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Concept Mapping and Reading Comprehension

Cherie Dolehanty

April 15, 2008

Abstract

The goal of this action research project is to observe and measure the effects of concept

mapping on reading comprehension, in an English lab course at the secondary level. The

method will be to explicitly teach concept mapping as a reading strategy and collect datain the following ways: reading comprehension placement results (pre- and post-tests);

student self-evaluations; and daily observational journals.

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Concept Mapping and Reading Comprehension

Reading comprehension is crucial to a students success in school, and further, to

becoming a lifelong learner. Children and young adults who struggle with reading

comprehension will struggle with every subject in school, and with day to day living

following school. One method for helping students understand their reading is to find

ways to connect the reading to a students individual experiences. This is very difficult at

a young age, due to the lack of life experiences and can be further hindered by limited

exposure to a variety of people, places and things. Concept mapping is a spatial learning

strategy that has been used for several decades in the sciences, as a way to show students

the relationships between and among different scientific concepts. Ideally, it works with a

students prior experiences and knowledge to show relationships between current

knowledge and new information. Is there a way to use concept mapping with reading

comprehension? Could this learning strategy help students understand reading as a

process, and also the individual texts that they read? What is it about concept mapping

that works, in the sciences, and can it be applied to reading comprehension?

David Novak developed the concept mapping technique in the 1970s at Cornell

University. Novak and his research team based their work on David Ausubels cognitive

assimilation theories and the constructivist movement, both of which stress the

importance of assimilating new information into previously learned structures: To learn

meaningfully, individuals must choose to relate new knowledge to relevant concepts and

propositions they already know (Novak & Gowin, 1984). InLearning How to Learn

(1984) Novak and Gowin presented models of concept maps and described potential

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applications for concept mapping: learning, planning and evaluation. They also discussed

use of the Vee heuristic diagram, and encouraged its use as a complement to concept

mapping in order to help students understand how to learn. This book appears to be the

first documented, substantially researched work on concept mapping and it is referenced

in nearly every other work on the subject. It is noteworthy that Novak directly states that

concept mapping could be used for extracting meaning (p.43) from textbooks and

literary texts. In 1984, he specifically proposed concept mapping as a tool for improving

reading comprehension.

Since Novaks initial work, there have been numerous studies about the efficacy

of concept mapping. Eric Plotnik (1997) described purposes of concept mapping, and

stated that the main advantages to concept mapping are the use of visual symbols because

they are easily recognized, easy to scan for a specific word or general idea and it allows

for a more holistic understanding of a concept. He lists several applications for concept

mapping: creativity/brainstorming; hypertext design; communication; learning and

assessment. Plotnik also proposes several advantages for using computers with concept

mapping, as a superior tool to pencil and paper. He stated that most current concept

mapping tools are used for teaching, but computerized concept mapping was actually

designed for learning. Plotniks article provided a brief overview of concept mapping and

its benefits, but the digest format required that the reader pursue other primary sources in

order to find support for his statements.

InLearning with Technology (Jonassen, Peck & Wilson, 1999), Jonassen renames

concept mapping as semantic networks (p. 163), but he too is a proponent of this

particular tool for learning. He reiterated Plotniks view that computer support is a

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powerful way to enhance the use of concept mapping. Jonassen suggested specific

questions for teachers to ask, when using concept mapping for assessment of learning. He

also made a compelling argument for the importance of providing mental models like

concept mapping, because they possess visual-spatial components which are lacking in

other learning tools. He pointed out that touch can be interpreted and responded to with

touch, and sound can be heard and replicated. However, vision is very difficult to express

to another person; computers make this easier with the ability to copy photos or

hyperlinks into concept maps. He argued that only computerized concept maps can be

rough approximations of (these) mental images (p.168).

McCagg and Dansereau (1991) studied the efficacy of a specific type of spatial

learning strategy. They tested the effects of student-generated knowledge maps on

psychology students and found that mapping had a positive affect on students memory

retention, based on performance on recognition and recall tests. They also found that the

effects were maintained over time. McCagg and Dansereau (1991) differentiated

knowledge maps from concept maps, because knowledge maps have a predetermined set

of codes for specifying links on a map. Concept maps allow the map-maker to define and

label the links between codes. McCagg and his colleagues believe that the predetermined

set of codes reduces the cognitive load on the student, and that the specific codes are an

important part of the structure of the map. This article also discussed the previous

research on differences between expert-generated maps and student-generated maps, and

the strengths and weaknesses of each type. The students who used the knowledge

mapping techniques scored significantly higher on tests than the students who used only

their own methods (note-taking). The researchers noted the importance of developing

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efficient training for students, when using the student-generated maps, even though it can

be time-consuming and difficult initially. They noted some anxiety (map shock) among

students. This research used knowledge mapping rather than true concept mapping, and

the test subjects were assigned the maps as a supplemental learning tool, rather than the

primary teaching-learning tool for the course, but the results speak to the efficacy of the

tool, particularly since the students retained information better over time, compared to the

control group.

ODonnell, Dansereau and Hall (2002) provided a review of the research on

knowledge mapping and also suggested areas for future research. The review restated

McCagg and Dansereaus (1991) stance that knowledge maps are different from other

spatial learning strategies due to a defined, common set of labels for the links between

nodes. They outlined three main types of links with knowledge mapping: dynamic, static

and elaborative. The review of the research highlighted some common findings:

knowledge maps enhanced students recall of central ideas, and subjective reactions to

studying and testing were more positive. Furthermore, the positive outcomes attributed to

knowledge maps shared a key factor: training. The research also showed that the type of

map construction may be important (top-down vs. left to right, gestalt vs. web), and that

the types of links (plain vs. embellished) may affect performance, particularly with

students with low verbal ability or low prior knowledge of a topic. Maps may provide

important support for students when interacting with peers on cooperative projects. They

reported about research that knowledge maps are useful for increasing comprehension

with low-ability students in the sciences, and that knowledge mapping may have

significant impact on summarization skills. The authors recommended future research

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topics including determining the relationships between verbal ability and use of

knowledge maps, and whether or not knowledge maps truly reduce cognitive load for

students. They also suggested more research about effects of knowledge mapping on

transfer of knowledge, and the different effects of self-generated, group-generated and

expert-generated maps. ODonnell et al. (2002) provided a thorough review of the

research from 1990 2002 and made valid recommendations for further research, based

on the questions remaining from prior studies. Despite an evident bias toward knowledge

mapping (vs. concept mapping, mind mapping or other visual-spatial strategies), they did

note data and research which seemed to contradict or question assumptions made by

earlier research.

Boyle (1996) studied the effects of teaching a cognitive mapping strategy to

middle school students with mild learning disabilities or mild mental retardation. He

specifically researched changes in students literal and inferential reading comprehension.

The students were taught to use a cognitive mapping strategy which provided a series of

steps to follow for constructing cognitive maps while they read. He found that students

with mild disabilities could improve their reading comprehension of short passages once

they were taught the strategy, and that they could complete the maps independently and

accurately. However, students scores on standardized tests did not show significant

changes, and they found that the students didnt use their new strategy on the tests, so

they had not transferred their knowledge to a new situation. The author recommended

methods for helping students to transfer the strategy to other settings. He also

recommended further research about the efficacy of specific types of cognitive strategies

on reading comprehension. Despite the fact that his sample size was very small (30

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students), this research is important because it focused on students with mild disabilities,

and it suggested important implications for using cognitive strategies with all students.

The most recent, applicable research studied results from the use of three different

concept-mapping approaches with 126 fifth-graders in Taiwan (Chang, Sung & Chen,

2007). The researchers designed three approaches -- map correction, scaffold fading and

map generation and tested the effects of each on students reading comprehension and

summarization skills. With map correction, students were provided a map that was

completed by the teacher/expert, but 30% - 40% of the map was incorrect and the

students were to find and correct the errors, after reading information about the concept.

The map-generation students were provided only the readings, and they were to create the

maps themselves. The scaffold-fading group participated in a seven-unit course, and

initially they were provided with (correct) expert maps, then over time they received less

and less support for completing the maps, until the last stage, when they were expected to

complete map-generation independently. Results showed that map-correction had the

most significant, positive affect on reading comprehension and summarization skills

overall, and that the scaffold-fading method significantly improved summarization skills,

compared to the map generation and control groups. The authors proposed that the map-

correction method required critical and analytical thinking (to detect improper

relationships), and that type of thinking contributed to deeper processing of the new

information. It was also noted that an earlier study indicated that map generation was

difficult for college students, so map-generation may have created cognitive overload for

the fifth-graders in this study. The authors also deduced that the process of concept

mapping is very similar to steps necessary for summarization, and that the concept

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mapping may have effectively transferred to summarization skills, even though the

connection was not explicitly made by the teachers. This is compelling new research for

applying concept mapping strategies to text comprehension.

Based on this review of the literature, there appear to be three different types of

spatial learning strategies: knowledge mapping, graphic organizers and concept mapping

(also called semantic networks). This review attempted to focus on concept mapping,

though articles about knowledge mapping were also included. Mind mapping was also

mentioned in some studies, but it appeared to be more like webbing, which is a type of

graphic organizer, and not included in this review. According to the research, concept

mapping appears to be an effective way to teach and learn about new information and

overarching concepts. The arguments for concept mapping include the importance of

connecting new information to prior knowledge and experience (Novak & Gowin, 1999;

Cromley & Azevedo, 2007; Jonassen et al., 1999; ODonnell et al., 2002;), the efficacy of

building visual-verbal representations of knowledge (Novak & Gowin, 1999; Jonassen et

al., 1999; Plotnik, 1997) and that these representations are more effective for knowledge

retention than using traditional text (McCagg & Dansereau, 1991; Jonassen et al., 1999).

Some research also indicated that a visual-spatial structure reduces cognitive load, though

more research is required (ODonnell et al., 2002; Plotnik, 1997; Chang et al., 2007;

McCagg & Dansereau, 1991; Plotnik, 1997; Boyle, 1996). Concept mapping has been

used for teaching/planning, learning and assessing learning, though most applications

seem to be in the sciences, rather than related to reading comprehension. Different

methodologies within concept mapping have also been researched: strengths and

weaknesses have been identified for expert-generated maps vs. student-generated maps

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(McCagg & Dansereau, 1991; Chang et al., 2007; ODonnell et al., 2002), and one

exciting study differentiated among map-correction, scaffold-fading and map-generation

methods (Cheng et al., 2007). Other important points from the review include:

implications for training about concept maps; computer-assisted mapping; and the actual

visual/spatial structure of the maps (gestalt vs. webbing, for example, and plain links vs.

embellished links; (ODonnell, 2002)). There appeared to be very little research on the

use of concept mapping for improving reading comprehension, though Novak (1984)

suggested the use of concept maps for this purpose over 20 years ago.

Does the use of concept mapping significantly improve students ability to

comprehend written text?

Im intrigued by the idea that some students may lack the mental concepts and

structures for analyzing and storing written language that they lack the right filing

cabinet to categorize and understand written messages. If a spatial learning strategy like

concept mapping is applied to comprehending text, could it provide students with the

missing filing cabinet? Would it help them understand how to make sense of different

types of reading, and also reading itself, as a process? What is it about concept mapping

that works, in the sciences, and can it be effectively applied to reading comprehension?

And ultimately, if concept mapping does have an impact on reading comprehension, will

it be statistically significant?

This research will be significant to students in Connersville High Schools

Language Arts Lab classes, to any student who struggles with reading, and also to the

teachers who struggle to help them get it.

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Method

In order to determine the effect of concept mapping on reading comprehension, I

will collect data from several sources: reading comprehension placement test results, a

journal, and student self-evaluations. These three sources will provide data about

cognitive and attitudinal effects of concept mapping, and allow for triangulation of data.

In the spring semester, Connersville High School will implement a new reading

program for ninth graders in Language Arts Lab classes, calledRead Now, Power Up!

Each student in Language Arts Lab will take theRead Now, Power Up! pre-test at the

beginning of the semester. The test results place students within different groups, based

on reading comprehension skills. All Language Arts Lab students will also take a post-

test at designated points in the semester, in order to measure any progress through the

levels of theRead Now, Power Up! program. I will introduce and teach concept mapping

to only one of the four sections of Language Arts Lab. I will collect and compare the pre

and post-test results of the four sections, to assess the impact of concept mapping, and

determine if improvement is statistically significant among the sections.

In order to collect observational data, I will keep a teachers journal to briefly

record information on a daily basis. The journal will focus on observing students use and

understanding of concept mapping, as well as any notes about potential impact (positive

or negative) on reading comprehension. The journal will also be used to record behaviors

which may skew the data or otherwise affect the research. The journal form is located in

the Appendix (4a, 7a and 8a).

I also need to assess students attitudes and opinions about concept mapping, to

determine potential impacts on the data. I will distribute a survey to the students who

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learn about concept mapping: once prior to instruction in concept mapping, and once at

the end of the study, following the reading comprehension placement post-test. The form

is located in the Appendix (1a). I will compare the results of the survey with the Read

Now, Power Up! pre- and post-test scores, to see if there are relationships among the

assessments.

Implementation

Subjects

The number and class size of the 9th grade Language Arts Lab courses changed in

January 2008: schedule changes resulted in 3 sections of Language Arts Lab rather than

4, and Connersville also intentionally reduced the number of students in each section to

fewer than 13 students. There were 32 student participants in the study due to these

changes. Students enrolled in 9th grade Language Arts Lab have been identified as

struggling readers; poor performance on the ISTEP is the primary indicator for inclusion

in Language Arts Lab.

Setting

Language Arts Lab (LAL) classes are equipped with computers at each student

desk. These computers are available through Indianas InAccess grant funding. TheRead

Now, Power Up! program incorporates use of proprietary computer software throughout

the curriculum. There are comprehension quizzes and computerized activities which

accompany each chapter of the programs assigned books. By the time the students were

introduced to concept mapping, they were accustomed to following a routine established

by theRead Now, Power Up! program. Given the pacing issues which accompany a

packaged reading program, the class time used for the research project placed one section

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of LAL behind the other sections. In order to provide the students with time to catch

up, the other LAL sections were provided extra class time for completing independent

reading. This catch up time did not impact the concept mapping and comprehension

activities, because it was put in place after the concept mapping and placement testing

were complete.

Materials

All LAL sections used the same text,BugZ, provided through theRead Now,

Power Up! reading program, as well as the programs guided activities (workbook and

computerized assistance and assessments). One section of LAL was instructed in the use

of concept mapping. The lesson plans related to concept mapping were based on

suggestions in Novak & GowinsLearning How to Learn (1984). Students were provided

with lists of words to consider for placement within concept maps, either through paper

handouts (Appendix 7b)) or prepared on a classroom whiteboard (Appendix 8b). Students

used their own paper and writing utensils to create each concept map. Classroom

computers were used to completeRead Now, Power Up! comprehension quizzes and the

Star Reader placement test.

Measures

All LAL students completed theBugZchapter comprehension and skills quizzes

and the STAR Reader test (taken once January 9, 2008, and again March 13, 2008). The

students who participated in concept mapping instruction completed a survey prior to

beginning theBugZbook and concept mapping instruction, and again at the completion

of theBugZunit. I also completed journal entries to record observations each day that we

referred to concept mapping in class (see Appendix 4a, 7a and 8a). The journal prompts

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were intentionally open-ended in order to provide space for recording procedural as well

as behavioral information.

General Procedures

Prior to any lessons about concept mapping, students in the test group completed

the pre-instruction survey, measuring attitudes and opinions about concept mapping

(Appendix 1a). The test group students were introduced to concept mapping through

classroom lecture, modeling and a group activity. Students were provided time to practice

concept mapping with a topic familiar to them: Connersville High School. As a class, we

brainstormed a list of words and events which related to CHS and the students were then

provided time to create their own concept maps of CHS. The assigned reading for Read

Now Power Up! wasBugZ, a fictional book about a boy who finds an interesting insect

in his apartment building. Once the students had finished the first three chapters of the

book, I provided a brief refresher-lesson about concept maps and then asked the students

to create individual concept maps aboutBugZ, using at least 15 words out of a list of 20

(Appendix 7b). Students submitted these concept maps at the end of class. When the

students had completed all six chapters of the book, I returned the original BugZconcept

maps and listed six more words on a whiteboard to be added to the original BugZconcept

maps. The six words were all words relevant to the final chapters of the book. I also

required students to add five key words from the first three chapters if they had not used

those five words on the first concept map. The five additional words were key characters

or nouns introduced within the first three chapters, but their importance may not have

been clear at the time of the first concept map (see Appendix 8b). I collected the second

iterations of theBugZconcept maps for review. The next day, students who completed

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concept maps forBugZcompleted the post-instruction survey measuring attitudes and

opinions about concept mapping. As students completed each chapter ofBugZ, students

in all three LAL sections completed the correspondingBugZcomprehension quizzes.

Finally, students in all three sections of LAL completedRead Now, Power Up!s STAR

Reader test, which provided information about individuals reading comprehension skills.

Results

Pre- and Post-Instruction Survey Results

The survey (Appendix 1a) was distributed prior to any instruction about concept

mapping and again at the end of the unit. It was only completed by the students who

would receive concept mapping instruction. One student was absent the day of the

survey, so only 10 of 11 students completed the initial survey. Based on the results of the

initial survey, only 2 students out of 10 recognized concept mapping prior to the

instruction in LAL, and those same two students reported using concept maps in another

class. The majority of the students recorded I Dont Know in response to all 10

questions on the initial survey (Appendix 1b). By the end of the unit however, students

responded affirmatively more often with Agree or Strongly Agree when asked the

same questions about their ability to recognize, describe and create concept maps

(Appendix 2a and 2b, questions 1, 2, 3 and 4). There was also an increase in the number

of students who reported that they liked using concept maps (Appendix 2a and 3a,

question 5) and that concept maps were helpful to them (Appendix 2a, 3a, and 3b,

questions 6, 8, 9 and 10). The end survey showed an interesting distinction: although

more than half of the students reported that they used concept maps to help understand

things (Appendix 2a and 3a, question 8), students also responded affirmatively that

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concept mapping helped them, but not with reading (Appendix 3b, question 10). There

was an open-ended question at the end of the survey, which most students either left

blank or replied with IDK. However, one student who commented shared the

following: Concept mapping gets a little overfull. And a little hard to understand!

Another student didnt respond to the open-ended question, but heavily underlined the

helps me in question 9, Concept mapping helps me understand reading, on the final

survey.

Journal Notes Results

The Journal Notes were brief and recorded information for three dates: March 3,

the date of the initial survey, instruction and initial practice; March 11, the date when

students were halfway through the provided text and completed a concept map over the

first three chapters; and March 13, when the students had completed all six chapters of

the book and completed a final concept map for the text. The dates in between March 3

and March 13 were occupied with lessons and activities specified by theRead Now,

Power Up! program, related to theBugZbook. Concept mapping was not mentioned by

the instructor or any of the students on these other dates, so no Journal Notes exist for

those dates. The notes from March 3 (Appendix 4a) report a successful first day with

students concept mapping lesson and activities. On March 11 (Appendix 7a) , most

students used concept mapping to appropriately link objects and events, based on the

assigned list of words. One student seemed nervous and completed only a few bubbles

on his concept map by the time the class moved along to another activity. Many students

limited themselves to only a few linking words (has, uses, etc.) which led me to

question whether I should have provided a list with more options. March 13 (Appendix

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8a) was the final date of the research project, and students added six new words their

individual concept maps; all six words were selected from chapters 4 6 ofBugZ. One

Journal note indicated that one student used more than half of the period working on his

concept map, long after the other students had completed the task. He checked the

whiteboard often, reviewing the list of words many times, and I noticed him sneaking

looks back intoBugZwhen he thought I wasnt watching. I finally stopped him so that he

would focus some class time on a writing assignment due the next day.

STAR Reader Results

STAR Reader is the name of the reading comprehension/placement test provided

byRead Now, Power Up! . The STAR Reader diagnostic reports include a variety of

information. For the purposes of this action research, I used student participants Scaled

Scores from the STAR Reader tests, because it is the most fundamental score produced

by the STAR Reading Tests[and] Scaled Scores are useful for comparing student

performance over time and across grades (STAR Reading Score Definition Report,

p.13). Based on Scaled Scores on the January and March STAR Reader tests, the

Concept Mappers not only scored lowest of the three groups in January, but their scores,

as a group, dropped between January and March while control groups scores improved

(Appendix 11a). The Concept Mappers Scaled Scores chart shows that 8 out of 11

students STAR Reader scores dropped between January and March. The Concept

Mappers average score dropped 40 points, from 673 to 633, and the median score

dropped from 631 to 617 (Appendix 11b). The Control Groups Scaled Scores fared

better: the average score increased from 766 to 776 and the median score increased from

745 to 775 (Appendix 12a). Within the control groups subgroups, each groups average

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score increased, but the change in median scores varied: Control Group As median score

was nearly 100 points higher in January (compared to Group B), but dropped 42 points

between January and March. Control Group Bs median score increased 28 points, and

still didnt reach Group As March median score (Appendix 12b and 13a).

Overall, the changes in students STAR Reader January and March Scaled Scores

were not statistically significant (Appendix 13b 15a).

BugZ Reading Comprehension Quiz Results

BugZwas the assigned text for the duration of the action research. Each book in

theRead Now, Power Up! program has coordinating quizzes and activities for each

chapter, as well as an End of Book Skills quiz and an End of Book Vocabulary quiz.

The Concept Mappers average scores for the first three chapters quizzes outperformed

Control Group B but not Control Group A. The Concept Mappers reported the highest

scores (as a group) for chapter 4 and 5 quizzes. All groups seemed to struggle with the

End of Book Skills quiz, but Control Group B scored highest of the three. The control

groups outscored the Concept Mappers on the End of Book Vocabulary quiz (Appendix

16a). Looking across the scores for the chapter quizzes, the chapter 3 quiz produced the

lowest average scores for each group (Appendix 16b, 17a and 17b). Control Group A

produced the only perfect scores for any quiz, and they did so on both the chapter 2 quiz

and the End of Book Vocabulary quiz (Appendix 17a). A few students scores are

unreported because the students were absent on quiz dates (Appendix 16b and 17b).

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Discussion

Generally, this research showed that concept mapping had no significant impact

on reading comprehension with this population of Language Arts Lab students. However,

some interesting points in the data merit discussion.

First, the study included a very small number of participants 32 even smaller

than Id hoped, when planning the research last fall. The fact that students were absent

for part or parts of the study may have dramatically impacted the results (i.e., one or two

students missing a test score might have significantly impacted the data due to the small

number of participants in each cohort). Similarly, one or two students with markedly high

or low scores may have skewed the average test scores or other results in a specific

cohort. Any follow-up study should include more students in order to further normalize

the data.

Second, the STAR Reading Test was selected as a measure of reading

comprehension ability because all participants had access to the test and because it would

be scored by a computer (not affected by teacher bias) on both test dates. Though there is

no reason to doubt the validity of the test, we dont yet know enough about the STAR

Reader Test or the scoring system to be clear about what is truly measured by the test.

One Connersville teacher noted that the test seems to be heavily based on vocabulary as

an indicator of comprehension. It is clear that more knowledge about the test itself would

be helpful. If I were more knowledgeable about the STAR Reading Test, I would be

better equipped to respond to the following questions:

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The test group (the Concept Mappers) entered the project with thelowest placement scores on the January STAR Reading Test, as a group.

Was there a common weakness among the students in the test group?

In every subgroup, some students Scaled Scores changed dramatically(200+ points or more, some increased, some decreased) between January

and March. What does that tell us?

Given that the test groups average score dropped from 673 to 633, and theother groups scores increased, does that indicate that inserting additional

reading strategies into theRead Now Power Up! Program has a negative

impact? Was it too much for the students to focus onRead Now Power

Up! activities and another strategy simultaneously? Or could it be that

concept mapping (specifically) negatively impacted students

understanding of something measured on the STAR Reading Test?

Third, students who received instruction and practice with concept mapping

reported changes in their attitudes and perceptions about concept maps, and most were

positive changes. However, Journal Notes show that student reaction to concept mapping

was mixed: although several students (5 of 11) responded affirmatively that concept

mapping helped them, two students voiced opinions that they hated concept mapping,

and five students indicated that concept mapping helps them, but not with reading. I

found no relationships between students responses on the survey to their performance (or

lack thereof) on theBugZquizzes or STAR Reading tests. It is interesting that the test

group performed best on theBugZChapter 4 and Chapter 5 Comprehension quizzes.

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Perhaps the fact that we stopped halfway through the book and completed a concept map

helped students make sense of the story up through the first three chapters and helped

them move forward through the rest of the book. The test group certainly scored much

better on the Chapter 4 and Chapter 5 quizzes than they did (as a group) on the Chapter 3

quiz. The same pattern was evident with the control groups, however, so it isnt clear that

concept mapping directly impacted comprehension. Based on my review of the test

groups BugZ concept maps, the process did show which students were comfortable

reporting or recording information about the story. Most students picked up concept

mapping (albeit on a simple level) quickly, and did not balk at creating a map ofBugZ,

but those who regularly struggle with basic classroom procedures struggled with concept

mapping as well. For example, the student who was only able to complete a few

bubbles on the firstBugZmap is a student who needs prompting for each step of any

project or activity. Students did not discuss concept mapping unless I brought it up in

class, and they did not create concept maps on their own, so even if students found it

helpful, they did not transfer the mapping process into an academic habit or tool.

Fourth, its important to note that this was my first time teaching concept

mapping. Its possible that the lack of impact was due to the instruction (that is, the

problem may have been with the pilot and not the airplane!). I have already thought about

the things I would do differently if I were to teach the lessons over again: give students

words to manipulate on small slips of paper, instead of lists; provide lists of linking

words; add to the maps after each chapter; encourage them to use the concept maps when

they take the quizzes, and more. A teacher more experienced with concept mapping may

have had more success.

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Finally, I learned that concept mapping is a powerful assessment of

understanding. Initially I had hoped that concept mapping would serve as a strategy for

improving comprehension of a particular piece of text. What I found most compelling

was the concept maps usefulness as a way to see which students understood the basic

elements of the story. A concept map clearly shows when a student is linking ideas or

events incorrectly, or attaching descriptors to the wrong characters. One of the studies in

the literature review noted that having students correct inaccurate concept maps had a

positive affect on reading comprehension and summarization skills (Chang, Sung &

Chen, 2007). Based on my review of the LAL students maps, I think that map creation

and correction could be a very effective assessment for literature courses.

Ultimately concept mapping has to be considered another tool in the toolbox but

it isnt a silver bullet. According to the students in this study, it helps some students and

confuses others, and that makes it similar to nearly every other approach to teaching and

comprehending text. Concept mapping isnt just a type of graphic organizer. The key to

concept mapping is the effort to articulate the links between ideas and events, and the key

to reading comprehension is finding a way to connect the text to a students current

knowledge and experiences. The similarities between concept mapping and

understanding text are too compelling to ignore, despite the fact that this research showed

no significant impact for this population.

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Reference List

Boyle, J.R. (1996). The effects of a cognitive mapping strategy on the literal and

inferential comprehension of students with mild disabilities.Learning Disability

Quarterly, 19(2), pp. 86-98.

Chang, K., Sung, Y., & Chen, I. (2002). The effect of concept mapping to enhance text

comprehension and summarization. The Journal of Experimental Education, 71

(1), 5 23.

Cromley, J.G., & Azevedo, R. (2007). Testing and refining the direct and inferential

model of reading comprehension.Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(2), 311-

325.

Jonassen, D.H., Peck, K.L., & Wilson, B.G. (1999).Learning with Technology: A

Constructivist Perspective. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

McCagg, E.C., & Dansereau, D.F. (1991). A convergent paradigm for examining

knowledge mapping as a learning strategy.Journal of Educational Research, 84

(6), pp. 317-324.

Novak, J.D., & Gowin, D.B. (1984).Learning How to Learn. New York, NY: Cambridge

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ODonnell, A.M., Dansereau, D.F., & Hall, R.H. (2002). Knowledge maps as scaffolds

for cognitive processing.Educational Psychology Review, 14 (1), pp.71-86.

Plotnik, E. (1997). Concept mapping: a graphical system for understanding the

relationship between concepts. ERIC Clearinghouse on Information and

Technology Syracuse NY: ED407938. www.ericdigests.org/1998-1/concept.htm

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STAR Reading Score Definition Report.(2006).Read Now, Power Up! Training

materials: Session 3. Renaissance Learning. pp. 1-19.