g a
twen
ty-u
nit a
min
o ac
id s
eque
nce.
Det
ails
of t
rans
crip
tion
and
trans
latio
n ar
e no
t req
uire
d.
Util
izat
ion:
• K
now
ledg
e of
DN
A s
eque
ncin
g ha
s tra
nsfo
rmed
sev
eral
asp
ects
of l
egal
en
quiry
, inc
ludi
ng fo
rens
ics
and
pate
rnity
cas
es. I
t is
also
wid
ely
used
in
stud
ies
of a
nces
try a
nd h
uman
mig
ratio
n.
• D
NA
seq
uenc
ing
is a
n im
porta
nt a
spec
t of t
he s
tudy
of b
ioch
emic
al e
volu
tion.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 4.
4—hy
drog
en b
ondi
ng, i
nter
mol
ecul
ar in
tera
ctio
ns
Topi
c 8.
1—ac
id–b
ase
inte
ract
ions
B
iolo
gy to
pics
2.6
and
7.1
—D
NA
and
RN
A s
truct
ure
Aim
s:
• A
im 5
: The
sto
ry o
f the
riva
lry b
etw
een
the
diffe
rent
team
s in
volv
ed in
the
eluc
idat
ion
of D
NA
stru
ctur
e in
the
1950
s is
an
exam
ple
of a
failu
re o
f effe
ctiv
e co
llabo
ratio
n an
d co
mm
unic
atio
n du
ring
scie
ntifi
c ac
tiviti
es.
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e D
NA
ext
ract
ion
from
cel
ls a
nd in
vest
igat
ion
of it
s ph
ysic
al p
rope
rties
, and
mod
el b
uild
ing
exer
cise
s of
DN
A s
truct
ure,
in
clud
ing
the
spec
ific
base
pai
rings
bet
wee
n a
purin
e an
d a
pyrim
idin
e.
• A
im 7
: Dat
abas
es e
xist
of g
enet
ic s
eque
nces
from
diff
eren
t org
anis
ms.
• A
im 8
: Man
y et
hica
l que
stio
ns a
re ra
ised
by
our k
now
ledg
e of
the
hum
an
geno
me,
incl
udin
g cl
onin
g, g
enet
ic e
ngin
eerin
g, g
ene
ther
apy,
and
so
on.
Additional higher level topics
Chemistry guide136
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: B
iolo
gica
l pig
men
ts in
clud
e a
varie
ty o
f che
mic
al s
truct
ures
with
div
erse
func
tions
whi
ch a
bsor
b sp
ecifi
c w
avel
engt
hs o
f lig
ht.
B.9
Bio
logi
cal p
igm
ents
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Use
of d
ata—
quan
titat
ive
mea
sure
men
ts o
f abs
orba
nce
are
a re
liabl
e m
eans
of c
omm
unic
atin
g da
ta b
ased
on
colo
ur, w
hich
was
pre
viou
sly
subj
ectiv
e an
d di
fficu
lt to
re
plic
ate.
(3.1
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• B
iolo
gica
l pig
men
ts a
re c
olou
red
com
poun
ds p
rodu
ced
by m
etab
olis
m.
• Th
e co
lour
of p
igm
ents
is d
ue to
hig
hly
conj
ugat
ed s
yste
ms
with
del
ocal
ized
el
ectro
ns, w
hich
hav
e in
tens
e ab
sorp
tion
band
s in
the
visi
ble
regi
on.
• P
orph
yrin
com
poun
ds, s
uch
as h
emog
lobi
n, m
yogl
obin
, chl
orop
hyll
and
man
y cy
toch
rom
es a
re c
hela
tes
of m
etal
s w
ith la
rge
nitro
gen-
cont
aini
ng m
acro
cycl
ic
ligan
ds.
• H
emog
lobi
n an
d m
yogl
obin
con
tain
hem
e gr
oups
with
the
porp
hyrin
gro
up
boun
d to
an
iron(
II) io
n.
• C
ytoc
hrom
es c
onta
in h
eme
grou
ps in
whi
ch th
e iro
n io
n in
terc
onve
rts b
etw
een
iron(
II) a
nd ir
on(II
I) du
ring
redo
x re
actio
ns.
• A
ntho
cyan
ins
are
arom
atic
, wat
er-s
olub
le p
igm
ents
wid
ely
dist
ribut
ed in
pla
nts.
Th
eir s
peci
fic c
olou
r dep
ends
on
met
al io
ns a
nd p
H.
• C
arot
enoi
ds a
re li
pid-
solu
ble
pigm
ents
, and
are
invo
lved
in h
arve
stin
g lig
ht in
ph
otos
ynth
esis
. The
y ar
e su
scep
tible
to o
xida
tion,
cat
alys
ed b
y lig
ht.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
sigm
oida
l sha
pe o
f hem
oglo
bin’
s ox
ygen
dis
soci
atio
n cu
rve
in te
rms
of th
e co
oper
ativ
e bi
ndin
g of
hem
oglo
bin
to o
xyge
n.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
fact
ors
that
influ
ence
oxy
gen
satu
ratio
n of
hem
oglo
bin,
in
clud
ing
tem
pera
ture
, pH
and
car
bon
diox
ide.
• D
escr
iptio
n of
the
grea
ter a
ffini
ty o
f oxy
gen
for f
oeta
l hem
oglo
bin.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• A
rtific
ial c
olou
rs a
re c
omm
only
add
ed d
urin
g th
e co
mm
erci
al p
repa
ratio
n an
d pr
oces
sing
of f
ood.
The
list
of a
ppro
ved
food
col
ours
var
ies
grea
tly b
y co
untry
, w
hich
rais
es q
uest
ions
for i
nter
natio
nal t
rade
.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• E
xper
imen
ts s
how
that
our
app
reci
atio
n of
food
is b
ased
on
an in
tera
ctio
n be
twee
n ou
r sen
ses.
How
do
the
diffe
rent
sen
ses
inte
ract
in g
ivin
g us
em
piric
al
know
ledg
e ab
out t
he w
orld
?
Util
izat
ion:
• D
iffer
ent t
ones
of s
kin,
eye
and
hai
r col
our a
re th
e re
sult
of d
iffer
ence
s in
the
conc
entra
tion
of th
e pi
gmen
t mel
anin
.
• P
eopl
e w
hose
anc
esto
rs h
ave
lived
at h
igh
altit
ude
for m
any
gene
ratio
ns h
ave
deve
lope
d he
mog
lobi
n w
ith a
hig
her a
ffini
ty fo
r oxy
gen.
• Th
e pu
rplis
h-re
d co
lour
of m
eat i
s la
rgel
y du
e to
the
pres
ence
of m
yogl
obin
. Th
e ch
ange
in c
olou
r to
brow
n on
coo
king
occ
urs
as th
e iro
n io
n be
com
es
oxid
ized
to F
e3+.
• A
ntho
cyan
ins
and
caro
teno
ids
prov
ide
visi
ble
sign
als
for p
lant
s to
attr
act
inse
cts
and
bird
s fo
r pol
linat
ion
and
seed
dis
pers
al. T
hey
also
pro
tect
pla
nts
from
dam
age
caus
ed b
y U
V li
ght.
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 8.
2—in
dica
tors
To
pic
13.2
—co
mpl
ex io
ns
Opt
ion
C.8
—el
ectro
nic
conj
ugat
ion
and
dye-
sens
itize
d so
lar c
ells
Additional higher level topics
Chemistry guide 137
B.9
Bio
logi
cal p
igm
ents
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
actio
n of
car
bon
mon
oxid
e as
a c
ompe
titiv
e in
hibi
tor o
f ox
ygen
bin
ding
.
• O
utlin
e of
the
fact
ors
that
affe
ct th
e st
abili
ties
of a
ntho
cyan
ins,
car
oten
oids
and
ch
loro
phyl
l in
rela
tion
to th
eir s
truct
ures
.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
abili
ty o
f ant
hocy
anin
s to
act
as
indi
cato
rs b
ased
on
thei
r se
nsiti
vity
to p
H.
• D
escr
iptio
n of
the
func
tion
of p
hoto
synt
hetic
pig
men
ts in
trap
ping
ligh
t ene
rgy
durin
g ph
otos
ynth
esis
.
• In
vest
igat
ion
of p
igm
ents
thro
ugh
pape
r and
thin
laye
r chr
omat
ogra
phy.
Gui
danc
e:
• Th
e st
ruct
ures
of c
hlor
ophy
ll, h
eme
B a
nd s
peci
fic e
xam
ples
of a
ntho
cyan
ins
and
caro
teno
ids
are
give
n in
the
data
boo
klet
in s
ectio
n 35
; det
ails
of o
ther
pi
gmen
t nam
es a
nd s
truct
ures
are
not
requ
ired.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
coo
pera
tive
bind
ing
in h
emog
lobi
n sh
ould
be
limite
d to
co
nfor
mat
iona
l cha
nges
occ
urrin
g in
one
pol
ypep
tide
whe
n it
beco
mes
ox
ygen
ated
.
• K
now
ledg
e of
spe
cific
col
our c
hang
es w
ith c
hang
ing
cond
ition
s is
not
requ
ired.
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e th
e ex
tract
ion
and
isol
atio
n of
pig
men
ts fr
om
plan
t sou
rces
usi
ng s
olve
nts
and
sepa
ratin
g fu
nnel
or t
he u
se o
f ant
hocy
anin
s as
pH
indi
cato
rs.
• A
im 7
: Use
of d
ata
logg
ers
for c
olle
ctin
g ab
sorp
tion
data
.
Additional higher level topics
Chemistry guide138
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: M
ost b
ioch
emic
al p
roce
sses
are
ste
reos
peci
fic a
nd in
volv
e on
ly m
olec
ules
with
cer
tain
con
figur
atio
n of
chi
ral c
arbo
n at
oms.
B.1
0 St
ereo
chem
istr
y in
bio
mol
ecul
es
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Theo
ries
used
to e
xpla
in n
atur
al p
heno
men
a/ev
alua
te c
laim
s—bi
oche
mis
try in
volv
es m
any
chira
l mol
ecul
es w
ith b
iolo
gica
l act
ivity
spe
cific
to o
ne e
nant
iom
er. C
hem
ical
re
actio
ns in
a c
hira
l env
ironm
ent a
ct a
s a
guid
ing
dist
inct
ion
betw
een
livin
g an
d no
n-liv
ing
mat
ter.
(2.2
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• W
ith o
ne e
xcep
tion,
am
ino
acid
s ar
e ch
iral,
and
only
the
L-co
nfig
urat
ion
is
foun
d in
pro
tein
s.
• N
atur
ally
occ
urrin
g un
satu
rate
d fa
t is
mos
tly in
the
cis
form
, but
food
pr
oces
sing
can
con
vert
it in
to th
e tra
ns fo
rm.
• D
and
L s
tere
oiso
mer
s of
sug
ars
refe
r to
the
conf
igur
atio
n of
the
chira
l car
bon
atom
furth
est f
rom
the
alde
hyde
or k
eton
e gr
oup,
and
D fo
rms
occu
r mos
t fre
quen
tly in
nat
ure.
• R
ing
form
s of
sug
ars
have
isom
ers,
kno
wn
as α
and
β, d
epen
ding
on
whe
ther
th
e po
sitio
n of
the
hydr
oxyl
gro
up a
t car
bon
1 (g
luco
se) o
r car
bon
2 (fr
ucto
se)
lies
belo
w th
e pl
ane
of th
e rin
g (α
) or a
bove
the
plan
e of
the
ring
(β).
• V
isio
n ch
emis
try in
volv
es th
e lig
ht a
ctiv
ated
inte
rcon
vers
ion
of c
is- a
nd tr
ans-
is
omer
s of
retin
al.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
escr
iptio
n of
the
hydr
ogen
atio
n an
d pa
rtial
hyd
roge
natio
n of
uns
atur
ated
fats
, in
clud
ing
the
prod
uctio
n of
tran
s-fa
ts, a
nd a
dis
cuss
ion
of th
e ad
vant
ages
and
di
sadv
anta
ges
of th
ese
proc
esse
s.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
stru
ctur
e an
d pr
oper
ties
of c
ellu
lose
, and
com
paris
on w
ith
star
ch.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
impo
rtanc
e of
cel
lulo
se a
s a
stru
ctur
al m
ater
ial a
nd in
the
diet
.
• O
utlin
e of
the
role
of v
itam
in A
in v
isio
n, in
clud
ing
the
role
s of
ops
in, r
hodo
psin
an
d ci
s- a
nd tr
ans-
retin
al.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• D
iffer
ent c
ount
ries
have
ver
y di
ffere
nt s
tand
ards
of f
ood
labe
lling
with
resp
ect
to it
s ch
emic
al c
onte
nt, i
nclu
ding
the
type
of f
ats
pres
ent.
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 10
.1—
orga
nic
func
tiona
l gro
ups
Topi
c 20
.1—
orga
nic
reac
tions
To
pic
20.3
—st
ereo
isom
eris
m
Opt
ion
A.4
—in
term
olec
ular
/Lon
don
forc
es
Aim
s:
• A
im 8
: Eth
ical
que
stio
ns a
rise
thro
ugh
the
use
of s
atur
ated
and
tran
s-fa
ts,
parti
cula
rly in
the
fast
-food
indu
stry
.
Additional higher level topics
Chemistry guide 139
B.1
0 St
ereo
chem
istr
y in
bio
mol
ecul
es
Gui
danc
e:
• N
ames
of t
he e
nzym
es in
volv
ed in
the
visu
al c
ycle
are
not
requ
ired.
• R
elat
ive
mel
ting
poin
ts o
f sat
urat
ed a
nd c
is-/t
rans
-uns
atur
ated
fats
sho
uld
be
cove
red.
Core topics
Chemistry guide140
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: S
ocie
ties
are
com
plet
ely
depe
nden
t on
ener
gy re
sour
ces.
The
qua
ntity
of e
nerg
y is
con
serv
ed in
any
con
vers
ion
but t
he q
ualit
y is
deg
rade
d.
C.1
Ene
rgy
sour
ces
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Use
theo
ries
to e
xpla
in n
atur
al p
heno
men
a—en
ergy
cha
nges
in th
e w
orld
aro
und
us re
sult
from
pot
entia
l and
kin
etic
ene
rgy
chan
ges
at th
e m
olec
ular
leve
l.
Ene
rgy
has
both
qua
ntity
and
qua
lity.
(2.2
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• A
use
ful e
nerg
y so
urce
rele
ases
ene
rgy
at a
reas
onab
le ra
te a
nd p
rodu
ces
min
imal
pol
lutio
n.
• Th
e qu
ality
of e
nerg
y is
deg
rade
d as
hea
t is
trans
ferre
d to
the
surro
undi
ngs.
E
nerg
y an
d m
ater
ials
go
from
a c
once
ntra
ted
into
a d
ispe
rsed
form
. The
qu
antit
y of
the
ener
gy a
vaila
ble
for d
oing
wor
k de
crea
ses.
• R
enew
able
ene
rgy
sour
ces
are
natu
rally
repl
enis
hed.
Non
-rene
wab
le e
nerg
y so
urce
s ar
e fin
ite.
• E
nerg
y den
sity
= en
ergy
rele
ased
from
fuel
volu
me
of fu
el co
nsum
ed.
• Sp
ecifi
c ene
rgy=
ener
gy re
leas
ed fr
om fu
elm
ass o
f fue
l con
sum
ed.
• T
he ef
fecie
ncy o
f an e
nerg
y tra
nsfe
r= us
eful
out
put e
nerg
yto
tal i
nput
ener
gy x
100%
.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
use
of d
iffer
ent s
ourc
es o
f ren
ewab
le a
nd n
on-re
new
able
en
ergy
.
• D
eter
min
atio
n of
the
ener
gy d
ensi
ty a
nd s
peci
fic e
nerg
y of
a fu
el fr
om th
e en
thal
pies
of c
ombu
stio
n, d
ensi
ties
and
the
mol
ar m
ass
of fu
el.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
how
the
choi
ce o
f fue
l is
influ
ence
d by
its
ener
gy d
ensi
ty o
r sp
ecifi
c en
ergy
.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
e In
tern
atio
nal E
nerg
y A
genc
y is
an
auto
nom
ous
orga
niza
tion
base
d in
Par
is
whi
ch w
orks
to e
nsur
e re
liabl
e, a
fford
able
and
cle
an e
nerg
y fo
r its
28
mem
ber
coun
tries
and
bey
ond.
• Th
e In
tern
atio
nal R
enew
able
Ene
rgy
Age
ncy
(IRE
NA
), ba
sed
in A
bu D
habi
, U
AE
, was
foun
ded
in 2
009
to p
rom
ote
incr
ease
d ad
optio
n an
d su
stai
nabl
e us
e of
rene
wab
le e
nerg
y so
urce
s (b
ioen
ergy
, geo
ther
mal
ene
rgy,
hyd
ropo
wer
, oc
ean,
sol
ar a
nd w
ind
ener
gy).
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• “I
have
no
doub
t tha
t we
will
be
succ
essf
ul in
har
ness
ing
the
sun’
s en
ergy
. If
sunb
eam
s w
ere
wea
pons
of w
ar w
e w
ould
hav
e ha
d so
lar e
nerg
y ce
ntur
ies
ago.
” (Lo
rd G
eorg
e P
orte
r). In
wha
t way
s m
ight
soc
ial,
polit
ical
, cul
tura
l and
re
ligio
us fa
ctor
s af
fect
the
type
s of
rese
arch
that
are
fina
nced
and
und
erta
ken,
or
reje
cted
?
• Th
ere
are
man
y et
hica
l iss
ues
rais
ed b
y en
ergy
gen
erat
ion
and
its c
onse
quen
t co
ntrib
utio
ns to
pol
lutio
n an
d cl
imat
e ch
ange
.Wha
t is
the
influ
ence
of p
oliti
cal
pres
sure
on
diffe
rent
are
as o
f kno
wle
dge?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 5.
1—en
thal
pies
of c
ombu
stio
n
Topi
c 10
.2—
the
com
bust
ion
of h
ydro
carb
ons
E
nviro
nmen
tal s
yste
ms
and
soci
etie
s to
pics
—3.
2, 3
.3, 3
.5 a
nd 3
.6
Phy
sics
topi
c 8.
1—en
ergy
den
sity
Core
topi
cs
Opt
ion
C: E
nerg
y 15
/25
hour
s
Core topics
Chemistry guide 141
C.1
Ene
rgy
sour
ces
• D
eter
min
atio
n of
the
effic
ienc
y of
an
ener
gy tr
ansf
er p
roce
ss fr
om a
ppro
pria
te
data
.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
adva
ntag
es a
nd d
isad
vant
ages
of t
he d
iffer
ent e
nerg
y so
urce
s in
C.2
thro
ugh
to C
.8.
Aim
s:
• A
im 1
: Dis
cuss
ions
of t
he p
ossi
ble
ener
gy s
ourc
es p
rovi
de o
ppor
tuni
ties
for
scie
ntifi
c st
udy
and
crea
tivity
with
in a
glo
bal c
onte
xt.
• A
im 6
: The
ene
rgy
dens
ity o
f diff
eren
t fue
ls c
ould
be
inve
stig
ated
ex
perim
enta
lly.
• A
im 7
: Dat
abas
es o
f ene
rgy
stat
istic
s on
a g
loba
l and
nat
iona
l sca
le c
an b
e ex
plor
ed h
ere.
• A
im 8
: Ene
rgy
prod
uctio
n ha
s gl
obal
eco
nom
ic a
nd e
nviro
nmen
tal d
imen
sion
s.
The
choi
ces
mad
e in
this
are
a ha
ve m
oral
and
eth
ical
impl
icat
ions
.
Core topics
Chemistry guide142
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he e
nerg
y of
foss
il fu
els
orig
inat
es fr
om s
olar
ene
rgy
whi
ch h
as b
een
stor
ed b
y ch
emic
al p
roce
sses
ove
r tim
e. T
hese
abu
ndan
t res
ourc
es a
re n
on-re
new
able
bu
t pro
vide
larg
e am
ount
s of
ene
rgy
due
to th
e na
ture
of c
hem
ical
bon
ds in
hyd
roca
rbon
s.
C.2
Fos
sil f
uels
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Sci
entif
ic c
omm
unity
and
col
labo
ratio
n—th
e us
e of
foss
il fu
els
has
had
a ke
y ro
le in
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f sci
ence
and
tech
nolo
gy. (
4.1)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• Fo
ssil
fuel
s w
ere
form
ed b
y th
e re
duct
ion
of b
iolo
gica
l com
poun
ds th
at c
onta
in
carb
on, h
ydro
gen,
nitr
ogen
, sul
fur a
nd o
xyge
n.
• P
etro
leum
is a
com
plex
mix
ture
of h
ydro
carb
ons
that
can
be
split
into
diff
eren
t co
mpo
nent
par
ts c
alle
d fra
ctio
ns b
y fra
ctio
nal d
istil
latio
n.
• C
rude
oil
need
s to
be
refin
ed b
efor
e us
e. T
he d
iffer
ent f
ract
ions
are
sep
arat
ed
by a
phy
sica
l pro
cess
in fr
actio
nal d
istil
latio
n.
• Th
e te
nden
cy o
f a fu
el to
aut
o-ig
nite
, whi
ch le
ads
to “k
nock
ing”
in a
car
eng
ine,
is
rela
ted
to m
olec
ular
stru
ctur
e an
d m
easu
red
by th
e oc
tane
num
ber.
• Th
e pe
rform
ance
of h
ydro
carb
ons
as fu
els
is im
prov
ed b
y th
e cr
acki
ng a
nd
cata
lytic
refo
rmin
g re
actio
ns.
• C
oal g
asifi
catio
n an
d liq
uefa
ctio
n ar
e ch
emic
al p
roce
sses
that
con
vert
coal
to
gase
ous
and
liqui
d hy
droc
arbo
ns.
• A
car
bon
foot
prin
t is
the
tota
l am
ount
of g
reen
hous
e ga
ses
prod
uced
dur
ing
hum
an a
ctiv
ities
. It i
s ge
nera
lly e
xpre
ssed
in e
quiv
alen
t ton
s of
car
bon
diox
ide.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
effe
ct o
f cha
in le
ngth
and
cha
in b
ranc
hing
on
the
octa
ne
num
ber.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
refo
rmin
g an
d cr
acki
ng re
actio
ns o
f hyd
roca
rbon
s an
d ex
plan
atio
n ho
w th
ese
proc
esse
s im
prov
e th
e oc
tane
num
ber.
• D
educ
tion
of e
quat
ions
for c
rack
ing
and
refo
rmin
g re
actio
ns, c
oal g
asifi
catio
n an
d liq
uefa
ctio
n.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
e ch
oice
of f
ossi
l fue
l use
d by
diff
eren
t cou
ntrie
s de
pend
s on
ava
ilabi
lity,
and
ec
onom
ic, s
ocie
tal,
envi
ronm
enta
l and
tech
nolo
gica
l fac
tors
.
• D
iffer
ent f
uel r
atin
g sy
stem
s (R
ON
, MO
N o
r PO
N) a
re u
sed
in d
iffer
ent
coun
tries
.
• O
cean
dril
ling,
oil
pipe
lines
and
oil
spill
s ar
e is
sues
that
dem
and
inte
rnat
iona
l co
oper
atio
n an
d ag
reem
ent.
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
cs 5
.1 a
nd 5
.3—
enth
alpy
cha
nges
of c
ombu
stio
n
Topi
cs 1
0.1
and
20.3
—hy
droc
arbo
ns a
nd is
omer
ism
To
pic
10.2
and
opt
ion
C.5
—gl
obal
war
min
g
Opt
ion
C.8
—so
lar c
ells
B
iolo
gy to
pic
4.3—
carb
on c
yclin
g
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Pos
sibl
e ex
perim
ents
incl
ude
fract
iona
l dis
tilla
tion
and
cata
lytic
cra
ckin
g re
actio
ns.
• A
im 7
: Dat
abas
es o
f ene
rgy
stat
istic
s on
a g
loba
l and
nat
iona
l sca
le c
an b
e ex
plor
ed h
ere.
• A
im 7
: Man
y on
line
calc
ulat
ors
are
avai
labl
e to
cal
cula
te c
arbo
n fo
otpr
ints
.
• A
im 8
: Con
side
ratio
n of
the
adva
ntag
es a
nd d
isad
vant
ages
of f
ossi
l fue
ls
illus
trate
s th
e ec
onom
ic a
nd e
nviro
nmen
tal i
mpl
icat
ions
of u
sing
sci
ence
and
te
chno
logy
.
Core topics
Chemistry guide 143
C.2
Fos
sil f
uels
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
adva
ntag
es a
nd d
isad
vant
ages
of t
he d
iffer
ent f
ossi
l fue
ls.
• Id
entif
icat
ion
of th
e va
rious
frac
tions
of p
etro
leum
, the
ir re
lativ
e vo
latil
ity a
nd
thei
r use
s.
• C
alcu
latio
ns o
f the
car
bon
diox
ide
adde
d to
the
atm
osph
ere,
whe
n di
ffere
nt
fuel
s bu
rn a
nd d
eter
min
atio
n of
car
bon
foot
prin
ts fo
r diff
eren
t act
iviti
es.
Gui
danc
e:
• Th
e co
st o
f pro
duct
ion
and
avai
labi
lity
(rese
rves
) of f
ossi
l fue
ls a
nd th
eir i
mpa
ct
on th
e en
viro
nmen
t sho
uld
be c
onsi
dere
d.
Core topics
Chemistry guide144
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he fu
sion
of h
ydro
gen
nucl
ei in
the
sun
is th
e so
urce
of m
uch
of th
e en
ergy
nee
ded
for l
ife o
n E
arth
. The
re a
re m
any
tech
nolo
gica
l cha
lleng
es in
repl
icat
ing
this
pro
cess
on
Ear
th b
ut it
wou
ld o
ffer a
rich
sou
rce
of e
nerg
y. F
issi
on in
volv
es th
e sp
littin
g of
a la
rge
unst
able
nuc
leus
into
sm
alle
r sta
ble
nucl
ei.
C.3
Nuc
lear
fusi
on a
nd fi
ssio
n
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Ass
essi
ng th
e et
hics
of s
cien
tific
rese
arch
—w
ides
prea
d us
e of
nuc
lear
fiss
ion
for e
nerg
y pr
oduc
tion
wou
ld le
ad to
a re
duct
ion
in g
reen
hous
e ga
s em
issi
ons.
Nuc
lear
fiss
ion
is th
e pr
oces
s ta
king
pla
ce in
the
atom
ic b
omb
and
nucl
ear f
usio
n th
at in
the
hydr
ogen
bom
b. (4
.5)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
Nuc
lear
fusi
on
• Li
ght n
ucle
i can
und
ergo
fusi
on re
actio
ns a
s th
is in
crea
ses
the
bind
ing
ener
gy
per n
ucle
on.
• Fu
sion
reac
tions
are
a p
rom
isin
g en
ergy
sou
rce
as th
e fu
el is
inex
pens
ive
and
abun
dant
, and
no
radi
oact
ive
was
te is
pro
duce
d.
• A
bsor
ptio
n sp
ectra
are
use
d to
ana
lyse
the
com
posi
tion
of s
tars
.
Nuc
lear
fiss
ion
• H
eavy
nuc
lei c
an u
nder
go fi
ssio
n re
actio
ns a
s th
is in
crea
ses
the
bind
ing
ener
gy
per n
ucle
on.
• 23
5 U u
nder
goes
a fi
ssio
n ch
ain
reac
tion:
U
235
92+
n1 0
→
U23
692
→ X
+ Y
+ n
eutro
ns.
• Th
e cr
itica
l mas
s is
the
mas
s of
fuel
nee
ded
for t
he re
actio
n to
be
self-
sust
aini
ng.
• 23
9 Pu,
use
d as
a fu
el in
“bre
eder
reac
tors
”, is
pro
duce
d fro
m 23
8 U b
y ne
utro
n ca
ptur
e.
• R
adio
activ
e w
aste
may
con
tain
isot
opes
with
long
and
sho
rt ha
lf-liv
es.
• H
alf-l
ife is
the
time
it ta
kes
for h
alf t
he n
umbe
r of a
tom
s to
dec
ay.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
e us
e of
nuc
lear
ene
rgy
is m
onito
red
inte
rnat
iona
lly b
y th
e In
tern
atio
nal
Ato
mic
Ene
rgy
Age
ncy.
• H
igh-
ener
gy p
artic
le p
hysi
cs re
sear
ch in
volv
es in
tern
atio
nal c
olla
bora
tion.
Th
ere
are
acce
lera
tor f
acili
ties
at C
ER
N, D
ES
Y, S
LAC
, Fer
mi l
ab a
nd
Bro
okha
ven.
Res
ults
are
dis
sem
inat
ed a
nd s
hare
d by
sci
entis
ts in
man
y co
untri
es.
• Th
e IT
ER
pro
ject
is a
col
labo
ratio
n be
twee
n m
any
coun
tries
and
aim
s to
de
mon
stra
te th
at fu
sion
is a
n en
ergy
sou
rce
of th
e fu
ture
.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• Th
e us
e of
nuc
lear
ene
rgy
carri
es ri
sks
as w
ell a
s be
nefit
s. W
ho s
houl
d ul
timat
ely
be re
spon
sibl
e fo
r ass
essi
ng th
ese?
How
do
we
know
wha
t is
best
fo
r soc
iety
and
the
indi
vidu
al?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 2.
1—is
otop
es
Topi
c 2.
2—th
e em
issi
on s
pect
rum
of h
ydro
gen
P
hysi
cs to
pic
7.2—
nucl
ear f
usio
n
Aim
s:
• A
im 7
: Com
pute
r ani
mat
ions
and
sim
ulat
ions
of r
adio
activ
e de
cay,
and
nuc
lear
fu
sion
and
fiss
ion
reac
tions
.
Core topics
Chemistry guide 145
C.3
Nuc
lear
fusi
on a
nd fi
ssio
n
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
Nuc
lear
fusi
on
• C
onst
ruct
ion
of n
ucle
ar e
quat
ions
for f
usio
n re
actio
ns.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
fusi
on re
actio
ns in
term
s of
bin
ding
ene
rgy
per n
ucle
on.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
atom
ic a
bsor
ptio
n sp
ectra
of h
ydro
gen
and
heliu
m, i
nclu
ding
th
e re
latio
nshi
ps b
etw
een
the
lines
and
ele
ctro
n tra
nsiti
ons.
Nuc
lear
fiss
ion
• D
educ
tion
of n
ucle
ar e
quat
ions
for f
issi
on re
actio
ns.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
fiss
ion
reac
tions
in te
rms
of b
indi
ng e
nerg
y pe
r nuc
leon
.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
stor
age
and
disp
osal
of n
ucle
ar w
aste
.
• S
olut
ion
of ra
dioa
ctiv
e de
cay
prob
lem
s in
volv
ing
inte
gral
num
bers
of h
alf-l
ives
.
Gui
danc
e:
• S
tude
nts
are
not e
xpec
ted
to re
call
spec
ific
fissi
on re
actio
ns.
• Th
e w
orki
ngs
of a
nuc
lear
pow
er p
lant
are
not
requ
ired.
• S
afet
y an
d ris
k is
sues
incl
ude:
hea
lth, p
robl
ems
asso
ciat
ed w
ith n
ucle
ar w
aste
an
d co
re m
eltd
own,
and
the
poss
ibili
ty th
at n
ucle
ar fu
els
may
be
used
in
nucl
ear w
eapo
ns.
• Th
e eq
uatio
ns, 𝑁𝑁
= 𝑁𝑁
0𝑒𝑒−𝜆𝜆
𝜆𝜆 and
𝑡𝑡1 2
= ln
2 𝜆𝜆 a
re g
iven
in s
ectio
n 1
of th
e da
ta
book
let.
• A
im 8
: Con
side
ratio
n of
the
envi
ronm
enta
l im
pact
of n
ucle
ar e
nerg
y ill
ustra
ting
the
impl
icat
ions
of u
sing
sci
ence
and
tech
nolo
gy.
Core topics
Chemistry guide146
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: V
isib
le li
ght c
an b
e ab
sorb
ed b
y m
olec
ules
that
hav
e a
conj
ugat
ed s
truct
ure
with
an
exte
nded
sys
tem
of a
ltern
atin
g si
ngle
and
mul
tiple
bon
ds. S
olar
ene
rgy
can
be c
onve
rted
to c
hem
ical
ene
rgy
in p
hoto
synt
hesi
s.
C.4
Sol
ar e
nerg
y
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Pub
lic u
nder
stan
ding
—ha
rnes
sing
the
sun’
s en
ergy
is a
cur
rent
are
a of
rese
arch
and
cha
lleng
es s
till r
emai
n. H
owev
er, c
onsu
mer
s an
d en
ergy
com
pani
es a
re b
eing
en
cour
aged
to m
ake
use
of s
olar
ene
rgy
as a
n al
tern
ativ
e en
ergy
sou
rce.
(5.2
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• Li
ght c
an b
e ab
sorb
ed b
y ch
loro
phyl
l and
oth
er p
igm
ents
with
a c
onju
gate
d el
ectro
nic
stru
ctur
e.
• Ph
otos
ynth
esis
con
verts
ligh
t ene
rgy
into
che
mic
al e
nerg
y:
6CO
2 + 6
H2O
C
6H12
O6 +
6O
2
• Fe
rmen
tatio
n of
glu
cose
pro
duce
s et
hano
l whi
ch c
an b
e us
ed a
s a
biof
uel:
C6H
12O
6 2
C2H
5OH
+ 2
CO
2
• E
nerg
y co
nten
t of v
eget
able
oils
is s
imila
r to
that
of d
iese
l fue
l but
they
are
not
us
ed in
inte
rnal
com
bust
ion
engi
nes
as th
ey a
re to
o vi
scou
s.
• Tr
anse
ster
ifica
tion
betw
een
an e
ster
and
an
alco
hol w
ith a
stro
ng a
cid
or b
ase
cata
lyst
pro
duce
s a
diffe
rent
est
er:
RC
OO
R1 +
R2 O
H
RC
OO
R2 +
R1 O
H
• In
the
trans
este
rific
atio
n pr
oces
s, in
volv
ing
a re
actio
n w
ith a
n al
coho
l in
the
pres
ence
of a
stro
ng a
cid
or b
ase,
the
trigl
ycer
ide
vege
tabl
e oi
ls a
re c
onve
rted
to a
mix
ture
mai
nly
com
pris
ing
of a
lkyl
est
ers
and
glyc
erol
, but
with
som
e fa
tty
acid
s.
• Tr
anse
ster
ifica
tion
with
eth
anol
or m
etha
nol p
rodu
ces
oils
with
low
er v
isco
sity
th
at c
an b
e us
ed in
die
sel e
ngin
es.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• Id
entif
icat
ion
of fe
atur
es o
f the
mol
ecul
es th
at a
llow
them
to a
bsor
b vi
sibl
e lig
ht.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• Th
e cl
aim
s of
“col
d fu
sion
” wer
e di
smis
sed
as th
e re
sults
are
not
repr
oduc
ible
. Is
it a
lway
s po
ssib
le to
obt
ain
repl
icab
le re
sults
in th
e na
tura
l sci
ence
s? A
re
repr
oduc
ible
resu
lts p
ossi
ble
in o
ther
are
as o
f kno
wle
dge?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 5.
3—bo
nd e
ntha
lpie
s
Topi
c 20
.1—
mec
hani
sm o
f nuc
lear
sub
stitu
tion
reac
tions
B
iolo
gy to
pic
2.9—
phot
osyn
thes
is
Aim
s:
• A
im 2
: The
con
vers
ion
of s
olar
ene
rgy
is im
porta
nt in
a n
umbe
r of d
iffer
ent
tech
nolo
gies
.
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e th
ose
invo
lvin
g ph
otos
ynth
esis
, fer
men
tatio
n an
d tra
nses
terif
icat
ion.
• A
im 8
: Tra
nses
terif
icat
ion
reac
tions
, with
was
te c
ooki
ng o
il, c
ould
redu
ce w
aste
an
d pr
oduc
e ex
celle
nt b
iofu
els.
Core topics
Chemistry guide 147
C.4
Sol
ar e
nerg
y
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
redu
ced
visc
osity
of e
ster
s pr
oduc
ed w
ith m
etha
nol a
nd
etha
nol.
• E
valu
atio
n of
the
adva
ntag
es a
nd d
isad
vant
ages
of t
he u
se o
f bio
fuel
s.
• D
educ
tion
of e
quat
ions
for t
rans
este
rific
atio
n re
actio
ns.
Gui
danc
e:
• O
nly
a co
njug
ated
sys
tem
with
alte
rnat
ing
doub
le b
onds
nee
ds to
be
cove
red.
Core topics
Chemistry guide148
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: G
ases
in th
e at
mos
pher
e th
at a
re p
rodu
ced
by h
uman
act
iviti
es a
re c
hang
ing
the
clim
ate
as th
ey a
re u
pset
ting
the
bala
nce
betw
een
radi
atio
n en
terin
g an
d le
avin
g th
e at
mos
pher
e.
C.5
Env
ironm
enta
l im
pact
—gl
obal
war
min
g
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Tran
sdis
cipl
inar
y—th
e st
udy
of g
loba
l war
min
g en
com
pass
es a
bro
ad ra
nge
of c
once
pts
and
idea
s an
d is
tran
sdis
cipl
inar
y. (4
.1)
Col
labo
ratio
n an
d si
gnifi
canc
e of
sci
ence
exp
lana
tions
to th
e pu
blic
—re
ports
of t
he In
terg
over
nmen
tal P
anel
on
Clim
ate
Cha
nge
(IPC
C).
(5.2
)
Cor
rela
tion
and
caus
e an
d un
ders
tand
ing
of s
cien
ce—
CO
2 lev
els
and
Ear
th a
vera
ge te
mpe
ratu
re s
how
cle
ar c
orre
latio
n bu
t wid
e va
riatio
ns in
the
surfa
ce te
mpe
ratu
re o
f the
E
arth
hav
e oc
curre
d fre
quen
tly in
the
past
. (2.
8)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• G
reen
hous
e ga
ses
allo
w th
e pa
ssag
e of
inco
min
g so
lar s
hort
wav
elen
gth
radi
atio
n bu
t abs
orb
the
long
er w
avel
engt
h ra
diat
ion
from
the
Ear
th. S
ome
of
the
abso
rbed
radi
atio
n is
re-ra
diat
ed b
ack
to E
arth
.
• Th
ere
is a
het
erog
eneo
us e
quili
briu
m b
etw
een
conc
entra
tion
of a
tmos
pher
ic
carb
on d
ioxi
de a
nd a
queo
us c
arbo
n di
oxid
e in
the
ocea
ns.
• G
reen
hous
e ga
ses
abso
rb IR
radi
atio
n as
ther
e is
a c
hang
e in
dip
ole
mom
ent
as th
e bo
nds
in th
e m
olec
ule
stre
tch
and
bend
.
• P
artic
ulat
es s
uch
as s
mok
e an
d du
st c
ause
glo
bal d
imm
ing
as th
ey re
flect
su
nlig
ht, a
s do
clo
uds.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
mol
ecul
ar m
echa
nism
s by
whi
ch g
reen
hous
e ga
ses
abso
rb
infra
red
radi
atio
n.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
evid
ence
for t
he re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n th
e in
crea
sed
conc
entra
tion
of g
ases
and
glo
bal w
arm
ing.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
sour
ces,
rela
tive
abun
danc
e an
d ef
fect
s of
diff
eren
t gr
eenh
ouse
gas
es.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
diffe
rent
app
roac
hes
to th
e co
ntro
l of c
arbo
n di
oxid
e em
issi
ons.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
is is
sue
invo
lves
the
inte
rnat
iona
l com
mun
ity w
orki
ng to
geth
er to
rese
arch
an
d re
duce
the
effe
cts
of g
loba
l war
min
g. S
uch
atte
mpt
s in
clud
e th
e In
terg
over
nmen
tal P
anel
on
Clim
ate
Cha
nge
(IPC
C) a
nd th
e K
yoto
Pro
toco
l w
hich
was
ext
ende
d in
Qat
ar.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• S
ome
peop
le q
uest
ion
the
real
ity o
f clim
ate
chan
ge, a
nd q
uest
ion
the
mot
ives
of
sci
entis
ts w
ho h
ave
“exa
gger
ated
” the
pro
blem
. How
do
we
asse
ss th
e ev
iden
ce c
olle
cted
and
the
mod
els
used
to p
redi
ct th
e im
pact
of h
uman
ac
tiviti
es?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
cs 7
.1 a
nd 1
7.1—
equi
libriu
m s
yste
ms
To
pic
8.2—
acid
–bas
e eq
uilib
ria
Topi
c 11
.3—
infra
red
spec
tra
Topi
c 13
.2—
trans
ition
met
al c
ompl
exes
B
iolo
gy to
pic
4.4—
clim
ate
chan
ge
Phy
sics
topi
c 8.
1—th
erm
al e
nerg
y tra
nsfe
r
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: The
equ
ilibr
ium
bet
wee
n aq
ueou
s an
d ga
seou
s ca
rbon
dio
xide
cou
ld b
e ex
perim
enta
lly in
vest
igat
ed.
Core topics
Chemistry guide 149
C.5
Env
ironm
enta
l im
pact
—gl
obal
war
min
g
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
pH
cha
nges
in th
e oc
ean
due
to in
crea
sed
conc
entra
tion
of
carb
on d
ioxi
de in
the
atm
osph
ere.
Gui
danc
e:
• G
reen
hous
e ga
ses
to b
e co
nsid
ered
are
CH
4, H
2O a
nd C
O2.
• A
im 7
: Com
pute
r mod
ellin
g is
a p
ower
ful t
ool b
y w
hich
kno
wle
dge
can
be
gain
ed a
bout
the
gree
nhou
se e
ffect
.
• A
im 8
: Dis
cuss
ions
of c
limat
e ch
ange
and
gre
en c
hem
istry
rais
e aw
aren
ess
of
the
ethi
cal,
econ
omic
and
env
ironm
enta
l im
plic
atio
ns o
f usi
ng s
cien
ce a
nd
tech
nolo
gy.
Additional higher level topics
Chemistry guide150
Opt
ion
C: E
nerg
y 15
/25
hour
s
Addi
tiona
l hig
her l
evel
topi
cs
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: C
hem
ical
ene
rgy
from
redo
x re
actio
ns c
an b
e us
ed a
s a
porta
ble
sour
ce o
f ele
ctric
al e
nerg
y.
C.6
Ele
ctro
chem
istr
y, re
char
geab
le b
atte
ries
and
fuel
cel
ls
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Env
ironm
enta
l pro
blem
s—re
dox
reac
tions
can
be
used
as
a so
urce
of e
lect
ricity
but
dis
posa
l of b
atte
ries
has
envi
ronm
enta
l con
sequ
ence
s. (4
.8)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• A
n el
ectro
chem
ical
cel
l has
inte
rnal
resi
stan
ce d
ue to
the
finite
tim
e it
take
s fo
r io
ns to
diff
use.
The
max
imum
cur
rent
of a
cel
l is
limite
d by
its
inte
rnal
re
sist
ance
.
• Th
e vo
ltage
of a
bat
tery
dep
ends
prim
arily
on
the
natu
re o
f the
mat
eria
ls u
sed
whi
le
the
tota
l wor
k th
at c
an b
e ob
tain
ed fr
om it
dep
ends
on
thei
r qua
ntity
.
• In
a p
rimar
y ce
ll th
e el
ectro
chem
ical
reac
tion
is n
ot re
vers
ible
. Rec
harg
eabl
e ce
lls in
volv
e re
dox
reac
tions
that
can
be
reve
rsed
usi
ng e
lect
ricity
.
• A
fuel
cel
l can
be
used
to c
onve
rt ch
emic
al e
nerg
y, c
onta
ined
in a
fuel
that
is
cons
umed
, dire
ctly
to e
lect
rical
ene
rgy.
• M
icro
bial
fuel
cel
ls (M
FCs)
are
a p
ossi
ble
sust
aina
ble
ener
gy s
ourc
e us
ing
diffe
rent
car
bohy
drat
es o
r sub
stra
tes
pres
ent i
n w
aste
wat
ers
as th
e fu
el.
• Th
e N
erns
t equ
atio
n, E
= E
0 - (RT nF
) ln
Q, ca
n be
use
d to
cal
cula
te th
e po
tent
ial o
f a
half-
cell i
n an
ele
ctro
chem
ical
cel
l, un
der n
on-s
tand
ard
cond
ition
s.
• Th
e el
ectro
des
in a
con
cent
ratio
n ce
ll ar
e th
e sa
me
but t
he c
once
ntra
tion
of th
e el
ectro
lyte
sol
utio
ns a
t the
cat
hode
and
ano
de a
re d
iffer
ent.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
istin
ctio
n be
twee
n fu
el c
ells
and
prim
ary
cells
.
• D
educ
tion
of h
alf e
quat
ions
for t
he e
lect
rode
reac
tions
in a
fuel
cel
l.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• A
re b
atte
ry re
cycl
ing
prog
ram
mes
equ
ival
ent i
n di
ffere
nt a
reas
of t
he g
lobe
?
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• D
oes
scie
ntifi
c la
ngua
ge a
nd v
ocab
ular
y ha
ve p
rimar
ily a
des
crip
tive
or a
n in
terp
reta
tive
func
tion?
Are
the
term
s “e
lect
ric c
urre
nt” a
nd “i
nter
nal r
esis
tanc
e”
accu
rate
des
crip
tions
of r
ealit
y or
met
apho
rs?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 9.
1—re
dox
reac
tions
To
pic
19.1
—el
ectro
chem
ical
cel
ls
Bio
logy
topi
c 6.
5—m
uscl
e an
d ne
rve
cells
dis
cuss
ed in
bio
logy
are
con
cent
ratio
n ce
lls
Phy
sics
topi
c 5.
3—th
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n el
ectri
cal p
ower
, vol
tage
, res
ista
nce
and
curre
nt
Aim
s:
• A
im 2
: The
con
vers
ion
of c
hem
ical
ene
rgy
to e
lect
ricity
is im
porta
nt in
a
num
ber o
f diff
eren
t tec
hnol
ogie
s.
• A
im 6
: The
fact
ors
that
affe
ct th
e vo
ltage
of a
cel
l and
the
lead
–aci
d ba
ttery
co
uld
be in
vest
igat
ed e
xper
imen
tally
.
Additional higher level topics
Chemistry guide 151
C.6
Ele
ctro
chem
istr
y, re
char
geab
le b
atte
ries
and
fuel
cel
ls
• C
ompa
rison
bet
wee
n fu
el c
ells
and
rech
arge
able
bat
terie
s.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
adva
ntag
es o
f diff
eren
t typ
es o
f cel
ls in
term
s of
siz
e, m
ass
and
volta
ge.
• S
olut
ion
of p
robl
ems
usin
g th
e N
erns
t equ
atio
n.
• C
alcu
latio
n of
the
ther
mod
ynam
ic e
ffici
ency
(ΔG
/ΔH
) of a
fuel
cel
l.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
wor
king
s of
rech
arge
able
and
fuel
cel
ls in
clud
ing
diag
ram
s an
d re
leva
nt h
alf-e
quat
ions
.
Gui
danc
e:
• A
bat
tery
sho
uld
be c
onsi
dere
d as
a p
orta
ble
elec
troch
emic
al s
ourc
e m
ade
up
of o
ne o
r mor
e vo
ltaic
(gal
vani
c) c
ells
con
nect
ed in
ser
ies.
• Th
e N
erns
t equ
atio
n is
giv
en in
the
data
boo
klet
in s
ectio
n 1.
• H
ydro
gen
and
met
hano
l sho
uld
be c
onsi
dere
d as
fuel
s fo
r fue
l cel
ls. T
he o
pera
tion
of th
e ce
lls u
nder
aci
d an
d al
kalin
e co
nditi
ons
shou
ld b
e co
nsid
ered
. Stu
dent
s sh
ould
be
fam
iliar w
ith p
roto
n-ex
chan
ge m
embr
ane
(PEM
) fue
l cel
ls.
• Th
e G
eoba
cter
spe
cies
of b
acte
ria, f
or e
xam
ple,
can
be
used
in s
ome
cells
to
oxid
ize
the
etha
noat
e io
ns (C
H3C
OO
- ) un
der a
naer
obic
con
ditio
ns.
• Th
e le
ad–a
cid
stor
age
batte
ry, t
he n
icke
l–ca
dmiu
m (N
iCad
) bat
tery
and
the
lithi
um–i
on b
atte
ry s
houl
d be
con
side
red.
• S
tude
nts
shou
ld b
e fa
mili
ar w
ith th
e an
ode
and
cath
ode
half-
equa
tions
and
us
es o
f the
diff
eren
t cel
ls.
• A
im 8
: Con
side
ratio
n of
the
adva
ntag
es a
nd d
isad
vant
ages
of t
he d
iffer
ent
ener
gy s
ourc
es s
how
s th
e ec
onom
ic a
nd e
nviro
nmen
tal i
mpl
icat
ions
of u
sing
sc
ienc
e an
d te
chno
logy
. The
env
ironm
enta
l asp
ects
of f
uel c
ells
, esp
ecia
lly
with
rega
rd to
met
hano
l, co
uld
be d
iscu
ssed
.
• A
im 8
: Dis
posa
l of p
rimar
y ba
tterie
s an
d th
e ch
emic
als
they
use
can
intro
duce
la
nd a
nd w
ater
pol
lutio
n pr
oble
ms.
App
reci
atio
n of
the
envi
ronm
enta
l im
pact
of
cadm
ium
and
lead
pol
lutio
n.
• A
im 8
: Bac
teria
l fue
l cel
ls u
se s
ubst
rate
s fo
und
in w
aste
wat
er a
s th
e fu
el a
nd
so c
an b
e us
ed to
cle
an u
p th
e en
viro
nmen
t.
Additional higher level topics
Chemistry guide152
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: L
arge
qua
ntiti
es o
f ene
rgy
can
be o
btai
ned
from
sm
all q
uant
ities
of m
atte
r.
C.7
Nuc
lear
fusi
on a
nd n
ucle
ar fi
ssio
n
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Tren
ds a
nd d
iscr
epan
cies
—ou
r und
erst
andi
ng o
f nuc
lear
pro
cess
es c
ame
from
bot
h th
eore
tical
and
exp
erim
enta
l adv
ance
s. In
term
olec
ular
forc
es in
UF 6
are
ano
mal
ous
and
do n
ot fo
llow
the
norm
al tr
ends
. (3.
1)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
Nuc
lear
fusi
on:
• Th
e m
ass
defe
ct (∆
m) i
s th
e di
ffere
nce
betw
een
the
mas
s of
the
nucl
eus
and
the
sum
of t
he m
asse
s of
its
indi
vidu
al n
ucle
ons.
• Th
e nu
clea
r bin
ding
ene
rgy
(ΔE
) is
the
ener
gy re
quire
d to
sep
arat
e a
nucl
eus
into
pro
tons
and
neu
trons
.
Nuc
lear
fiss
ion:
• Th
e en
ergy
pro
duce
d in
a fi
ssio
n re
actio
n ca
n be
cal
cula
ted
from
the
mas
s di
ffere
nce
betw
een
the
prod
ucts
and
reac
tant
s us
ing
the
Ein
stei
n m
ass–
ener
gy
equi
vale
nce
rela
tions
hip
𝐸𝐸=
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 .
• Th
e di
ffere
nt is
otop
es o
f ura
nium
in u
rani
um h
exaf
luor
ide
can
be s
epar
ated
, us
ing
diffu
sion
or c
entri
fuga
tion
caus
ing
fuel
enr
ichm
ent.
• Th
e ef
fusi
on ra
te o
f a g
as is
inve
rsel
y pr
opor
tiona
l to
the
squa
re ro
ot o
f the
m
olar
mas
s (G
raha
m’s
Law
).
• R
adio
activ
e de
cay
is k
inet
ical
ly a
firs
t ord
er p
roce
ss w
ith th
e ha
lf-lif
e re
late
d to
th
e de
cay
cons
tant
by
the
equa
tion
𝜆𝜆=
ln2 𝑡𝑡 1 2
.
• Th
e da
nger
s of
nuc
lear
ene
rgy
are
due
to th
e io
nizi
ng n
atur
e of
the
radi
atio
n it
prod
uces
whi
ch le
ads
to th
e pr
oduc
tion
of o
xyge
n fre
e ra
dica
ls s
uch
as
supe
roxi
de (O
2- ), a
nd h
ydro
xyl (
HO
· ). T
hese
free
radi
cals
can
initi
ate
chai
n re
actio
ns th
at c
an d
amag
e D
NA
and
enz
ymes
in li
ving
cel
ls.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
ere
are
only
a v
ery
smal
l num
ber o
f cou
ntrie
s th
at h
ave
deve
lope
d nu
clea
r w
eapo
ns a
nd th
e In
tern
atio
nal A
tom
ic E
nerg
y A
genc
y st
rives
to li
mit
the
spre
ad
of th
is te
chno
logy
. The
re a
re d
ispu
tes
abou
t whe
ther
som
e co
untri
es a
re
deve
lopi
ng n
ucle
ar e
nerg
y fo
r pea
cefu
l or n
on-p
eace
ful p
urpo
ses.
• N
ucle
ar in
cide
nts
have
a g
loba
l effe
ct; t
he a
ccid
ents
at T
hree
Mile
Isla
nd a
nd
Che
rnob
yl a
nd th
e pr
oble
ms
at F
ukus
him
a ca
used
by
a ts
unam
i cou
ld b
e di
scus
sed
to il
lust
rate
the
pote
ntia
l dan
gers
.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• “T
here
is n
o lik
elih
ood
that
hum
ans
will
eve
r tap
the
pow
er o
f the
ato
m.”
(Rob
ert M
illik
an, N
obel
Lau
reat
e P
hysi
cs 1
923
quot
ed in
192
8). H
ow c
an th
e im
pact
of n
ew te
chno
logi
es b
e pr
edic
ted?
How
relia
ble
are
thes
e pr
edic
tions
? H
ow im
porta
nt a
re th
e op
inio
ns o
f exp
erts
in th
e se
arch
for k
now
ledg
e?
• Th
e re
leas
e of
ene
rgy
durin
g fis
sion
reac
tions
can
be
used
in ti
mes
of p
eace
to
gene
rate
ene
rgy,
but
als
o ca
n le
ad to
des
truct
ion
in ti
me
of w
ar. S
houl
d sc
ient
ists
be
held
mor
ally
resp
onsi
ble
for t
he a
pplic
atio
ns o
f the
ir di
scov
erie
s?
Is th
ere
any
area
of s
cien
tific
kno
wle
dge
the
purs
uit o
f whi
ch is
mor
ally
un
acce
ptab
le?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
cs 4
.1 a
nd 4
.3—
stru
ctur
e an
d bo
ndin
g
Topi
c 16
.1—
first
ord
er re
actio
ns
Phy
sics
topi
c 7.
2—nu
clea
r fus
ion
G
eogr
aphy
—th
e di
ffere
nt p
olic
es a
nd a
ttitu
des
to n
ucle
ar e
nerg
y ar
e di
scus
sed
in
reso
urce
s se
ctio
ns in
the
guid
e
Additional higher level topics
Chemistry guide 153
C.7
Nuc
lear
fusi
on a
nd n
ucle
ar fi
ssio
n
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
Nuc
lear
fusi
on:
• C
alcu
latio
n of
the
mas
s de
fect
and
bin
ding
ene
rgy
of a
nuc
leus
.
• A
pplic
atio
n of
the
Ein
stei
n m
ass–
ener
gy e
quiv
alen
ce re
latio
nshi
p, 𝐸𝐸
=𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2
, to
dete
rmin
e th
e en
ergy
pro
duce
d in
a fu
sion
reac
tion.
Nuc
lear
fiss
ion:
• A
pplic
atio
n of
the
Ein
stei
n m
ass–
ener
gy e
quiv
alen
ce re
latio
nshi
p to
det
erm
ine
the
ener
gy p
rodu
ced
in a
fiss
ion
reac
tion.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
diffe
rent
pro
perti
es o
f UO
2 and
UF 6
in te
rms
of b
ondi
ng a
nd
stru
ctur
e.
• S
olut
ion
of p
robl
ems
invo
lvin
g ra
dioa
ctiv
e ha
lf-lif
e.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
Gra
ham
’s la
w o
f effu
sion
and
the
kine
tic th
eory
.
• S
olut
ion
of p
robl
ems
on th
e re
lativ
e ra
te o
f effu
sion
usi
ng G
raha
m’s
law
.
Gui
danc
e:
• S
tude
nts
are
not e
xpec
ted
to re
call
spec
ific
fissi
on re
actio
ns.
• Th
e w
orki
ngs
of a
nuc
lear
pow
er p
lant
are
not
requ
ired.
• S
afet
y an
d ris
k is
sues
incl
ude:
hea
lth, p
robl
ems
asso
ciat
ed w
ith n
ucle
ar w
aste
, an
d th
e po
ssib
ility
that
nuc
lear
fuel
s m
ay b
e us
ed in
nuc
lear
wea
pons
.
• G
raha
m’s
law
of e
ffusi
on is
giv
en in
the
data
boo
klet
in s
ectio
n 1.
• D
ecay
rela
tions
hips
are
giv
en in
the
data
boo
klet
in s
ectio
n 1.
• A
bin
ding
ene
rgy
curv
e is
giv
en in
the
data
boo
klet
in s
ectio
n 36
.
Aim
s:
• A
im 7
: Com
pute
r ani
mat
ions
and
sim
ulat
ions
of r
adio
activ
e de
cay,
and
nuc
lear
fu
sion
and
fiss
ion
reac
tions
.
• A
im 8
: Con
side
ratio
n of
the
adva
ntag
es a
nd d
isad
vant
ages
of n
ucle
ar fu
sion
ill
ustra
tes
the
econ
omic
and
env
ironm
enta
l im
plic
atio
ns o
f usi
ng s
cien
ce a
nd
tech
nolo
gy. T
he u
se o
f fus
ion
reac
tions
in th
e hy
drog
en b
omb
can
also
be
disc
usse
d.
Additional higher level topics
Chemistry guide154
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: W
hen
sola
r ene
rgy
is c
onve
rted
to e
lect
rical
ene
rgy
the
light
mus
t be
abso
rbed
and
cha
rges
mus
t be
sepa
rate
d. In
a p
hoto
volta
ic c
ell b
oth
of th
ese
proc
esse
s oc
cur i
n th
e si
licon
sem
icon
duct
or, w
here
as th
ese
proc
esse
s oc
cur i
n se
para
te lo
catio
ns in
a d
ye-s
ensi
tized
sol
ar c
ell (
DS
SC
).
C.8
Pho
tovo
ltaic
cel
ls a
nd d
ye-s
ensi
tized
sol
ar c
ells
(DSS
C)
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Tran
sdis
cipl
inar
y—a
dye-
sens
itize
d so
lar c
ell,
who
se o
pera
tion
mim
ics
phot
osyn
thes
is a
nd m
akes
use
of T
iO2 na
nopa
rticl
es, i
llust
rate
s th
e tra
nsdi
scip
linar
y na
ture
of
scie
nce
and
the
link
betw
een
chem
istry
and
bio
logy
. (4.
1)
Fund
ing—
the
leve
l of f
undi
ng a
nd th
e so
urce
of t
he fu
ndin
g is
cru
cial
in d
ecis
ions
rega
rdin
g th
e ty
pe o
f res
earc
h to
be
cond
ucte
d. T
he fi
rst p
hoto
volta
ic c
ells
wer
e pr
oduc
ed
by N
AS
A fo
r spa
ce p
robe
s an
d w
ere
only
late
r use
d on
Ear
th. (
4.7)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• M
olec
ules
with
long
er c
onju
gate
d sy
stem
s ab
sorb
ligh
t of l
onge
r wav
elen
gth.
• Th
e el
ectri
cal c
ondu
ctiv
ity o
f a s
emic
ondu
ctor
incr
ease
s w
ith a
n in
crea
se in
te
mpe
ratu
re w
here
as th
e co
nduc
tivity
of m
etal
s de
crea
ses.
• Th
e co
nduc
tivity
of s
ilico
n ca
n be
incr
ease
d by
dop
ing
to p
rodu
ce n
-type
and
p-
type
sem
icon
duct
ors.
• S
olar
ene
rgy
can
be c
onve
rted
to e
lect
ricity
in a
pho
tovo
ltaic
cel
l.
• D
SS
Cs
imita
te th
e w
ay in
whi
ch p
lant
s ha
rnes
s so
lar e
nerg
y. E
lect
rons
are
"in
ject
ed" f
rom
an
exci
ted
mol
ecul
e di
rect
ly in
to th
e Ti
O2 se
mic
ondu
ctor
.
• Th
e us
e of
nan
opar
ticle
s co
ated
with
ligh
t-abs
orbi
ng d
ye in
crea
ses
the
effe
ctiv
e su
rface
are
a an
d al
low
s m
ore
light
ove
r a w
ider
rang
e of
the
visi
ble
spec
trum
to
be a
bsor
bed.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• R
elat
ion
betw
een
the
degr
ee o
f con
juga
tion
in th
e m
olec
ular
stru
ctur
e an
d th
e w
avel
engt
h of
the
light
abs
orbe
d.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
oper
atio
n of
the
phot
ovol
taic
and
dye
-sen
sitiz
ed s
olar
cel
l.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
how
nan
opar
ticle
s in
crea
se th
e ef
ficie
ncy
of D
SS
Cs.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
e ha
rnes
sing
of s
olar
ene
rgy
coul
d ch
ange
the
econ
omic
fortu
nes
of
coun
tries
with
goo
d su
pplie
s of
sun
light
and
unu
sed
land
.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• A
con
juga
ted
syst
em h
as s
ome
sim
ilarit
ies
with
a v
iolin
stri
ng. H
ow u
sefu
l is
this
met
apho
r? W
hat a
re th
e un
derly
ing
reas
ons
for t
hese
sim
ilarit
ies?
Wha
t ro
le d
o m
odel
s an
d m
etap
hors
pla
y in
the
acqu
isiti
on o
f kno
wle
dge?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 3.
2—pa
ttern
s in
ioni
zatio
n en
ergy
To
pic
9.1—
redo
x re
actio
ns
Bio
logy
topi
c 2.
9—ph
otos
ynth
esis
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Stu
dent
s co
uld
build
an
inex
pens
ive
dye-
sens
itize
d so
lar c
ell a
nd
inve
stig
ate
thei
r pho
tovo
ltaic
pro
perti
es.
• A
im 7
: The
pro
perti
es o
f DSS
Cs
can
be b
est i
nves
tigat
ed u
sing
dat
a lo
gger
s.
Additional higher level topics
Chemistry guide 155
C.8
Pho
tovo
ltaic
cel
ls a
nd d
ye-s
ensi
tized
sol
ar c
ells
(DSS
C)
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
adva
ntag
es o
f the
DSS
C c
ompa
red
to th
e si
licon
-bas
ed
phot
ovol
taic
cel
l.
Gui
danc
e:
• Th
e re
lativ
e co
nduc
tivity
of m
etal
s an
d se
mic
ondu
ctor
s sh
ould
be
rela
ted
to
ioni
zatio
n en
ergi
es.
• O
nly
a si
mpl
e tre
atm
ent o
f the
ope
ratio
n of
the
cells
is n
eede
d. In
p-ty
pe
sem
icon
duct
ors,
ele
ctro
n ho
les
in th
e cr
ysta
l are
cre
ated
by
intro
duci
ng a
sm
all
perc
enta
ge o
f a g
roup
3 e
lem
ent.
In n
-type
sem
icon
duct
ors
incl
usio
n of
a
grou
p 5
elem
ent p
rovi
des
extra
ele
ctro
ns.
• In
a p
hoto
volta
ic c
ell t
he li
ght i
s ab
sorb
ed a
nd th
e ch
arge
s se
para
ted
in th
e si
licon
sem
icon
duct
or. T
he p
roce
sses
of a
bsor
ptio
n an
d ch
arge
sep
arat
ion
are
sepa
rate
d in
a d
ye-s
ensi
tized
sol
ar c
ell.
• S
peci
fic re
dox
and
elec
trode
reac
tions
in th
e ne
wer
Grä
tzel
DS
SC
sho
uld
be
cove
red.
An
exam
ple
is th
e re
duct
ion
of I 2
/I 3─ io
ns to
I─.
Core topics
Chemistry guide156
Core
topi
cs
Opt
ion
D: M
edic
inal
che
mis
try
15 /2
5 ho
urs
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: M
edic
ines
and
dru
gs h
ave
a va
riety
of d
iffer
ent e
ffect
s on
the
func
tioni
ng o
f the
bod
y.
D.1
Pha
rmac
eutic
al p
rodu
cts
and
drug
act
ion
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Ris
ks a
nd b
enef
its—
med
icin
es a
nd d
rugs
go
thro
ugh
a va
riety
of t
ests
to d
eter
min
e th
eir e
ffect
iven
ess
and
safe
ty b
efor
e th
ey a
re m
ade
com
mer
cial
ly a
vaila
ble.
P
harm
aceu
tical
pro
duct
s ar
e cl
assi
fied
for t
heir
use
and
abus
e po
tent
ial.
(4.8
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• In
ani
mal
stu
dies
, the
ther
apeu
tic in
dex
is th
e le
thal
dos
e of
a d
rug
for 5
0% o
f th
e po
pula
tion
(LD
50) d
ivid
ed b
y th
e m
inim
um e
ffect
ive
dose
for 5
0% o
f the
po
pula
tion
(ED
50).
• In
hum
ans,
the
ther
apeu
tic in
dex
is th
e to
xic
dose
of a
dru
g fo
r 50%
of t
he
popu
latio
n (T
D50
) div
ided
by
the
min
imum
effe
ctiv
e do
se fo
r 50%
of t
he
popu
latio
n (E
D50
).
• Th
e th
erap
eutic
win
dow
is th
e ra
nge
of d
osag
es b
etw
een
the
min
imum
am
ount
s of
the
drug
that
pro
duce
the
desi
red
effe
ct a
nd a
med
ical
ly
unac
cept
able
adv
erse
effe
ct.
• D
osag
e, to
lera
nce,
add
ictio
n an
d si
de e
ffect
s ar
e co
nsid
erat
ions
of d
rug
adm
inis
tratio
n.
• B
ioav
aila
bilit
y is
the
fract
ion
of th
e ad
min
iste
red
dosa
ge th
at re
ache
s th
e ta
rget
pa
rt of
the
hum
an b
ody.
• Th
e m
ain
step
s in
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f syn
thet
ic d
rugs
incl
ude
iden
tifyi
ng th
e ne
ed a
nd s
truct
ure,
syn
thes
is, y
ield
and
ext
ract
ion.
• D
rug–
rece
ptor
inte
ract
ions
are
bas
ed o
n th
e st
ruct
ure
of th
e dr
ug a
nd th
e si
te
of a
ctiv
ity.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• In
som
e co
untri
es c
erta
in d
rugs
are
onl
y av
aila
ble
with
pre
scrip
tion
whi
le in
ot
her c
ount
ries
thes
e sa
me
drug
s ar
e av
aila
ble
over
the
coun
ter.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• Th
e sa
me
drug
can
be
iden
tifie
d by
diff
eren
t nam
es. A
re n
ames
sim
ply
labe
ls
or d
o th
ey in
fluen
ce o
ur o
ther
way
s of
kno
win
g?
• D
rugs
tria
ls u
se d
oubl
e bl
ind
test
s. W
hen
is it
eth
ical
ly a
ccep
tabl
e to
dec
eive
pe
ople
?
• A
ll dr
ugs
carry
risk
s as
wel
l as
bene
fits.
Who
sho
uld
ultim
atel
y be
resp
onsi
ble
for a
sses
sing
thes
e? P
ublic
bod
ies
can
prot
ect t
he in
divi
dual
but
als
o lim
it th
eir
freed
om. H
ow d
o w
e kn
ow w
hat i
s be
st fo
r soc
iety
and
the
indi
vidu
al?
Aim
s:
• A
im 9
: The
re h
ave
been
adv
ance
s in
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f pha
rmac
eutic
als,
but
th
ere
are
man
y lim
itatio
ns to
thei
r im
pact
and
reac
h.
• A
im 1
0: T
he d
evel
opm
ent o
f new
med
icin
es is
ofte
n do
ne in
col
labo
ratio
n w
ith
biol
ogis
ts a
nd p
hysi
cist
s.
Core topics
Chemistry guide 157
D.1
Pha
rmac
eutic
al p
rodu
cts
and
drug
act
ion
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
exp
erim
enta
l fou
ndat
ions
for t
hera
peut
ic in
dex
and
ther
apeu
tic
win
dow
thro
ugh
both
ani
mal
and
hum
an s
tudi
es.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
dru
g ad
min
istra
tion
met
hods
.
• C
ompa
rison
of h
ow fu
nctio
nal g
roup
s, p
olar
ity a
nd m
edic
inal
adm
inis
tratio
n ca
n af
fect
bio
avai
labi
lity.
Gui
danc
e:
• Fo
r eth
ical
and
eco
nom
ic re
ason
s, a
nim
al a
nd h
uman
test
s of
dru
gs (f
or
LD50
/ED
50 a
nd T
D50
/ED
50 re
spec
tivel
y) s
houl
d be
kep
t to
a m
inim
um.
Core topics
Chemistry guide158
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: N
atur
al p
rodu
cts
with
use
ful m
edic
inal
pro
perti
es c
an b
e ch
emic
ally
alte
red
to p
rodu
ce m
ore
pote
nt o
r saf
er m
edic
ines
.
D.2
Asp
irin
and
peni
cilli
n
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Ser
endi
pity
and
sci
entif
ic d
isco
very
—th
e di
scov
ery
of p
enic
illin
by
Sir
Alex
ande
r Fle
min
g. (1
.4)
Mak
ing
obse
rvat
ions
and
repl
icat
ion
of d
ata—
man
y dr
ugs
need
to b
e is
olat
ed, i
dent
ified
and
mod
ified
from
nat
ural
sou
rces
. For
exa
mpl
e, s
alic
ylic
aci
d fro
m b
ark
of w
illow
tre
e fo
r rel
ief o
f pai
n an
d fe
ver.
(1.8
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
Asp
irin:
• M
ild a
nalg
esic
s fu
nctio
n by
inte
rcep
ting
the
pain
stim
ulus
at t
he s
ourc
e, o
ften
by in
terfe
ring
with
the
prod
uctio
n of
sub
stan
ces
that
cau
se p
ain,
sw
ellin
g or
fe
ver.
• A
spiri
n is
pre
pare
d fro
m s
alic
ylic
aci
d.
• A
spiri
n ca
n be
use
d as
an
antic
oagu
lant
, in
prev
entio
n of
the
recu
rrenc
e of
he
art a
ttack
s an
d st
roke
s an
d as
a p
roph
ylac
tic.
Pen
icilli
n:
• P
enic
illins
are
ant
ibio
tics
prod
uced
by
fung
i.
• A
bet
a-la
ctam
ring
is a
par
t of t
he c
ore
stru
ctur
e of
pen
icilli
ns.
• S
ome
antib
iotic
s w
ork
by p
reve
ntin
g cr
oss-
linki
ng o
f the
bac
teria
l cel
l wal
ls.
• M
odify
ing
the
side
-cha
in re
sults
in p
enic
illins
that
are
mor
e re
sist
ant t
o th
e pe
nici
llina
se e
nzym
e.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• A
spiri
n is
use
d in
man
y di
ffere
nt w
ays
acro
ss th
e gl
obe.
• Th
e fir
st a
ntib
acte
rial c
hang
ed th
e w
ay th
at d
isea
se w
as tr
eate
d ac
ross
the
glob
e.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• D
iffer
ent p
aink
iller
s ac
t in
diffe
rent
way
s. H
ow d
o w
e pe
rcei
ve p
ain,
and
how
ar
e ou
r per
cept
ions
influ
ence
d by
the
othe
r way
s of
kno
win
g?
• “C
hanc
e fa
vour
s on
ly th
e pr
epar
ed m
ind.
” (Lo
uis
Pas
teur
). Fl
emin
g’s
disc
over
y of
pen
icill
in is
ofte
n de
scrib
ed a
s se
rend
ipito
us b
ut th
e si
gnifi
canc
e of
his
ob
serv
atio
ns w
ould
hav
e be
en m
isse
d by
non
-exp
erts
. Wha
t inf
luen
ce d
oes
an
open
-min
ded
attit
ude
have
on
our p
erce
ptio
ns?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 1.
3—yi
eld
of re
actio
n To
pic
10.2
—fu
nctio
nal g
roup
s B
iolo
gy to
pic
6.3—
defe
nce
agai
nst i
nfec
tious
dis
ease
Core topics
Chemistry guide 159
D.2
Asp
irin
and
peni
cilli
n
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
Asp
irin
• D
escr
iptio
n of
the
use
of s
alic
ylic
aci
d an
d its
der
ivat
ives
as
mild
ana
lges
ics.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
synt
hesi
s of
asp
irin
from
sal
icyl
ic a
cid,
incl
udin
g yi
eld,
pur
ity
by re
crys
talli
zatio
n an
d ch
arac
teriz
atio
n us
ing
IR a
nd m
eltin
g po
int.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
syne
rgis
tic e
ffect
s of
asp
irin
with
alc
ohol
.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
how
the
aspi
rin c
an b
e ch
emic
ally
mod
ified
into
a s
alt t
o in
crea
se
its a
queo
us s
olub
ility
and
how
this
faci
litat
es it
s bi
oava
ilabi
lity.
Pen
icilli
n
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
effe
cts
of c
hem
ical
ly m
odify
ing
the
side
-cha
in o
f pen
icill
ins.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
impo
rtanc
e of
pat
ient
com
plia
nce
and
the
effe
cts
of th
e ov
er-
pres
crip
tion
of p
enic
illin
.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
impo
rtanc
e of
the
beta
-lact
am ri
ng o
n th
e ac
tion
of p
enic
illin
.
Gui
danc
e:
• S
tude
nts
shou
ld b
e aw
are
of th
e ab
ility
of a
cidi
c (c
arbo
xylic
) and
bas
ic (a
min
o)
grou
ps to
form
ioni
c sa
lts, f
or e
xam
ple
solu
ble
aspi
rin.
• S
truct
ures
of a
spiri
n an
d pe
nici
llin
are
avai
labl
e in
the
data
boo
klet
in s
ectio
n 37
.
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e th
e sy
nthe
sis
of a
spiri
n.
• A
im 8
: Dis
cuss
the
use/
over
use
of a
ntib
iotic
s fo
r ani
mal
s.
Core topics
Chemistry guide160
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: P
oten
t med
ical
dru
gs p
repa
red
by c
hem
ical
mod
ifica
tion
of n
atur
al p
rodu
cts
can
be a
ddic
tive
and
beco
me
subs
tanc
es o
f abu
se.
D.3
Opi
ates
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Dat
a an
d its
sub
sequ
ent r
elat
ions
hips
—op
ium
and
its
man
y de
rivat
ives
hav
e be
en u
sed
as a
pai
nkill
er in
a v
arie
ty o
f for
ms
for t
hous
ands
of y
ears
. One
of t
hese
der
ivat
ives
is
dia
mor
phin
e. (3
.1)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• Th
e ab
ility
of a
dru
g to
cro
ss th
e bl
ood–
brai
n ba
rrier
dep
ends
on
its c
hem
ical
st
ruct
ure
and
solu
bilit
y in
wat
er a
nd li
pids
.
• O
piat
es a
re n
atur
al n
arco
tic a
nalg
esic
s th
at a
re d
eriv
ed fr
om th
e op
ium
pop
py.
• M
orph
ine
and
code
ine
are
used
as
stro
ng a
nalg
esic
s. S
trong
ana
lges
ics
wor
k by
tem
pora
rily
bond
ing
to re
cept
or s
ites
in th
e br
ain,
pre
vent
ing
the
trans
mis
sion
of p
ain
impu
lses
with
out d
epre
ssin
g th
e ce
ntra
l ner
vous
sys
tem
.
• M
edic
al u
se a
nd a
ddic
tive
prop
ertie
s of
opi
ate
com
poun
ds a
re re
late
d to
the
pres
ence
of o
pioi
d re
cept
ors
in th
e br
ain.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
synt
hesi
s of
cod
eine
and
dia
mor
phin
e fro
m m
orph
ine.
• D
escr
iptio
n an
d ex
plan
atio
n of
the
use
of s
trong
ana
lges
ics.
• C
ompa
rison
of t
he s
truct
ures
of m
orph
ine,
cod
eine
and
dia
mor
phin
e (h
eroi
n).
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
adva
ntag
es a
nd d
isad
vant
ages
of u
sing
mor
phin
e an
d its
de
rivat
ives
as
stro
ng a
nalg
esic
s.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
sid
e ef
fect
s an
d ad
dict
ion
to o
piat
e co
mpo
unds
.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
incr
ease
d po
tenc
y of
dia
mor
phin
e co
mpa
red
to m
orph
ine
base
d on
thei
r che
mic
al s
truct
ure
and
solu
bilit
y.
Gui
danc
e:
• S
truct
ures
of m
orph
ine,
cod
eine
and
dia
mor
phin
e ca
n be
foun
d in
the
data
bo
okle
t in
sect
ion
37.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• M
any
illeg
al d
rugs
are
cul
tivat
ed o
r pro
duce
d in
a s
mal
l num
ber o
f cou
ntrie
s an
d th
en s
old
and
dist
ribut
ed g
loba
lly. C
ultu
ral a
nd e
cono
mic
vie
wpo
ints
diff
er
on th
e pr
oduc
tion
and
sale
of o
piat
es a
roun
d th
e w
orld
.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• C
ultu
res
ofte
n cl
ash
over
diff
eren
t per
spec
tives
and
idea
s. Is
ther
e an
y kn
owle
dge
whi
ch is
inde
pend
ent o
f cul
ture
?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 10
.2—
func
tiona
l gro
ups
Aim
s:
• A
im 7
: Use
com
pute
r ani
mat
ions
for t
he in
vest
igat
ion
of 3
-D v
isua
lizat
ions
of
drug
s an
d re
cept
or s
ites.
Core topics
Chemistry guide 161
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: E
xces
s st
omac
h ac
id is
a c
omm
on p
robl
em th
at c
an b
e al
levi
ated
by
com
poun
ds th
at in
crea
se th
e st
omac
h pH
by
neut
raliz
ing
or re
duci
ng it
s se
cret
ion.
D.4
pH
regu
latio
n of
the
stom
ach
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Col
lect
ing
data
thro
ugh
sam
plin
g an
d tri
allin
g—on
e of
the
sym
ptom
s of
dys
peps
ia is
the
over
prod
uctio
n of
sto
mac
h ac
id. M
edic
al tr
eatm
ent o
f thi
s co
nditi
on o
ften
incl
udes
th
e pr
escr
iptio
n of
ant
acid
s to
inst
antly
neu
traliz
e th
e ac
id, o
r H2-
rece
ptor
ant
agon
ists
or p
roto
n pu
mp
inhi
bito
rs w
hich
pre
vent
the
prod
uctio
n of
sto
mac
h ac
id. (
2.8)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• N
on-s
peci
fic re
actio
ns, s
uch
as th
e us
e of
ant
acid
s, a
re th
ose
that
wor
k to
re
duce
the
exce
ss s
tom
ach
acid
.
• A
ctiv
e m
etab
olite
s ar
e th
e ac
tive
form
s of
a d
rug
afte
r it h
as b
een
proc
esse
d by
th
e bo
dy.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• E
xpla
natio
n of
how
exc
ess
acid
ity in
the
stom
ach
can
be re
duce
d by
the
use
of
diffe
rent
bas
es.
• C
onst
ruct
ion
and
bala
ncin
g of
equ
atio
ns fo
r neu
traliz
atio
n re
actio
ns a
nd th
e st
oich
iom
etric
app
licat
ion
of th
ese
equa
tions
.
• S
olvi
ng b
uffe
r pro
blem
s us
ing
the
Hen
ders
on–H
asse
lbal
ch e
quat
ion.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
how
com
poun
ds s
uch
as ra
nitid
ine
(Zan
tac)
can
be
used
to
inhi
bit s
tom
ach
acid
pro
duct
ion.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
how
com
poun
ds li
ke o
mep
razo
le (P
rilos
ec) a
nd e
som
epra
zole
(N
exiu
m) c
an b
e us
ed to
sup
pres
s ac
id s
ecre
tion
in th
e st
omac
h.
Gui
danc
e:
• A
ntac
id c
ompo
unds
sho
uld
incl
ude
calc
ium
hyd
roxi
de, m
agne
sium
hyd
roxi
de,
alum
iniu
m h
ydro
xide
, sod
ium
car
bona
te a
nd s
odiu
m b
icar
bona
te.
• S
truct
ures
for r
aniti
dine
and
om
epra
zole
can
be
foun
d in
the
data
boo
klet
in
sect
ion
37.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• D
iffer
ent c
ultu
res
(ie d
iet,
lifes
tyle
, etc
) and
gen
etic
s ca
n af
fect
the
need
for p
H
regu
latio
n of
the
stom
ach.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• S
omet
imes
we
utili
ze d
iffer
ent a
ppro
ache
s to
sol
ve th
e sa
me
prob
lem
. How
do
we
deci
de b
etw
een
com
petin
g ev
iden
ce a
nd a
ppro
ache
s?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 1.
3—ca
lcul
atio
ns in
volv
ing
solu
tions
To
pics
8.2
and
8.4
—ne
utra
lizat
ion
Topi
c 10
.2—
func
tiona
l gro
ups
Topi
c 20
.3—
enan
tiom
ers
Opt
ion
B.7
—am
ino
acid
buf
fers
B
iolo
gy o
ptio
n D
.1—
dige
stio
n
Aim
s:
• A
im 6
: Exp
erim
ents
cou
ld in
clud
e tit
ratio
ns to
test
the
effe
ctiv
enes
s of
var
ious
an
taci
ds.
Core topics
Chemistry guide162
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: A
ntiv
iral m
edic
atio
ns h
ave
rece
ntly
bee
n de
velo
ped
for s
ome
vira
l inf
ectio
ns w
hile
oth
ers
are
still
bei
ng re
sear
ched
.
D.5
Ant
ivira
l med
icat
ions
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Sci
entif
ic c
olla
bora
tion—
rece
nt re
sear
ch in
the
scie
ntifi
c co
mm
unity
has
impr
oved
our
und
erst
andi
ng o
f how
viru
ses
inva
de o
ur s
yste
ms.
(4.1
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• V
iruse
s la
ck a
cel
l stru
ctur
e an
d so
are
mor
e di
fficu
lt to
targ
et w
ith d
rugs
than
ba
cter
ia.
• A
ntiv
iral d
rugs
may
wor
k by
alte
ring
the
cell’
s ge
netic
mat
eria
l so
that
the
viru
s ca
nnot
use
it to
mul
tiply
. Alte
rnat
ivel
y, th
ey m
ay p
reve
nt th
e vi
ruse
s fro
m
mul
tiply
ing
by b
lock
ing
enzy
me
activ
ity w
ithin
the
host
cel
l.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
diffe
rent
way
s in
whi
ch a
ntiv
iral m
edic
atio
ns w
ork.
• D
escr
iptio
n of
how
viru
ses
diffe
r fro
m b
acte
ria.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
how
ose
ltam
ivir
(Tam
iflu)
and
zan
amiv
ir (R
elen
za) w
ork
as a
pr
even
tativ
e ag
ent a
gain
st fl
u vi
ruse
s.
• C
ompa
rison
of t
he s
truct
ures
of o
selta
miv
ir an
d za
nam
ivir.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
diffi
culti
es a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith s
olvi
ng th
e AI
DS
pro
blem
.
Gui
danc
e:
• S
truct
ures
for o
selta
miv
ir an
d za
nam
ivir
can
be fo
und
in th
e da
ta b
ookl
et in
se
ctio
n 37
.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• H
ow h
as th
e A
IDS
epi
dem
ic c
hang
ed s
ince
its
disc
over
y in
the
early
198
0s?
Wha
t is
need
ed to
sto
p th
e sp
read
of t
he d
isea
se?
Wha
t is
the
glob
al im
pact
of
this
dis
ease
?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Opt
ions
B.2
and
B.7
—pr
otei
ns a
nd e
nzym
es
Bio
logy
topi
c 11
.1—
vacc
inat
ion
Aim
s:
• A
im 8
: The
con
trol a
nd tr
eatm
ent o
f HIV
is e
xace
rbat
ed b
y th
e hi
gh p
rice
of
anti-
retro
vira
l age
nts
and
soci
ocul
tura
l iss
ues.
Core topics
Chemistry guide 163
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: T
he s
ynth
esis
, iso
latio
n, a
nd a
dmin
istra
tion
of m
edic
atio
ns c
an h
ave
an e
ffect
on
the
envi
ronm
ent.
D.6
Env
ironm
enta
l im
pact
of s
ome
med
icat
ions
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Eth
ical
impl
icat
ions
and
risk
s an
d pr
oble
ms—
the
scie
ntifi
c co
mm
unity
mus
t con
side
r bot
h th
e si
de e
ffect
s of
med
icat
ions
on
the
patie
nt a
nd th
e si
de e
ffect
s of
the
deve
lopm
ent,
prod
uctio
n an
d us
e of
med
icat
ions
on
the
envi
ronm
ent (
ie d
ispo
sal o
f nuc
lear
was
te, s
olve
nts
and
antib
iotic
was
te).
( 4.8
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• H
igh-
leve
l was
te (H
LW) i
s w
aste
that
giv
es o
ff la
rge
amou
nts
of io
nizi
ng
radi
atio
n fo
r a lo
ng ti
me.
• Lo
w-le
vel w
aste
(LLW
) is
was
te th
at g
ives
off
smal
l am
ount
s of
ioni
zing
ra
diat
ion
for a
sho
rt tim
e.
• An
tibio
tic re
sista
nce
occu
rs w
hen
micr
o-or
gani
sms
beco
me
resis
tant
to a
ntib
acte
rials.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
escr
ibe
the
envi
ronm
enta
l im
pact
of m
edic
al n
ucle
ar w
aste
dis
posa
l.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
env
ironm
enta
l iss
ues
rela
ted
to le
ft-ov
er s
olve
nts.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
dang
ers
of a
ntib
iotic
was
te, f
rom
impr
oper
dru
g di
spos
al a
nd
anim
al w
aste
, and
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f ant
ibio
tic re
sist
ance
.
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
the
basi
cs o
f gre
en c
hem
istry
(sus
tain
able
che
mis
try) p
roce
sses
.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
how
gre
en c
hem
istry
was
use
d to
dev
elop
the
prec
urso
r for
Ta
mifl
u (o
selta
miv
ir).
Gui
danc
e:
• Th
e st
ruct
ure
of o
selta
miv
ir is
pro
vide
d in
the
data
boo
klet
in s
ectio
n 37
.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• C
onsi
der h
ow p
harm
aceu
tical
com
pani
es d
eter
min
e ho
w to
spe
nd re
sear
ch
fund
s to
dev
elop
new
med
icat
ions
.
• D
o ph
arm
aceu
tical
com
pani
es h
ave
a re
spon
sibi
lity
to d
o re
sear
ch o
n ra
re
dise
ases
that
will
not
pro
vide
them
with
sig
nific
ant f
inan
cial
pro
fit?
• P
rodu
ctio
n of
a d
rug
typi
cally
invo
lves
a n
umbe
r of d
iffer
ent o
rgan
ic re
actio
ns.
Wha
t are
the
ethi
cs g
over
ning
the
desi
gn (s
ynth
esis
) of d
rugs
? D
o st
anda
rds
and
prac
tices
var
y by
cou
ntry
and
regi
on?
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• H
ow d
o w
e ba
lanc
e et
hica
l con
cern
s th
at a
ppea
r to
be a
t odd
s w
ith e
ach
othe
r w
hen
tryin
g to
form
ulat
e a
solu
tion
to th
e pr
oble
m?
Aim
s:
• A
im 8
: How
do
we
safe
ly d
ispo
se o
f med
icin
al n
ucle
ar w
aste
?
• A
im 8
: The
Pac
ific
yew
tree
whi
ch is
the
sour
ce o
f the
che
mot
hera
py d
rug
Taxo
l is
faci
ng e
xtin
ctio
n.
• A
im 8
: Sol
vent
dis
posa
l is
a gr
owin
g en
viro
nmen
tal p
robl
em.
Additional higher level topics
Chemistry guide164
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: C
hira
l aux
iliar
ies
allo
w th
e pr
oduc
tion
of in
divi
dual
ena
ntio
mer
s of
chi
ral m
olec
ules
.
D.7
Tax
ol—
a ch
iral a
uxili
ary
case
stu
dy
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Adv
ance
s in
tech
nolo
gy—
man
y of
thes
e na
tura
l sub
stan
ces
can
now
be
prod
uced
in la
bora
torie
s in
hig
h en
ough
qua
ntiti
es to
sat
isfy
the
dem
and.
(3.7
)
Ris
ks a
nd p
robl
ems—
the
dem
and
for c
erta
in d
rugs
has
exc
eede
d th
e su
pply
of n
atur
al s
ubst
ance
s ne
eded
to s
ynth
esiz
e th
ese
drug
s. (4
.8)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• Ta
xol i
s a
drug
that
is c
omm
only
use
d to
trea
t sev
eral
diff
eren
t for
ms
of c
ance
r.
• Ta
xol n
atur
ally
occ
urs
in y
ew tr
ees
but i
s no
w c
omm
only
syn
thet
ical
ly
prod
uced
.
• A
chi
ral a
uxili
ary
is a
n op
tical
ly a
ctiv
e su
bsta
nce
that
is te
mpo
raril
y in
corp
orat
ed in
to a
n or
gani
c sy
nthe
sis
so th
at it
can
be
carri
ed o
ut
asym
met
rical
ly w
ith th
e se
lect
ive
form
atio
n of
a s
ingl
e en
antio
mer
.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• E
xpla
natio
n of
how
taxo
l (pa
clita
xel)
is o
btai
ned
and
used
as
a ch
emot
hera
peut
ic a
gent
.
• D
escr
iptio
n of
the
use
of c
hira
l aux
iliar
ies
to fo
rm th
e de
sire
d en
antio
mer
.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
the
use
of a
pol
arim
eter
to id
entif
y en
antio
mer
s.
Gui
danc
e:
• Th
e st
ruct
ure
of ta
xol i
s pr
ovid
ed in
the
data
boo
klet
in s
ectio
n 37
.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
ere
is a
n un
equa
l ava
ilabi
lity
and
dist
ribut
ion
of c
erta
in d
rugs
and
med
icin
es
arou
nd th
e gl
obe.
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 20
.2—
synt
hetic
rout
es
Topi
c 20
.3—
ster
eois
omer
ism
Aim
s:
• A
im 8
: Con
side
r the
eth
ical
impl
icat
ions
of u
sing
syn
thet
ic d
rugs
inst
ead
of
natu
ral s
ourc
es.
Addi
tiona
l hig
her l
evel
topi
cs
Opt
ion
D: M
edic
inal
che
mis
try
15 /2
5 ho
urs
Additional higher level topics
Chemistry guide 165
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: N
ucle
ar ra
diat
ion,
whi
lst d
ange
rous
ow
ing
to it
s ab
ility
to d
amag
e ce
lls a
nd c
ause
mut
atio
ns, c
an a
lso
be u
sed
to b
oth
diag
nose
and
cur
e di
seas
es.
D.8
Nuc
lear
med
icin
e
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Ris
ks a
nd b
enef
its—
it is
impo
rtant
to tr
y an
d ba
lanc
e th
e ris
k of
exp
osur
e to
radi
atio
n w
ith th
e be
nefit
of t
he te
chni
que
bein
g co
nsid
ered
. (4.
8)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• A
lpha
, bet
a, g
amm
a, p
roto
n, n
eutro
n an
d po
sitro
n em
issi
ons
are
all u
sed
for
med
ical
trea
tmen
t.
• M
agne
tic re
sona
nce
imag
ing
(MR
I) is
an
appl
icat
ion
of N
MR
tech
nolo
gy.
• R
adio
ther
apy
can
be in
tern
al a
nd/o
r ext
erna
l.
• Ta
rget
ed A
lpha
The
rapy
(TA
T) a
nd B
oron
Neu
tron
Cap
ture
The
rapy
(BN
CT)
ar
e tw
o m
etho
ds w
hich
are
use
d in
can
cer t
reat
men
t.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• D
iscu
ssio
n of
com
mon
sid
e ef
fect
s fro
m ra
diot
hera
py.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
why
tech
netiu
m-9
9m is
the
mos
t com
mon
radi
oiso
tope
use
d in
nu
clea
r med
icin
e ba
sed
on it
s ha
lf-lif
e, e
mis
sion
type
and
che
mis
try.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
why
lute
tium
-177
and
yttr
ium
-90
are
com
mon
isot
opes
use
d fo
r ra
diot
hera
py b
ased
on
the
type
of r
adia
tion
emitt
ed.
• B
alan
cing
nuc
lear
equ
atio
ns in
volv
ing
alph
a an
d be
ta p
artic
les.
• C
alcu
latio
n of
the
perc
enta
ge a
nd a
mou
nt o
f rad
ioac
tive
mat
eria
l dec
ayed
and
re
mai
ning
afte
r a c
erta
in p
erio
d of
tim
e us
ing
the
nucl
ear h
alf-l
ife e
quat
ion.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
TA
T an
d ho
w it
mig
ht b
e us
ed to
trea
t dis
ease
s th
at h
ave
spre
ad
thro
ugho
ut th
e bo
dy.
Gui
danc
e:
• C
omm
on s
ide
effe
cts
disc
usse
d sh
ould
inclu
de h
air l
oss,
nau
sea,
fatig
ue a
nd s
teril
ity.
Disc
ussio
n sh
ould
inclu
de th
e da
mag
e to
DN
A an
d gr
owin
g or
rege
nera
ting
tissu
e.
• Is
otop
es u
sed
in n
ucle
ar m
edici
ne in
cludi
ng; T
c-99
m, L
u-17
7, Y
-90,
I-13
1 an
d Pb
-212
.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
e us
e of
nuc
lear
tech
nolo
gy in
med
ical
trea
tmen
ts is
not
con
sist
ent a
cros
s th
e gl
obe.
Cul
ture
, cos
t, av
aila
bilit
y an
d be
liefs
are
som
e fa
ctor
s th
at c
an
influ
ence
its
use.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• Th
ere
is o
ften
no re
fere
nce
to th
e te
rm “n
ucle
ar” i
n M
RI.
Are
nam
es s
impl
y la
bels
or d
o th
ey in
fluen
ce o
ur o
ther
way
s of
kno
win
g? H
ow d
oes
publ
ic
perc
eptio
n in
fluen
ce s
cien
tific
pro
gres
s an
d im
plem
enta
tion?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
cs 1
1.3
and
21.1
—N
MR
O
ptio
ns C
.3 a
nd C
.7—
nucl
ear r
eact
ions
and
hal
f-life
P
hysi
cs o
ptio
n C
.4—
med
ical
imag
ing.
Additional higher level topics
Chemistry guide166
Esse
ntia
l ide
a: A
var
iety
of a
naly
tical
tech
niqu
es is
use
d fo
r det
ectio
n, id
entif
icat
ion,
isol
atio
n an
d an
alys
is o
f med
icin
es a
nd d
rugs
.
D.9
Dru
g de
tect
ion
and
anal
ysis
Nat
ure
of s
cien
ce:
Adv
ance
s in
inst
rum
enta
tion—
adva
nces
in te
chno
logy
(IR
, MS
and
NM
R) h
ave
assi
sted
in d
rug
dete
ctio
n, is
olat
ion
and
purif
icat
ion.
(3.7
)
Und
erst
andi
ngs:
• O
rgan
ic s
truct
ures
can
be
anal
ysed
and
iden
tifie
d th
roug
h th
e us
e of
infra
red
spec
trosc
opy,
mas
s sp
ectro
scop
y an
d pr
oton
NM
R.
• Th
e pr
esen
ce o
f alc
ohol
in a
sam
ple
of b
reat
h ca
n be
det
ecte
d th
roug
h th
e us
e of
eith
er a
redo
x re
actio
n or
a fu
el c
ell t
ype
of b
reat
haly
ser.
App
licat
ions
and
ski
lls:
• In
terp
reta
tion
of a
var
iety
of a
naly
tical
spe
ctra
to d
eter
min
e an
org
anic
stru
ctur
e in
clud
ing
infra
red
spec
trosc
opy,
mas
s sp
ectro
scop
y an
d pr
oton
NM
R.
• D
escr
iptio
n of
the
proc
ess
of e
xtra
ctio
n an
d pu
rific
atio
n of
an
orga
nic
prod
uct.
Con
side
r the
use
of f
ract
iona
l dis
tilla
tion,
Rao
ult’s
law
, the
pro
perti
es o
n w
hich
ex
tract
ions
are
bas
ed a
nd e
xpla
inin
g th
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n or
gani
c st
ruct
ure
and
solu
bilit
y.
• D
escr
iptio
n of
the
proc
ess
of s
tero
id d
etec
tion
in s
port
utili
zing
chr
omat
ogra
phy
and
mas
s sp
ectro
scop
y.
• E
xpla
natio
n of
how
alc
ohol
can
be
dete
cted
with
the
use
of a
bre
atha
lyse
r.
Gui
danc
e:
• S
tude
nts
shou
ld b
e ab
le to
iden
tify
com
mon
org
anic
func
tiona
l gro
ups
in a
gi
ven
com
poun
d by
reco
gniti
on o
f com
mon
dru
g st
ruct
ures
and
from
IR
(sec
tion
26 o
f the
dat
a bo
okle
t), 1 H
NM
R (s
ectio
n 27
of t
he d
ata
book
let)
and
mas
s sp
ectra
l fra
gmen
t (se
ctio
n 28
of t
he d
ata
book
let)
data
.
• A
com
mon
ste
roid
stru
ctur
e is
pro
vide
d in
sec
tion
34 in
the
data
boo
klet
.
Inte
rnat
iona
l-min
dedn
ess:
• Th
e m
isus
e of
dru
gs in
spo
rt is
an
inte
rnat
iona
l pro
blem
.
Theo
ry o
f kno
wle
dge:
• D
evel
opm
ents
in te
chno
logy
hav
e in
crea
sed
the
chan
ces
of p
eopl
e be
ing
caug
ht u
sing
ille
gal s
ubst
ance
s. H
ow d
o ch
ange
s in
tech
nolo
gy in
fluen
ce o
ur
ethi
cal c
hoic
es?
Util
izat
ion:
Syl
labu
s an
d cr
oss-
curri
cula
r lin
ks:
Topi
c 10
.2—
func
tiona
l gro
ups
Aim
s:
• A
im 4
: A v
arie
ty o
f spe
ctro
scop
y te
chni
ques
can
be
used
to id
entif
y ne
wly
de
velo
ped
mol
ecul
es.
• A
im 7
: Com
pute
r dat
abas
es w
ith s
pect
rosc
opy
data
cou
ld b
e us
ed to
con
firm
th
e id
entit
y of
new
ly s
ynth
esiz
ed m
olec
ules
.
• A
im 8
: Dev
elop
men
ts in
tech
nolo
gy h
ave
incr
ease
d th
e ch
ance
s of
peo
ple
bein
g ca
ught
usi
ng il
lega
l sub
stan
ces.
How
do
chan
ges
in te
chno
logy
influ
ence
ou
r eth
ical
cho
ices
?
Chemistry guide 167167
Assessment
Assessment in the Diploma Programme
GeneralAssessment is an integral part of teaching and learning. The most important aims of assessment in the Diploma Programme are that it should support curricular goals and encourage appropriate student learning. Both external and internal assessments are used in the Diploma Programme. IB examiners mark work produced for external assessment, while work produced for internal assessment is marked by teachers and externally moderated by the IB.
There are two types of assessment identified by the IB.
• Formative assessment informs both teaching and learning. It is concerned with providing accurate and helpful feedback to students and teachers on the kind of learning taking place and the nature of students’ strengths and weaknesses in order to help develop students’ understanding and capabilities. Formative assessment can also help to improve teaching quality, as it can provide information to monitor progress towards meeting the course aims and objectives.
• Summative assessment gives an overview of previous learning and is concerned with measuring student achievement.
The Diploma Programme primarily focuses on summative assessment designed to record student achievement at, or towards the end of, the course of study. However, many of the assessment instruments can also be used formatively during the course of teaching and learning, and teachers are encouraged to do this. A comprehensive assessment plan is viewed as being integral with teaching, learning and course organization. For further information, see the IB Programme standards and practices (2010) document.
The approach to assessment used by the IB is criterion-related, not norm-referenced. This approach to assessment judges students’ work by their performance in relation to identified levels of attainment, and not in relation to the work of other students. For further information on assessment within the Diploma Programme please refer to the publication Diploma Programme assessment: principles and practice (2009).
To support teachers in the planning, delivery and assessment of the Diploma Programme courses, a variety of resources can be found on the OCC or purchased from the IB store (http://store.ibo.org). Additional publications such as specimen papers and markschemes, teacher support materials, subject reports and grade descriptors can also be found on the OCC. Past examination papers as well as markschemes can be purchased from the IB store.
Methods of assessmentThe IB uses several methods to assess work produced by students.
Assessment criteriaAssessment criteria are used when the assessment task is open-ended. Each criterion concentrates on a particular skill that students are expected to demonstrate. An assessment objective describes what students should be able to do, and assessment criteria describe how well they should be able to do it. Using assessment criteria allows discrimination between different answers and encourages a variety of responses.
Assessment in the Diploma Programme
Chemistry guide168
Each criterion comprises a set of hierarchically ordered level descriptors. Each level descriptor is worth one or more marks. Each criterion is applied independently using a best-fit model. The maximum marks for each criterion may differ according to the criterion’s importance. The marks awarded for each criterion are added together to give the total mark for the piece of work.
MarkbandsMarkbands are a comprehensive statement of expected performance against which responses are judged. They represent a single holistic criterion divided into level descriptors. Each level descriptor corresponds to a range of marks to differentiate student performance. A best-fit approach is used to ascertain which particular mark to use from the possible range for each level descriptor.
Analytic markschemesAnalytic markschemes are prepared for those examination questions that expect a particular kind of response and/or a given final answer from students. They give detailed instructions to examiners on how to break down the total mark for each question for different parts of the response.
Marking notesFor some assessment components marked using assessment criteria, marking notes are provided. Marking notes give guidance on how to apply assessment criteria to the particular requirements of a question.
Inclusive assessment arrangementsInclusive assessment arrangements are available for candidates with assessment access requirements. These arrangements enable candidates with diverse needs to access the examinations and demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of the constructs being assessed.
The IB document Candidates with assessment access requirements provides details on all the inclusive assessment arrangements available to candidates with learning support requirements. The IB document Learning diversity and the IB programmes: Special educational needs within the International Baccalaureate programmes outlines the position of the IB with regard to candidates with diverse learning needs in the IB programmes. For candidates affected by adverse circumstances, the IB documents General regulations: Diploma Programme (2011) and the Handbook of procedures for the Diploma Programme provide details on access consideration.
Responsibilities of the schoolThe school is required to ensure that equal access arrangements and reasonable adjustments are provided to candidates with learning support requirements that are in line with the IB documents Candidates with assessment access requirements and Learning diversity and the IB programmes: Special educational needs within the International Baccalaureate programmes.
Chemistry guide 169169
Assessment
Assessment outline—SL
First assessment 2016
Component Overall weighting (%)
Approximate weighting of objectives (%)
Duration (hours)
1+2 3
Paper 1 20 10 10 ¾
Paper 2 40 20 20 1¼
Paper 3 20 10 10 1
Internal assessment
20 Covers objectives 1, 2, 3 and 4 10
Chemistry guide170170
Assessment
Assessment outline—HL
First assessment 2016
Component Overall weighting (%)
Approximate weighting of objectives (%)
Duration (hours)
1+2 3
Paper 1 20 10 10 1
Paper 2 36 18 18 2¼
Paper 3 24 12 12 1¼
Internal assessment
20 Covers objectives 1, 2, 3 and 410
Chemistry guide 171171
Assessment
External assessment
Detailed markschemes specific to each examination paper are used to assess students.
External assessment details—SL
Paper 1Duration: 3/4 hourWeighting: 20%Marks: 30• 30 multiple-choice questions on core, about 15 of which are common with HL.
• The questions on paper 1 test assessment objectives 1, 2 and 3.
• The use of calculators is not permitted.
• Students will be provided with a periodic table.
• No marks are deducted for incorrect answers.
Paper 2Duration: 1¼ hoursWeighting: 40%Marks: 50• Short-answer and extended-response questions on core material.
• The questions on paper 2 test assessment objectives 1, 2 and 3.
• The use of calculators is permitted. (See calculator section on the OCC.)
• A chemistry data booklet is to be provided by the school.
Paper 3Duration: 1 hourWeighting: 20%Marks: 35• This paper will have questions on core and SL option material.
• Section A: one data-based question and several short-answer questions on experimental work.
• Section B: short-answer and extended-response questions from one option.
• The questions on paper 3 test assessment objectives 1, 2 and 3.
• The use of calculators is permitted. (See calculator section on the OCC.)
• A chemistry data booklet is to be provided by the school.
External assessment
Chemistry guide172
External assessment details—HL
Paper 1Duration: 1 hourWeighting: 20%Marks: 40• 40 multiple-choice questions on core and AHL, about 15 of which are common with SL.
• The questions on paper 1 test assessment objectives 1, 2 and 3.
• The use of calculators is not permitted.
• Students will be provided with a periodic table.
• No marks are deducted for incorrect answers.
Paper 2Duration: 2¼ hoursWeighting: 36%Marks: 95• Short-answer and extended-response questions on the core and AHL material.
• The questions on paper 2 test assessment objectives 1, 2 and 3.
• The use of calculators is permitted. (See calculator section on the OCC.)
• A chemistry data booklet is to be provided by the school.
Paper 3Duration: 1¼ hoursWeighting: 24%Marks: 45• This paper will have questions on core, AHL and option material.
• Section A: one data-based question and several short-answer questions on experimental work.
• Section B: short-answer and extended-response questions from one option.
• The questions on paper 3 test assessment objectives 1, 2 and 3.
• The use of calculators is permitted. (See calculator section on the OCC.)
• A chemistry data booklet is to be provided by the school.
Chemistry guide 173173
Assessment
Internal assessment
Purpose of internal assessmentInternal assessment is an integral part of the course and is compulsory for both SL and HL students. It enables students to demonstrate the application of their skills and knowledge, and to pursue their personal interests, without the time limitations and other constraints that are associated with written examinations. The internal assessment should, as far as possible, be woven into normal classroom teaching and not be a separate activity conducted after a course has been taught.
The internal assessment requirements at SL and at HL are the same. This internal assessment section of the guide should be read in conjunction with the internal assessment section of the teacher support materials.
Guidance and authenticityThe work submitted for internal assessment must be the student’s own work. However, it is not the intention that students should decide upon a title or topic and be left to work on the internal assessment component without any further support from the teacher. The teacher should play an important role during both the planning stage and the period when the student is working on the internally assessed work. It is the responsibility of the teacher to ensure that students are familiar with:
• the requirements of the type of work to be internally assessed
• the IB animal experimentation policy
• the assessment criteria—students must understand that the work submitted for assessment must address these criteria effectively.
Teachers and students must discuss the internally assessed work. Students should be encouraged to initiate discussions with the teacher to obtain advice and information, and students must not be penalized for seeking guidance. As part of the learning process, teachers should read and give advice to students on one draft of the work. The teacher should provide oral or written advice on how the work could be improved, but not edit the draft. The next version handed to the teacher must be the final version for submission.
It is the responsibility of teachers to ensure that all students understand the basic meaning and significance of concepts that relate to academic honesty, especially authenticity and intellectual property. Teachers must ensure that all student work for assessment is prepared according to the requirements and must explain clearly to students that the internally assessed work must be entirely their own. Where collaboration between students is permitted, it must be clear to all students what the difference is between collaboration and collusion.
All work submitted to the IB for moderation or assessment must be authenticated by a teacher, and must not include any known instances of suspected or confirmed academic misconduct. Each student must confirm that the work is his or her authentic work and constitutes the final version of that work. Once a student has officially submitted the final version of the work it cannot be retracted. The requirement to confirm the authenticity of work applies to the work of all students, not just the sample work that will be submitted to the IB for the purpose of moderation. For further details refer to the IB publication Academic honesty (2011), The Diploma Programme: From principles into practice (2009) and the relevant articles in General regulations: Diploma Programme (2011).
Internal assessment
Chemistry guide174
Authenticity may be checked by discussion with the student on the content of the work, and scrutiny of one or more of the following:
• the student’s initial proposal
• the first draft of the written work
• the references cited
• the style of writing compared with work known to be that of the student
• the analysis of the work by a web-based plagiarism detection service such as http://www.turnitin.com.
The same piece of work cannot be submitted to meet the requirements of both the internal assessment and the extended essay.
Group workEach investigation is an individual piece of work based on different data collected or measurements generated. Ideally, students should work on their own when collecting data. In some cases, data collected or measurements made can be from a group experiment, provided each student collected his or her own data or made his or her own measurements. In chemistry, in some cases, group data or measurements may be combined to provide enough for individual analysis. Even in this case, each student should have collected and recorded their own data and they should clearly indicate which data are theirs.
It should be made clear to students that all work connected with the investigation should be their own. It is therefore helpful if teachers try to encourage in students a sense of responsibility for their own learning so that they accept a degree of ownership and take pride in their own work.
Time allocationInternal assessment is an integral part of the chemistry course, contributing 20% to the final assessment in the SL and the HL courses. This weighting should be reflected in the time that is allocated to teaching the knowledge, skills and understanding required to undertake the work, as well as the total time allocated to carry out the work.
It is recommended that a total of approximately 10 hours of teaching time for both SL and HL should be allocated to the work. This should include:
• time for the teacher to explain to students the requirements of the internal assessment
• class time for students to work on the internal assessment component and ask questions
• time for consultation between the teacher and each student
• time to review and monitor progress, and to check authenticity.
Safety requirements and recommendationsWhile teachers are responsible for following national or local guidelines, which may differ from country to country, attention should be given to the guidelines below, which were developed for the International Council of Associations for Science Education (ICASE) Safety Committee by The Laboratory Safety Institute (LSI).
Internal assessment
Chemistry guide 175
It is a basic responsibility of everyone involved to make safety and health an ongoing commitment. Any advice given will acknowledge the need to respect the local context, the varying educational and cultural traditions, the financial constraints and the legal systems of differing countries.
The Laboratory Safety Institute’s Laboratory Safety Guidelines ...40 suggestions for a safer lab
Steps Requiring Minimal Expense1. Have a written health, safety and environmental affairs (HS&E) policy statement.
2. Organize a departmental HS&E committee of employees, management, faculty, staff and students that will meet regularly to discuss HS&E issues.
3. Develop an HS&E orientation for all new employees and students.
4. Encourage employees and students to care about their health and safety and that of others.
5. Involve every employee and student in some aspect of the safety program and give each specific responsibilities.
6. Provide incentives to employees and students for safety performance.
7. Require all employees to read the appropriate safety manual. Require students to read the institution’s laboratory safety rules. Have both groups sign a statement that they have done so, understand the contents, and agree to follow the procedures and practices. Keep these statements on file in the department office.
8. Conduct periodic, unannounced laboratory inspections to identify and correct hazardous conditions and unsafe practices. Involve students and employees in simulated OSHA inspections.
9. Make learning how to be safe an integral and important part of science education, your work, and your life.
10. Schedule regular departmental safety meetings for all students and employees to discuss the results of inspections and aspects of laboratory safety.
11. When conducting experiments with hazards or potential hazards, ask yourself these questions:
– What are the hazards?
– What are the worst possible things that could go wrong?
– How will I deal with them?
– What are the prudent practices, protective facilities and equipment necessary to minimize the risk of exposure to the hazards?
12. Require that all accidents (incidents) be reported, evaluated by the departmental safety committee, and discussed at departmental safety meetings.
13. Require every pre-lab/pre-experiment discussion to include consideration of the health and safety aspects.
14. Don’t allow experiments to run unattended unless they are failsafe.
15. Forbid working alone in any laboratory and working without prior knowledge of a staff member.
16. Extend the safety program beyond the laboratory to the automobile and the home.
17. Allow only minimum amounts of flammable liquids in each laboratory.
18. Forbid smoking, eating and drinking in the laboratory.
19. Do not allow food to be stored in chemical refrigerators.
Internal assessment
Chemistry guide176
20. Develop plans and conduct drills for dealing with emergencies such as fire, explosion, poisoning, chemical spill or vapour release, electric shock, bleeding and personal contamination.
21. Require good housekeeping practices in all work areas.
22. Display the phone numbers of the fire department, police department, and local ambulance either on or immediately next to every phone.
23. Store acids and bases separately. Store fuels and oxidizers separately.
24. Maintain a chemical inventory to avoid purchasing unnecessary quantities of chemicals.
25. Use warning signs to designate particular hazards.
26. Develop specific work practices for individual experiments, such as those that should be conducted only in a ventilated hood or involve particularly hazardous materials. When possible most hazardous experiments should be done in a hood.
Steps Requiring Moderate Expense27. Allocate a portion of the departmental budget to safety.
28. Require the use of appropriate eye protection at all times in laboratories and areas where chemicals are transported.
29. Provide adequate supplies of personal protective equipment—safety glasses, goggles, face shields, gloves, lab coats and bench top shields.
30. Provide fire extinguishers, safety showers, eye wash fountains, first aid kits, fire blankets and fume hoods in each laboratory and test or check monthly.
31. Provide guards on all vacuum pumps and secure all compressed gas cylinders.
32. Provide an appropriate supply of first aid equipment and instruction on its proper use.
33. Provide fireproof cabinets for storage of flammable chemicals.
34. Maintain a centrally located departmental safety library:
– “Safety in School Science Labs”, Clair Wood, 1994, Kaufman & Associates, 101 Oak Street, Wellesley, MA 02482
– “The Laboratory Safety Pocket Guide”, 1996, Genium Publisher, One Genium Plaza, Schnectady, NY
– “Safety in Academic Chemistry Laboratories”, ACS, 1155 Sixteenth Street NW, Washington, DC 20036
– “Manual of Safety and Health Hazards in The School Science Laboratory”, “Safety in the School Science Laboratory”, “School Science Laboratories: A guide to Some Hazardous Substances” Council of State Science Supervisors (now available only from LSI.)
– “Handbook of Laboratory Safety”, 4th Edition, CRC Press, 2000 Corporate Boulevard NW, Boca Raton, FL 33431
– “Fire Protection Guide on Hazardous Materials”, National Fire Protection Association, Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02269
– “Prudent Practices in the Laboratory: Handling and Disposal of Hazardous Chemicals”, 2nd Edition, 1995
– “Biosafety in the Laboratory”, National Academy Press, 2101 Constitution Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20418
– “Learning By Accident”, Volumes 1-3, 1997-2000, The Laboratory Safety Institute, Natick, MA 01760
(All are available from LSI.)
Internal assessment
Chemistry guide 177
35. Remove all electrical connections from inside chemical refrigerators and require magnetic closures.
36. Require grounded plugs on all electrical equipment and install ground fault interrupters (GFIs) where appropriate.
37. Label all chemicals to show the name of the material, the nature and degree of hazard, the appropriate precautions, and the name of the person responsible for the container.
38. Develop a program for dating stored chemicals and for recertifying or discarding them after predetermined maximum periods of storage.
39. Develop a system for the legal, safe and ecologically acceptable disposal of chemical wastes.
40. Provide secure, adequately spaced, well ventilated storage of chemicals.
Using assessment criteria for internal assessmentFor internal assessment, a number of assessment criteria have been identified. Each assessment criterion has level descriptors describing specific achievement levels, together with an appropriate range of marks. The level descriptors concentrate on positive achievement, although for the lower levels failure to achieve may be included in the description.
Teachers must judge the internally assessed work at SL and at HL against the criteria using the level descriptors.
• Assessment criteria are the same for both SL and HL.
• The aim is to find, for each criterion, the descriptor that conveys most accurately the level attained by the student, using the best-fit model. A best-fit approach means that compensation should be made when a piece of work matches different aspects of a criterion at different levels. The mark awarded should be one that most fairly reflects the balance of achievement against the criterion. It is not necessary for every single aspect of a level descriptor to be met for that mark to be awarded.
• When assessing a student’s work, teachers should read the level descriptors for each criterion until they reach a descriptor that most appropriately describes the level of the work being assessed. If a piece of work seems to fall between two descriptors, both descriptors should be read again and the one that more appropriately describes the student’s work should be chosen.
• Where there are two or more marks available within a level, teachers should award the upper marks if the student’s work demonstrates the qualities described to a great extent; the work may be close to achieving marks in the level above. Teachers should award the lower marks if the student’s work demonstrates the qualities described to a lesser extent; the work may be close to achieving marks in the level below.
• Only whole numbers should be recorded; partial marks (fractions and decimals) are not acceptable.
• Teachers should not think in terms of a pass or fail boundary, but should concentrate on identifying the appropriate descriptor for each assessment criterion.
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• The highest level descriptors do not imply faultless performance but should be achievable by a student. Teachers should not hesitate to use the extremes if they are appropriate descriptions of the work being assessed.
• A student who attains a high achievement level in relation to one criterion will not necessarily attain high achievement levels in relation to the other criteria. Similarly, a student who attains a low achievement level for one criterion will not necessarily attain low achievement levels for the other criteria. Teachers should not assume that the overall assessment of the students will produce any particular distribution of marks.
• It is recommended that the assessment criteria be made available to students.
Practical work and internal assessment
General introductionThe internal assessment requirements are the same for biology, chemistry and physics. The internal assessment, worth 20% of the final assessment, consists of one scientific investigation. The individual investigation should cover a topic that is commensurate with the level of the course of study.
Student work is internally assessed by the teacher and externally moderated by the IB. The performance in internal assessment at both SL and HL is marked against common assessment criteria, with a total mark out of 24.
Note: Any investigation that is to be used to assess students should be specifically designed to match the assessment criteria.
The internal assessment task will be one scientific investigation taking about 10 hours and the write-up should be about 6 to 12 pages long. Investigations exceeding this length will be penalized in the communication criterion as lacking in conciseness.
The practical investigation, with generic criteria, will allow a wide range of practical activities satisfying the varying needs of biology, chemistry and physics. The investigation addresses many of the learner profile attributes well. See section on “Approaches to the teaching of chemistry” for further links.
The task produced should be complex and commensurate with the level of the course. It should require a purposeful research question and the scientific rationale for it. The marked exemplar material in the teacher support materials will demonstrate that the assessment will be rigorous and of the same standard as the assessment in the previous courses.
Some of the possible tasks include:
• a hands-on laboratory investigation
• using a spreadsheet for analysis and modelling
• extracting data from a database and analysing it graphically
• producing a hybrid of spreadsheet/database work with a traditional hands-on investigation
• using a simulation provided it is interactive and open-ended.
Some tasks may consist of relevant and appropriate qualitative work combined with quantitative work.
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The tasks include the traditional hands-on practical investigations as in the previous course. The depth of treatment required for hands-on practical investigations is unchanged from the previous internal assessment and will be shown in detail in the teacher support materials. In addition, detailed assessment of specific aspects of hands-on practical work will be assessed in the written papers as detailed in the relevant topic(s) in the “Syllabus content” section of the guide.
The task will have the same assessment criteria for SL and HL. The five assessment criteria are personal engagement, exploration, analysis, evaluation and communication.
Internal assessment details
Internal assessment componentDuration: 10 hoursWeighting: 20%• Individual investigation
• This investigation covers assessment objectives 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Internal assessment criteriaThe new assessment model uses five criteria to assess the final report of the individual investigation with the following raw marks and weightings assigned:
Personal engagement
Exploration Analysis Evaluation Communication Total
2 (8%) 6 (25%) 6 (25%) 6 (25%) 4 (17%) 24 (100%)
Levels of performance are described using multiple indicators per level. In many cases the indicators occur together in a specific level, but not always. Also, not all indicators are always present. This means that a candidate can demonstrate performances that fit into different levels. To accommodate this, the IB assessment models use markbands and advise examiners and teachers to use a best-fit approach in deciding the appropriate mark for a particular criterion.
Teachers should read the guidance on using markbands shown above in the section called “Using assessment criteria for internal assessment” before starting to mark. It is also essential to be fully acquainted with the marking of the exemplars in the teacher support material. The precise meaning of the command terms used in the criteria can be found in the glossary of the subject guides.
Personal engagementThis criterion assesses the extent to which the student engages with the exploration and makes it their own. Personal engagement may be recognized in different attributes and skills. These could include addressing personal interests or showing evidence of independent thinking, creativity or initiative in the designing, implementation or presentation of the investigation.
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Mark Descriptor
0 The student’s report does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.
1 The evidence of personal engagement with the exploration is limited with little independent thinking, initiative or creativity.
The justification given for choosing the research question and/or the topic under investigation does not demonstrate personal significance, interest or curiosity.
There is little evidence of personal input and initiative in the designing, implementation or presentation of the investigation.
2 The evidence of personal engagement with the exploration is clear with significant independent thinking, initiative or creativity.
The justification given for choosing the research question and/or the topic under investigation demonstrates personal significance, interest or curiosity.
There is evidence of personal input and initiative in the designing, implementation or presentation of the investigation.
ExplorationThis criterion assesses the extent to which the student establishes the scientific context for the work, states a clear and focused research question and uses concepts and techniques appropriate to the Diploma Programme level. Where appropriate, this criterion also assesses awareness of safety, environmental, and ethical considerations.
Mark Descriptor
0 The student’s report does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.
1–2 The topic of the investigation is identified and a research question of some relevance is stated but it is not focused.
The background information provided for the investigation is superficial or of limited relevance and does not aid the understanding of the context of the investigation.
The methodology of the investigation is only appropriate to address the research question to a very limited extent since it takes into consideration few of the significant factors that may influence the relevance, reliability and sufficiency of the collected data.
The report shows evidence of limited awareness of the significant safety, ethical or environmental issues that are relevant to the methodology of the investigation*.
3–4 The topic of the investigation is identified and a relevant but not fully focused research question is described.
The background information provided for the investigation is mainly appropriate and relevant and aids the understanding of the context of the investigation.
The methodology of the investigation is mainly appropriate to address the research question but has limitations since it takes into consideration only some of the significant factors that may influence the relevance, reliability and sufficiency of the collected data.
The report shows evidence of some awareness of the significant safety, ethical or environmental issues that are relevant to the methodology of the investigation.*
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Mark Descriptor
5–6 The topic of the investigation is identified and a relevant and fully focused research question is clearly described.
The background information provided for the investigation is entirely appropriate and relevant and enhances the understanding of the context of the investigation.
The methodology of the investigation is highly appropriate to address the research question because it takes into consideration all, or nearly all, of the significant factors that may influence the relevance, reliability and sufficiency of the collected data.
The report shows evidence of full awareness of the significant safety, ethical or environmental issues that are relevant to the methodology of the investigation.*
* This indicator should only be applied when appropriate to the investigation. See exemplars in TSM.
AnalysisThis criterion assesses the extent to which the student’s report provides evidence that the student has selected, recorded, processed and interpreted the data in ways that are relevant to the research question and can support a conclusion.
Mark Descriptor
0 The student’s report does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.
1–2 The report includes insufficient relevant raw data to support a valid conclusion to the research question.
Some basic data processing is carried out but is either too inaccurate or too insufficient to lead to a valid conclusion.
The report shows evidence of little consideration of the impact of measurement uncertainty on the analysis.
The processed data is incorrectly or insufficiently interpreted so that the conclusion is invalid or very incomplete.
3–4 The report includes relevant but incomplete quantitative and qualitative raw data that could support a simple or partially valid conclusion to the research question.
Appropriate and sufficient data processing is carried out that could lead to a broadly valid conclusion but there are significant inaccuracies and inconsistencies in the processing.
The report shows evidence of some consideration of the impact of measurement uncertainty on the analysis.
The processed data is interpreted so that a broadly valid but incomplete or limited conclusion to the research question can be deduced.
5–6 The report includes sufficient relevant quantitative and qualitative raw data that could support a detailed and valid conclusion to the research question.
Appropriate and sufficient data processing is carried out with the accuracy required to enable a conclusion to the research question to be drawn that is fully consistent with the experimental data.
The report shows evidence of full and appropriate consideration of the impact of measurement uncertainty on the analysis.
The processed data is correctly interpreted so that a completely valid and detailed conclusion to the research question can be deduced.
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EvaluationThis criterion assesses the extent to which the student’s report provides evidence of evaluation of the investigation and the results with regard to the research question and the accepted scientific context.
Mark Descriptor
0 The student’s report does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.
1–2 A conclusion is outlined which is not relevant to the research question or is not supported by the data presented.
The conclusion makes superficial comparison to the accepted scientific context.
Strengths and weaknesses of the investigation, such as limitations of the data and sources of error, are outlined but are restricted to an account of the practical or procedural issues faced.
The student has outlined very few realistic and relevant suggestions for the improvement and extension of the investigation.
3–4 A conclusion is described which is relevant to the research question and supported by the data presented.
A conclusion is described which makes some relevant comparison to the accepted scientific context.
Strengths and weaknesses of the investigation, such as limitations of the data and sources of error, are described and provide evidence of some awareness of the methodological issues* involved in establishing the conclusion.
The student has described some realistic and relevant suggestions for the improvement and extension of the investigation.
5–6 A detailed conclusion is described and justified which is entirely relevant to the research question and fully supported by the data presented.
A conclusion is correctly described and justified through relevant comparison to the accepted scientific context.
Strengths and weaknesses of the investigation, such as limitations of the data and sources of error, are discussed and provide evidence of a clear understanding of the methodological issues* involved in establishing the conclusion.
The student has discussed realistic and relevant suggestions for the improvement and extension of the investigation.
*See exemplars in TSM for clarification.
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CommunicationThis criterion assesses whether the investigation is presented and reported in a way that supports effective communication of the focus, process and outcomes.
Mark Descriptor
0 The student’s report does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.
1–2 The presentation of the investigation is unclear, making it difficult to understand the focus, process and outcomes.
The report is not well structured and is unclear: the necessary information on focus, process and outcomes is missing or is presented in an incoherent or disorganized way.
The understanding of the focus, process and outcomes of the investigation is obscured by the presence of inappropriate or irrelevant information.
There are many errors in the use of subject specific terminology and conventions*.
3–4 The presentation of the investigation is clear. Any errors do not hamper understanding of the focus, process and outcomes.
The report is well structured and clear: the necessary information on focus, process and outcomes is present and presented in a coherent way.
The report is relevant and concise thereby facilitating a ready understanding of the focus, process and outcomes of the investigation.
The use of subject specific terminology and conventions is appropriate and correct. Any errors do not hamper understanding.
*For example, incorrect/missing labelling of graphs, tables, images; use of units, decimal places. For issues of referencing and citations refer to the “Academic honesty” section.
Rationale for practical workAlthough the requirements for IA are centred on the investigation, the different types of practical activities that a student may engage in serve other purposes, including:
• illustrating, teaching and reinforcing theoretical concepts
• developing an appreciation of the essential hands-on nature of much scientific work
• developing an appreciation of scientists’ use of secondary data from databases
• developing an appreciation of scientists’ use of modelling
• developing an appreciation of the benefits and limitations of scientific methodology.
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Practical scheme of workThe practical scheme of work (PSOW) is the practical course planned by the teacher and acts as a summary of all the investigative activities carried out by a student. Students at SL and HL in the same subject may carry out some of the same investigations.
Syllabus coverageThe range of practical work carried out should reflect the breadth and depth of the subject syllabus at each level, but it is not necessary to carry out an investigation for every syllabus topic. However, all students must participate in the group 4 project and the IA investigation.
Planning your practical scheme of workTeachers are free to formulate their own practical schemes of work by choosing practical activities according to the requirements outlined. Their choices should be based on:
• subjects, levels and options taught
• the needs of their students
• available resources
• teaching styles.
Each scheme must include some complex experiments that make greater conceptual demands on students. A scheme made up entirely of simple experiments, such as ticking boxes or exercises involving filling in tables, will not provide an adequate range of experience for students.
Teachers are encouraged to use the online curriculum centre (OCC) to share ideas about possible practical activities by joining in the discussion forums and adding resources in the subject home pages.
FlexibilityThe practical programme is flexible enough to allow a wide variety of practical activities to be carried out. These could include:
• short labs or projects extending over several weeks
• computer simulations
• using databases for secondary data
• developing and using models
• data-gathering exercises such as questionnaires, user trials and surveys
• data-analysis exercises
• fieldwork.
Practical work documentationDetails of the practical scheme of work are recorded on Form 4/PSOW provided in the Handbook of procedures. A copy of the class 4/PSOW form must be included with any sample set sent for moderation. For an SL only class or an HL only class, only one 4/PSOW is required, but for a mixed SL/HL class, separate 4/PSOW forms are required for SL and HL.
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Time allocation for practical workThe recommended teaching times for all Diploma Programme courses are 150 hours at SL and 240 hours at HL. Students at SL are required to spend 40 hours, and students at HL 60 hours, on practical activities (excluding time spent writing up work). These times include 10 hours for the group 4 project and 10 hours for the internal assessment investigation. (Only 2–3 hours of investigative work can be carried out after the deadline for submitting work to the moderator and still be counted in the total number of hours for the practical scheme of work.)
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Assessment
The group 4 project
The group 4 project is an interdisciplinary activity in which all Diploma Programme science students must participate. The intention is that students from the different group 4 subjects analyse a common topic or problem. The exercise should be a collaborative experience where the emphasis is on the processes involved in, rather than the products of, such an activity.
In most cases students in a school would be involved in the investigation of the same topic. Where there are large numbers of students, it is possible to divide them into several smaller groups containing representatives from each of the science subjects. Each group may investigate the same topic or different topics—that is, there may be several group 4 projects in the same school.
Students studying environmental systems and societies are not required to undertake the group 4 project.
Summary of the group 4 projectThe group 4 project is a collaborative activity where students from different group 4 subjects work together on a scientific or technological topic, allowing for concepts and perceptions from across the disciplines to be shared in line with aim 10—that is, to “develop an understanding of the relationships between scientific disciplines and their influence on other areas of knowledge”. The project can be practically or theoretically based. Collaboration between schools in different regions is encouraged.
The group 4 project allows students to appreciate the environmental, social and ethical implications of science and technology. It may also allow them to understand the limitations of scientific study, for example, the shortage of appropriate data and/or the lack of resources. The emphasis is on interdisciplinary cooperation and the processes involved in scientific investigation, rather than the products of such investigation.
The choice of scientific or technological topic is open but the project should clearly address aims 7, 8 and 10 of the group 4 subject guides.
Ideally, the project should involve students collaborating with those from other group 4 subjects at all stages. To this end, it is not necessary for the topic chosen to have clearly identifiable separate subject components. However, for logistical reasons, some schools may prefer a separate subject “action” phase (see the following “Project stages” section).
Project stagesThe 10 hours allocated to the group 4 project, which are part of the teaching time set aside for developing the practical scheme of work, can be divided into three stages: planning, action and evaluation.
PlanningThis stage is crucial to the whole exercise and should last about two hours.
• The planning stage could consist of a single session, or two or three shorter ones.
• This stage must involve all group 4 students meeting to “brainstorm” and discuss the central topic, sharing ideas and information.
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• The topic can be chosen by the students themselves or selected by the teachers.
• Where large numbers of students are involved, it may be advisable to have more than one mixed subject group.
After selecting a topic or issue, the activities to be carried out must be clearly defined before moving from the planning stage to the action and evaluation stages.
A possible strategy is that students define specific tasks for themselves, either individually or as members of groups, and investigate various aspects of the chosen topic. At this stage, if the project is to be experimentally based, apparatus should be specified so that there is no delay in carrying out the action stage. Contact with other schools, if a joint venture has been agreed, is an important consideration at this time.
ActionThis stage should last around six hours and may be carried out over one or two weeks in normal scheduled class time. Alternatively, a whole day could be set aside if, for example, the project involves fieldwork.
• Students should investigate the topic in mixed-subject groups or single subject groups.
• There should be collaboration during the action stage; findings of investigations should be shared with other students within the mixed/single-subject group. During this stage, in any practically based activity, it is important to pay attention to safety, ethical and environmental considerations.
Note: Students studying two group 4 subjects are not required to do two separate action phases.
EvaluationThe emphasis during this stage, for which two hours are probably necessary, is on students sharing their findings, both successes and failures, with other students. How this is achieved can be decided by the teachers, the students or jointly.
• One solution is to devote a morning, afternoon or evening to a symposium where all the students, as individuals or as groups, give brief presentations.
• Alternatively, the presentation could be more informal and take the form of a science fair where students circulate around displays summarizing the activities of each group.
The symposium or science fair could also be attended by parents, members of the school board and the press. This would be especially pertinent if some issue of local importance has been researched. Some of the findings might influence the way the school interacts with its environment or local community.
Addressing aims 7 and 8Aim 7: “develop and apply 21st century communication skills in the study of science.”
Aim 7 may be partly addressed at the planning stage by using electronic communication within and between schools. It may be that technology (for example, data logging, spreadsheets, databases and so on) will be used in the action phase and certainly in the presentation/evaluation stage (for example, use of digital images, presentation software, websites, digital video and so on).
Aim 8: “become critically aware, as global citizens, of the ethical implications of using science and technology.”
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Addressing the international dimensionThere are also possibilities in the choice of topic to illustrate the international nature of the scientific endeavour and the increasing cooperation required to tackle global issues involving science and technology. An alternative way to bring an international dimension to the project is to collaborate with a school in another region.
Types of projectWhile addressing aims 7, 8 and 10 the project must be based on science or its applications. The project may have a hands-on practical action phase or one involving purely theoretical aspects. It could be undertaken in a wide range of ways:
• designing and carrying out a laboratory investigation or fieldwork.
• carrying out a comparative study (experimental or otherwise) in collaboration with another school.
• collating, manipulating and analysing data from other sources, such as scientif ic journals, environmental organizations, science and technology industries and government reports.
• designing and using a model or simulation.
• contributing to a long-term project organized by the school.
Logistical strategiesThe logistical organization of the group 4 project is often a challenge to schools. The following models illustrate possible ways in which the project may be implemented.
Models A, B and C apply within a single school, and model D relates to a project involving collaboration between schools.
Model A: mixed-subject groups and one topicSchools may adopt mixed-subject groups and choose one common topic. The number of groups will depend on the number of students.
Model B: mixed-subject groups adopting more than one topicSchools with large numbers of students may choose to do more than one topic.
Model C: single-subject groupsFor logistical reasons some schools may opt for single-subject groups, with one or more topics in the action phase. This model is less desirable as it does not show the mixed subject collaboration in which many scientists are involved.
Model D: collaboration with another schoolThe collaborative model is open to any school. To this end, the IB provides an electronic collaboration board on the OCC where schools can post their project ideas and invite collaboration from other schools. This could range from merely sharing evaluations for a common topic to a full-scale collaborative venture at all stages.
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For schools with few Diploma Programme (course) students it is possible to work with non-Diploma Programme or non-group 4 students or undertake the project once every two years. However, these schools are encouraged to collaborate with another school. This strategy is also recommended for individual students who may not have participated in the project, for example, through illness or because they have transferred to a new school where the project has already taken place.
TimingThe 10 hours that the IB recommends be allocated to the project may be spread over a number of weeks. The distribution of these hours needs to be taken into account when selecting the optimum time to carry out the project. However, it is possible for a group to dedicate a period of time exclusively to project work if all/most other schoolwork is suspended.
Year 1In the first year, students’ experience and skills may be limited and it would be inadvisable to start the project too soon in the course. However, doing the project in the final part of the first year may have the advantage of reducing pressure on students later on. This strategy provides time for solving unexpected problems.
Year 1–Year 2The planning stage could start, the topic could be decided upon, and provisional discussion in individual subjects could take place at the end of the first year. Students could then use the vacation time to think about how they are going to tackle the project and would be ready to start work early in the second year.
Year 2Delaying the start of the project until some point in the second year, particularly if left too late, increases pressure on students in many ways: the schedule for finishing the work is much tighter than for the other options; the illness of any student or unexpected problems will present extra difficulties. Nevertheless, this choice does mean students know one another and their teachers by this time, have probably become accustomed to working in a team and will be more experienced in the relevant fields than in the first year.
Combined SL and HLWhere circumstances dictate that the project is only carried out every two years, HL beginners and more experienced SL students can be combined.
Selecting a topicStudents may choose the topic or propose possible topics and the teacher then decides which one is the most viable based on resources, staff availability and so on. Alternatively, the teacher selects the topic or proposes several topics from which students make a choice.
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Student selectionStudents are likely to display more enthusiasm and feel a greater sense of ownership for a topic that they have chosen themselves. A possible strategy for student selection of a topic, which also includes part of the planning stage, is outlined here. At this point, subject teachers may provide advice on the viability of proposed topics.
• Identify possible topics by using a questionnaire or a survey of students.
• Conduct an initial “brainstorming” session of potential topics or issues.
• Discuss, briefly, two or three topics that seem interesting.
• Select one topic by consensus.
• Students make a list of potential investigations that could be carried out. All students then discuss issues such as possible overlap and collaborative investigations.
A reflective statement written by each student on their involvement in the group 4 project must be included on the coversheet for each internal assessment investigation. See Handbook of procedures for more details.
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Appendices
Glossary of command terms
Command terms for chemistryStudents should be familiar with the following key terms and phrases used in examination questions, which are to be understood as described below. Although these terms will be used frequently in examination questions, other terms may be used to direct students to present an argument in a specific way.
These command terms indicate the depth of treatment required.
Assessment objective 1
Command term Definition
Classify Arrange or order by class or category.
Define Give the precise meaning of a word, phrase, concept or physical quantity.
Draw Represent by means of a labelled, accurate diagram or graph, using a pencil. A ruler (straight edge) should be used for straight lines. Diagrams should be drawn to scale. Graphs should have points correctly plotted (if appropriate) and joined in a straight line or smooth curve.
Label Add labels to a diagram.
List Give a sequence of brief answers with no explanation.
Measure Obtain a value for a quantity.
State Give a specific name, value or other brief answer without explanation or calculation.
Assessment objective 2
Command term Definition
Annotate Add brief notes to a diagram or graph.
Apply Use an idea, equation, principle, theory or law in relation to a given problem or issue.
Calculate Obtain a numerical answer showing the relevant stages in the working.
Describe Give a detailed account.
Distinguish Make clear the differences between two or more concepts or items.
Estimate Obtain an approximate value.
Formulate Express precisely and systematically the relevant concept(s) or argument(s).
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Chemistry guide192
Command term Definition
Identify Provide an answer from a number of possibilities.
Outline Give a brief account or summary.
Assessment objective 3
Command term Definition
Analyse Break down in order to bring out the essential elements or structure.
Comment Give a judgment based on a given statement or result of a calculation.
Compare Give an account of the similarities between two (or more) items or situations, referring to both (all) of them throughout.
Compare and contrast
Give an account of similarities and differences between two (or more) items or situations, referring to both (all) of them throughout.
Construct Display information in a diagrammatic or logical form.
Deduce Reach a conclusion from the information given.
Demonstrate Make clear by reasoning or evidence, illustrating with examples or practical application.
Derive Manipulate a mathematical relationship to give a new equation or relationship.
Design Produce a plan, simulation or model.
Determine Obtain the only possible answer.
Discuss Offer a considered and balanced review that includes a range of arguments, factors or hypotheses. Opinions or conclusions should be presented clearly and supported by appropriate evidence.
Evaluate Make an appraisal by weighing up the strengths and limitations.
Examine Consider an argument or concept in a way that uncovers the assumptions and interrelationships of the issue.
Explain Give a detailed account including reasons or causes.
Explore Undertake a systematic process of discovery.
Interpret Use knowledge and understanding to recognize trends and draw conclusions from given information.
Justify Give valid reasons or evidence to support an answer or conclusion.
Predict Give an expected result.
Show Give the steps in a calculation or derivation.
Sketch Represent by means of a diagram or graph (labelled as appropriate). The sketch should give a general idea of the required shape or relationship, and should include relevant features.
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Chemistry guide 193
Command term Definition
Solve Obtain the answer(s) using algebraic and/or numerical and/or graphical methods.
Suggest Propose a solution, hypothesis or other possible answer.
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Appendices
Bibliography
This bibliography lists the principal works used to inform the curriculum review. It is not an exhaustive list and does not include all the literature available: judicious selection was made in order to better advise and guide teachers. This bibliography is not a list of recommended textbooks.
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Martin, J. 2006. The Meaning of the 21st Century: A vital blueprint for ensuring our future. London, UK. Eden Project Books.
Gerzon, M. 2010. Global Citizens: How our vision of the world is outdated, and what we can do about it. London, UK. Rider Books.
Haydon, G. 2006. Education, Philosophy & the Ethical Environment. Oxon/New York, USA. Routledge.
Anderson, LW et al. 2001. A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York, USA. Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
Hattie, J. 2009. Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. Oxon/New York, USA. Routledge.
Petty, G. 2009. Evidence-based Teaching: A practical approach (2nd edition). Cheltenham, UK. Nelson Thornes Ltd.
Andain, I and Murphy, G. 2008. Creating Lifelong Learners: Challenges for Education in the 21st Century. Cardiff, UK. International Baccalaureate Organization.
Jewkes, J, Sawers, D and Stillerman, R. 1969. The Sources of Invention (2nd edition). New York, USA. W.W. Norton & Co.
Lawson, B. 2005. How Designers Think: The design process demystified (4th edition). Oxford, UK. Architectural Press.
Douglas, H. 2009. Science, Policy, and the Value-Free Ideal. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA. University of Pittsburgh Press.
Aikenhead, G and Michell, H. 2011. Bridging Cultures: Indigenous and Scientific Ways of Knowing Nature. Toronto, Canada. Pearson Canada.
Winston, M and Edelbach, R. 2012. Society, Ethics, and Technology (4th edition). Boston, Massachusetts, USA. Wadsworth CENGAGE Learning.
Brian Arthur, W. 2009. The Nature of Technology. London, UK. Penguin Books.
Headrick, D. 2009. Technology: A World History. Oxford, UK. Oxford University Press.
Popper, KR. 1980. The Logic of Scientific Discovery (4th revised edition). London, UK. Hutchinson.
Trefil, J. 2008. Why Science?. New York/Arlington, USA. NSTA Press & Teachers College Press.
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Khine, MS, (ed). 2012. Advances in Nature of Science Research: Concepts and Methodologies. Bahrain. Springer.
Spier, F. 2010. Big History and the Future of Humanity. Chichester, UK. Wiley-Blackwell.
Stokes Brown, C. 2007. Big History: From the Big Bang to the Present. New York, USA. The New Press.
Swain, H, (ed). 2002. Big Questions in Sciences. London, UK. Vintage.
Roberts, RM. 1989. Serendipity: Accidental Discoveries in Science. Chichester, UK. Wiley Science Editions.
Ehrlich, R. 2001. Nine crazy ideas in science. Princeton, New Jersey, USA. Princeton University Press.
Lloyd, C. 2012. What on Earth Happened?: The Complete Story of the Planet, Life and People from the Big Bang to the Present Day. London, UK. Bloomsbury Publishing.
Trefil, J and Hazen, RM. 2010. Sciences: An integrated Approach (6th edition). Chichester, UK. Wiley.
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