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FEDERAL OFFICE OF ROAD SAFETY I CHILDREN AND ROAD ACCIDENTS An analysis of the problems and some suggested solutions Prepared by BARRY ELLIOTT Elliott and Shanahan Research CR 36 April 1985
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Page 1: Children and road accidents: An analysis of the problems ... · - more children 0-4 are involved in road accidents than children aged 5-7 and males outnumber females. Vehicle Passenqers

FEDERAL OFFICE OF ROAD SAFETY

I

CHILDREN AND ROAD ACCIDENTS An analysis of the problems and some suggested solutions

Prepared by

BARRY ELLIOTT

Elliott and Shanahan Research

CR 36

April 1985

Page 2: Children and road accidents: An analysis of the problems ... · - more children 0-4 are involved in road accidents than children aged 5-7 and males outnumber females. Vehicle Passenqers

DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT

FEDERAL OFFICE OF ROAD SAFETY

DOCUMENT RETRIEVAL INFORMATION

Report No. Date Pages ISBN lSSN

CR 36 April 1985 275-ix 642 51242 6 CR=0810-770 X

Title and Subtitle: CHILDREN AND ROAD ACCIDENTS: An Analysis of the Problems and Some Suggested Solutions

Author: ELLIOTT, Barry.

Performing Organisation: ELLIOTT L SHANAHAN RESEARCH, 8 BERRY STREET, NORTH SYDNEY, N.S.W., 2060, AUSTRALIA.

Sponsor: Federal Office of Road Safety, P.O. Box 594, Civic Square, ACT., 2608.

I Available from (Name and Address) I Price/Availabilitv/Format I

I Abstract:

Road crashes involving children are examined in detail for the three most populous Australian states for the years 1981 and 1982. Individual crash records are analysed i depth, as well as mass data systems. The report includes a detailed literature review determine what is known about the child road accident environment and the world of the child. Parent's and teacher's concerns are examined along with road safety education. The report concludes with a detailed analysis of suggested countermeasures and some suggestions for further research. In essence, the solutions to the problems require countermeasures which look beyond the child, being primarily aimed at other road users.

Keywords: Children, Teenagers, Accidents, In-depth Analysis, Mothers, Teachers, Education, Countermeasures, Research, Pedestrians, Pedal Cyclist.3, Vehicle Occupant Restraints, Young Drivers, Residential Streets, Speed, Graduated Licensing, Passengers, 'Bike-Ed', Helmet Usage.

NOTES: -

I ( 1 ) FORS research reports are disseminated in the interests of information exchange.

(2) The views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily represent those of the Commonwealth Government.

The Federal Office of Road Safety publishes two series of research report:

(a) I ( 3 )

reports generated as a result of research done within the FORS are published in the OR series:

reports or research conducted by other organisations on behalf of the FORS (b) are published in the CR series. I

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C H I L D R E N AND ROAD A C C I D E N T S : A n A n a l y s i s of t h e P r o b l e m s ___I_ ---I-I

prepared b y B A R R Y E L L I O T T B.Comm(Appl.Psych.)Hons.Dip.Ed.M.A.Ps.S

E L L I O T T & SHANAHAM R E S E A R C H R e s e a r c h & C o m m u n i c a t i o n P s y c h o l o g i s t s

A p r i l 1 9 8 5

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY (iv)

A - THE CHILD R O A D ACCIDENT SITUATION

1.0 I N T R O D U C T I O N 1.1 Background 1.2 The C o n t i n u i n g N a t u r e of t h e P r o b l e m 1.3 The I n c i d e n c e of Road C r a s h e s I n v o l v i n g

1.4 The P r o b l e m o f U n r e p o r t e d A c c i d e n t s 1.5 M e t h o d o l o g i c a l P r o b l e m s i n R e p o r t i n g A c c i d e n t s 1 .6 C h i l d Road A c c i d e n t s i n P e r s p e c t i v e 1.7 S o m e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o m p a r i s o n s 1.8 The P r o b l e m of Aqe D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n 1.9 Age C a t e q o r i s a t i o n s Used i n t h e C u r r e n t S t u d y

C h i l d r e n i n A u s t r a l i a

1 2 3

5 8 9

1 1 16 17 18

2.0 ANALYSIS OF C H I L D ROAD ACCIDENT STATISTICS 19 2.1 O v e r s e a s E x p e r i e n c e 20 2.2 A u s t r a l i a n A c c i d e n t D a t a 21 2.3 V a r i a t i o n s i n A u s t r a l i a n P a t t e r n s b y S t a t e 25 2.4 D e t a i l e d C a s u a l t y A c c i d e n t A n a l y s i s

- T h r e e Most P o p u l o u s S t a t e s 27 2.5 R i s k a n d E x p o s u r e 44 2.6 N a t u r e of I n j u r i e s 51

3.0 EXISTING KNOWLEDGE I N RELATION T O ACCIDENT ENVIRONMENT 55 3.1 Time F a c t o r s 56 3.2 L o c a t i o n F a c t o r s 57 3.3 D r i v e r F a c t o r s 64 3.4 Summary o f E n v i r o n m e n t a l F a c t o r s 74

4.0 IN-DEPTH ANALYSIS O F ACCIDENT RECORDS ACROSS T H R E E STATES 4.1 The M e t h o d o l o g y 4.2 A n a l y s i s o f 342 I n d i v i d u a l C a s e R e c o r d s

4.3 A n a l y s i s of Mass D a t a B a s e s (N=350 C h i l d r e n )

75 76

81 95

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B. THE CHILD, THE PARENTS. THE TEACHER. AND BDUCATION

5 . 0 UNDERSTANDING THE WORLD O F THE C H I L D 5 . 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 5 . 2 C h i l d r e n ' s Minds 5 . 3 Road B e h a v i o u r 5 . 4 P l a y a n d Road B e h a v i o u r 5 . 5 P e d a l C y c l e B e h a v i o u r 5 . 6 D e v e l o p m e n t 5 . 7 P e r c e p t u a l C o q n l t i v e D e v e l o p m e n t 5 . 8 S o c i a l A t t i t u d i n a l D e v e l o p m e n t 5 . 9 Key D e v e l o p m e n t a l C o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n E d u c a t i n g

C h i l d r e n i n Road S a f e t y

6 . 0 MOTHERS' A N D TEACHERS' POINTS O F V I E W 6 . 1 The I m p o r t a n c e o f Mothers a n d T e a c h e r s 6 . 2 An E x p l o r a t o r y S t u d y o f M o t h e r s a n d T e a c h e r s 6 . 3 M o t h e r s a n d t h e Road S a f e t y o f t h e i r C h i l d r e n 6 . 4 S c h o o l T e a c h e r s a n d Road S a f e t y

7 . 0 ROAD 7 . 1 7 . 2 7 . 3

7 . 4 7 . 5

7 . 6 7 . 7

SAFETY. E D U C A T I O N Background Does Road S a f e t y E d u c a t i o n Work? S e t t i n g M e a s u r a b l e O b j e c t i v e s f o r E d u c a t i o n a l P r o g r a m s I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods C h i l d r e n ' s T r a f f i c S a f e t y C l u b s - P a r e n t s / C h i l d E d u c a t i o n S a f e P l a y i n g P r o a r a m ( P a r e n t s a n d P r e - S c h o o l e r s ) O t h e r P r o g r a m s

1 2 8

1 2 8 1 2 9 1 2 9 1 3 2 1 3 3 1 3 6 1 4 1 1 4 2 1 4 8

1 5 0

1 5 2 1 5 3 1 5 4 1 5 5 161

1 6 6 1 6 7 1 6 8

1 6 9 1 7 2

1 7 5 1 7 8 1 7 9

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C. A V A R I E T Y OF P O S S I B L E F U T U R E A C T I V I T I E S

8.0 S U G G E S T E D C O U N T E R M E A S U R E S A I M E D A T R E D U C I N G C H I L D ROAD A C C I D E N T S 8.1 A n O v e r v i e w 8.2 T h e I m p o r t a n c e of S a f e t y R e l a t e d B e h a v i o u r s 8 . 3 T h e C r i t i c a l R o l e of I m p l e m e n t a t i o n 8.4 K e y R e c o m m e n d e d C o u n t e r m e a s u r e s f o r e a c h

8.5 O t h e r S u g g e s t e d C o u n t e r m e a s u r e s 8.6 C o n c l u s i o n s

C h i l d R o a d User C a t e g o r y

9.0 I M P L I C A T I O N S F O R R E S E A R C H 9.1 T h e H e u r i s t i c N a t u r e of R e s e a r c h 9.2 R o a d A c c i d e n t ' D a t a 9.3 N o r m a l B e h a v i o u r - T h e B i g G a p 9.4 D r i v e r P e r c e p t i o n o f C h i l d R o a d B e h a v i o u r s 9.5 S c h o o l E d u c a t i o n 9.6 E n f o r c e m e n t of C h i l d R e s t r a i n t L a w s 9.7 B i c y c l e H e l m e t A c c e p t a n c e b y C h i l d r e n 9.8 T h e R o l e of H e a r i n g i n S a f e R o a d B e h a v i o u r s 9.9 O t h e r I m p o r t a n t R e s e a r c h I s s u e s

182

183 183 184 185

186 21 4 231

233 234 235 236 237 237 238 238 239 240

242

275

R E F E R E N C E S

A P P E N D I X

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iv

E X E C U T I V E SUMMARY

The r e p o r t i s d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e m a j o r s e c t i o n s i n v o l v i n g :

- ( A ) A s i t u a t i o n a n a l y s i s ; - ( B ) A d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e c h i l d , t h e p a r e n t , t h e t e a c h e r and

e d u c a t i o n ; and

- I

" - (C) S u q g e s t i o n s f o r p o s s i b l e f u t u r e a c t i v i t i e s .

A . The C h i l d Road A c c i d e n t S i t u a t i o n

Road C r a s h e s i n A u s t r a l i a a r e t h e s i n g l e l a r g e s t c a u s e o f c h i l d d e a t h s f o r c h i l d r e n a g e d o n e y e a r t o s i x t e e n y e a r s i n c l u s i v e . The F e d e r a l O f f i c e o f Road S a f e t y r e c o g n i s e d t h e n e e d t o i d e n t i f y h i g h r i s k a c c i d e n t s i t u a t i o n s s o a s t o i d e n t i f y s p e c i f i c t a r g e t b e h a v i o u r s wh ich c o u l d b e m o d i f i e d and t h e r i s k o f a c c i d e n t s o r s e r i o u s i n j u r y l o w e r e d . The o u t c o m e o f t h e a n a l y s i s was t o b e t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f g u i d e l i n e s f o r p u b l i c i t y c a m p a i g n s .

Over 4 0 0 c h i l d r e n a r e k i l l e d o n A u s t r a l i a n r o a d s e a c h y e a r and a t l e a s t 4 , 0 0 0 s e r i o u s l y i n j u r e d . The i n c i d e n c e o f r o a d a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n i s l i k e l y t o b e c o n s i d e r a b l y u n d e r s t a t e d , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o c r a s h e s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d p e d a l c y c l i s t s . I n terms o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m p a r i s o n s ( a d i f f i c u l t a s s i g n m e n t t o c a r r y o u t a c c u r a t e l y ) , A u s t r a l i a h a s o n e o f t h e w o r s t c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t r e c o r d s .

The s i g n i f i c a n c e of r o a d c r a s h e s i n c h i l d ( 0 - 1 6 ) d e a t h s c a n n o t b e o v e r - e m p h a s i s e d . However , t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f r o a d c r a s h e s a s t h e m a i n c a u s e of d e a t h i s c o n s i d e r a b l y g r e a t e r f o r y o u t h ( 1 7 - 2 5 ) , w h e r e A u s t r a l i a a g a i n p e r f o r m s b a d l y i n I n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m p a r i s o n s .

W i t h i n A u s t r a l i a , t h e r e a r e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e s t a t e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t r a t e s . F u r t h e r a n a l y s i s a l s o r e v e a l s t h a t c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n e x i s t s b e t w e e n s t a t e s i n terms of each c h i l d a g e g r o u p and r o a d u s e r t y p e .

A n a l y s i s of A c c i d e n t S t a t i s t i c s s u p p l i e d by t h e t h r e e m o s t p o p u l o u s s t a t e s r e v e a l s t h a t e a c h o f t h e v a r i o u s s u b - a g e g r o u p s poses a n e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t s e t o f b e h a v i o u r p a t t e r n s and e a c h c o n t r i b u t e s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t l y t o t h e t o t a l a c c i d e n t s t a t i s t i c s i n t e rms of r o a d u s e r c a t e g o r i e s :

- c h i l d v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s a c c o u n t f o r t h e g r e a t e s t number o f d e a t h s and r e p o r t e d r o a d i n j u r i e s ( o v e r 4 5 % ) ;

- c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s a c c o u n t f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e s i x t h I of a l l r e p o r t e d c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t s ;

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V

- c h i l d p e d a l c y c l i s t s a c c o u n t for a p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e s i x t h o f a l l r e p o r t e d c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t s ;

- a l m o s t 1 0 % o f c h i l d r o a d d e a t h s and r o a d i n j u r i e s i n v o l v e c h i l d r e n a s d r i v e r s o f c a r s or r i d e r s / p i l l i o n p a s s e n g e r s o n m o t o r c y c l e s ;

- t h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n b y s t a t e i n t h e a c c i d e n t p a t t e r n . N.S.W., i n p a r t i c u l a r , h a s a h i g h a c c i d e n t r a t e f o r t h e two l a r q e s t c a t e g o r i e s of c h i l d r o a d u s e r a c c i d e n t s ; v i z . , v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s and p e d e s t r i a n s ;

- a c r o s s a l l c h i l d r o a d u s e r c a t e g o r i e s c o m b i n e d , i n t h e t h r e e m o s t p o p u l o u s s t a t e s , t h e g r e a t e s t number o f a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v e t e e n a g e r s ( 1 3 - 1 6 y e a r s o f a g e ) , and e s p e c i a l l y males;

- more c h i l d r e n 0 -4 a r e i n v o l v e d i n r o a d a c c i d e n t s t h a n c h i l d r e n a g e d 5 - 7 and m a l e s o u t n u m b e r f e m a l e s .

V e h i c l e P a s s e n q e r s

* Males ' and f e m a l e s a r e a l m o s t e q u a l l y i n v o l v e d .

* The l e a s t i n v o l v e d a r e t h e 5 - 7 a g e g r o u p .

* The l a r g e s t i n c i d e n c e o f p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v e t h e 1 3 - 1 6 a g e g r o u p . They r e p r e s e n t 2 3 % o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n , and a r o u n d 4 0 % o f t h e p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t s or p a s s e n g e r d e a t h s .

P e d e s t r i a n s

The p e d e s t r i a n p r o b l e m is skewed t o w a r d s m a l e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n

I

c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n d e a t h s .

* The 8 - 1 2 a g e g r o u p i s c o n s i d e r a b l y o v e r - r e p r e s e n t e d i n a c c i d e n t s , b u t t h e p r o b l e m i s s i z e a b l e i n a l l a g e g r o u p s .

* The l e a s t l i k e l y g r o u p t o b e i n v o l v e d i n p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s a r e f e m a l e s aged 0 - 7 y e a r s o f a g e .

P e d a l - C y c l i s t s

* Over 80% o f c h i l d a c c i d e n t s or d e a t h s i n v o l v e a male p e d a l c y c l i s t .

* The l a r g e s t number o f a c c i d e n t s ( o v e r 4 0 % ) i n v o l v e t e e n a g e ( 1 3 - 1 6 y e a r s ) males who r e p r e s e n t o n l y 1 2 % o f t h e c h i l d p o p u l a t i o n . M a l e s a g e d 3 - 1 2 y e a r s a c c o u n t f o r 3 3 % o f t h e a c c i d e n t s and 1 6 % o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n .

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vi

M e t r o v s - Non-Metro

* The c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n p r o b l e m i s r e s t r i c t m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a s .

% r i l y t o

* C h i l d v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t s a c c o u n t f o r p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y more o f n o n - m e t r o a c c i d e n t s .

P e d a l c y c l e a c c i d e n t s a r e more p r e d o m i n a n t i n t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a s , b u t a r e s t i l l s i g n i f i c a n t i n n o n - m e t r o a r e a s .

* A n a l y s i s of m e t r o v e r s u s n o n m e t r o a r e a s v a r i e s d r a m a t i c a l l y h e t w e e n e a c h of t h e t h r e e most p o p u l o u s s t a t e s , s u g q e s t i n g t h a t r e s o u r c e s a imed a t t h e c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t p r o b l e m c o u l d r e q u i r e e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t a l l o c a t i o n s i n e a c h s t a t e .

A n a l y s i s of t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t i n g t o t h e c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t e n v i r o n m e n t s u g g e s t s t h a t c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n s and p e d a l c y c l i s t s a r e more a t r i s k a f t e r s c h o o l and e a r l y e v e n i n g . C h i l d p e d a l c y c l e a c c i d e n t s a l s o o c c u r a t weekends a c c o r d i n g t o h o s p i t a l a c c i d e n t r e c o r d s . R e s i d e n t i a l s t r e e t s a r e t h e key t o c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n and p e d a l c y c l e a c c i d e n t s .

D r i v e r f a c t o r s a r e b e l i e v e d t o p l a y a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n r o a d c r a s h e s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n a s o c c u p a n t s , a s p e d e s t r i a n s , o r a s p e d a l c y c l i s t s . D r i v e r f a c t o r s a r e r e l a t e d t o s p e e d s and r e s i d e n t i a l s t r e e t s . A t s p e e d s o f 60 km/hr or g r e a t e r d r i v e r s a r e u n l i k e l y t o s t o p o r b e p r e p a r e d t o s t o p . C h i l d p e d e s t r i a n s appea r more l i k e l y t o t a k e c a u t i o n a r y a c t i o n t h a n d r i v e r s .

Young a n d / o r n o v i c e d r i v e r s a r e d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y i n v o l v e d i n r o a d c r a s h e s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n a s p e d e s t r i a n s , b u t more e s p e c i a l l y w i t h o c c u p a n t c a s u a l t ' i e s . I n r e s p e c t t o t h e l a t t e r , a r e d u c t i o n i n t e e n a g e / y o u t h d r i v e r a c c i d e n t s would h a v e a s i z e a b l e e f f e c t o n t e e n a g e o c c u p a n t d e a t h s and i n j u r i e s .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e macro a n a l y s i s o f a c c i d e n t d a t a and t h e e x t e n s i v e l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w , 3 4 2 c h i l d a c c i d e n t r e c o r d s were s t u d i e d i n - d e p t h i n a n e f f o r t t o e s t a b l i s h t h e a c c i d e n t p r e c i p i t a t i n g f a c t o r s . Most o f t h e r e c o r d s i n v o l v e d a c h i l d f a t a l i t y s i n c e f a t a l i t i e s p r o v i d e c o n s i d e r a b l y more r e c o r d e d i n f o r m a t i o n . S c e n a r i o s were e s t a b l i s h e d f o r e a c h age g r o u p / r o a d u s e r c a t e g o r y . A s a g e i n c r e a s e s t h e number o f s c e n a r i o s n e e d e d a l s o i n c r e a s e s ( s e e Summary s e c t i o n 4 . 2 6 ) .

The f o u r t h s t r a n d of i n f o r m a t i o n i n v o l v e d t h e i n t e r r o g a t i o n o f mass d a t a s y s t e m s . F o r A u s t r a l i a , a s a w h o l e , t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f T r a n s p o r t F a t a l F i l e 1 4 8 1 w a s u s e d . A d d i t i o n a l l y N.S.W. and V i c t o r i a mass d a t a s y s t e m s were e x t e n s i v e l y i n t e r r o g a t e d . The r e s u l t s a r e s u m m a r i s e d i n F i g u r e E ( s e e s e c t i o n s 4 . 3 6 ) .

___ --

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B. The C h i l d , T h e P a r e n t , The T e a c h e r a n d E d u c a t o r .

C h i l d r e n a r e n o t l i t t l e a d u l t s . C h i l d r e n a r e d i f f e r e n t . E x t e n s i v e r e v i e w s e x i s t d o c u m e n t i n g t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s . The c u r r e n t r e v i e w a t t e m p t s t o s y n t h e s i s e w h a t i s known a b o u t c h i l d r e n a s r o a d u s e r s .

Young c h i l d r e n , i n p a r t i c u l a r , d i s p l a y I_ p o o r :

- powers of p e r c e p t i o n , c o n c e n t r a t i o n , a t t e n t i o n , memory, and

I_- I

p h y s i c a l and e m o t i o n a l c o n t r o l .

- knowledge and u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t r a f f i c .

- b e h a v i o u r p a t t e r n s i n t r a f f i c e n v i r o n m e n t .

C h i l d r e n , i n g e n e r a l , d o n o t r e a d i l y t r a n s f e r t h e o r e t i c a l e d u c a t i o n and knowledge t o p r a c t i c a l s i t u a t i o n s .

A s m a l l - s c a l e e x p l o r a t o r y s t u d y was c a r r i e d o u t i n S y d n e y a m o n g s t m o t h e r s and s c h o o l t e a c h e r s . M o t h e r s and t e a c h e r s s ee t h e i r r o l e s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o r o a d s a f e t y e d u c a t i o n . They a g r e e , h o w e v e r , o n t h e need t o p r o v i d e more and b e t t e r r o a d s a f e t y e d u c a t i o n and a p p e a r a m e n a b l e t o many o f t h e s u g g e s t i o n s i n s e c t i o n 8.

Road s a f e t y e d u c a t i o n i s e x a m i n e d , b u t n o t i n m i n u t e d e t a i l . The a i m i s t o e x a m i n e i s s u e s r a t h e r t h a n p r o g r a m s . The i s s u e o f w h a t a r e a p p r o p r i a t e g o a l s i s c o n s i d e r e d . W h i l s t t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n i s t h a t e d u c a t i o n is c o r r e c t l y a imed a t p r o v i d i n g k n o w l e d g e , more e m p h a s i s i s n e e d e d on b e h a v i o u r a l t r a i n i n g r a t h e r t h a n o n t h e n o r m a l e d u c a t i o n a l p a r a d i g m . The a im would b e t o t r a i n ' s a f e ' r o a d b e h a v i o u r s .

W h a t e v e r t h e o u t c o m e , e d u c a t i o n o r b e h a v i o u r a l t r a i n i n g , a c c i d e n t r e d u c t i o n is n o t t h e p r i m a r y g o a l o f m o s t e d u c a t i o n a l e f f o r t s a n d s h o u l d n o t b e t h e s o l e o r major c r i t e r i a f o r e v a l u a t i o n .

E x a m i n a t i o n of i n s t r u c t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s s u g g e s t t h a t much more a t t e n t i o n n e e d s t o b e d e v o t e d t o i m p l e m e n t a t i o n i s s u e s t h a n h a s o c c u r r e d i n t h e p a s t w i t h r e s p e c t t o r o a d s a f e t y e d u c a t i o n a l mater ia ls . F a n t a s y c h a r a c t e r s a p p e a r n o t t o h a v e b e e n employed i n A u s t r a l i a s i n c e H e c t o r The C a t was d e m o n s t r a t e d n o t t o h a v e b e e n e f f e c t i v e . T h i s w h o l e s a l e r e j e c t i o n o f a l l f a n t a s y c h a r a c t e r s i s q u e s t i o n e d .

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C h i l d r e n ' s T r a f f i c S a f e t y C l u b s a r e c r i t i c a l l y e x a m i n e d . I f p r e - s c h o o l c h i l d r e n a r e t o b e t r a i n e d t h e n p a r e n t s / t e a c h e r s m u s t b e i n v o l v e d i n r e a l w o r l d m o d e l l i n g . They m u s t b e g i v e n i n s t r u c t i o n and p r e f e r a b l y n o t a l l i n o n e b l o c k . The e s s e n c e i s t r a i n i n g , b a s e d o n . b e h a v i o u r a l m o d e l i n g , i n v o l v i n g t h e p a r e n t s , and n o t o n e d u c a t i o n a s n o r m a l l y c o n s i d e r e d .

The q u e s t i o n i s r a i s e d a s t o w h e t h e r i t may n o t b e b e t t e r t o t r a i n young c h i l d r e n n o t t o e n t e r t h e r o a d w i t h o u t a n a d u l t , a s pe r t h e Embry S a f e P l a y i n q P r o g r a m .

C. A V a r i e t y o f P o s s i b l e F u t u r e A c t i v i t i e s

F i g u r e F ( s e c t i o n 8 . 1 ) s u m m a r i s e s t h e main c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s p r o p o s e d . I n e x a m i n i n g t h e c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s i t i s u r g e d t h a t t h e a i m s o f many o f t h e c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s a r e ' s a f e ' r o a d b e h a v i o u r s . I t i s a r g u e d t h a t s a f e t y i s ' b e h a v i o u r ' and t h e a p p r o p r i a t e g o a l o f i n s t r u c t i o n i s t h e a d o p t i o n o f ' s a f e ' r o a d b e h a v i o u r s . I n t h e c o n t e x t of c h i l d r o a d s a f e t y , t h e q u e s t i o n i s n o t how t o r e d u c e t h e a c c i d e n t p r o b l e m , b u t t o r e p l a c e ' u n s a f e ' b e h a v i o u r s w i t h known ' s a f e ' b e h a v i o u r s .

A g a i n , i m p l e m e n t a t i o n i s s t r e s s e d s i n c e a l l t o o o f t e n t h e b e s t d e v i s e d p r o g r a m s a r e n o t g i v e n a p r o p e r c h a n c e , b e c a u s e t o o l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n i s d e v o t e d t o i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e p r o g r a m .

The c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s recommended a r e r e l a t e d t o e a c h o f t h e r o a d u s e r c a t e g o r i e s . Many of t h e c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s h a v e a d i r e c t i m p a c t o n someone o t h e r t h a n t h e c h i l d ( s e e l i s t i n 8 . 6 ) . The s o l u t i o n s t o t h e c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t s i t u a t i o n a r e b a s e d on t w o premises. F i r s t , a w i d e r a n g e o f m e a s u r e s is n e e d e d t o i m p a c t o n t h e c u r r e n t s i t u a t i o n s i n c e it i s , i n r e a l i t y , a s e r i e s o f e n t i re1 y d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s . S e c o n d , t h e c h i l d , i n many i n s t a n c e s , is t h e v i c t i m of t h e s i t u a t i o n and t h e s o l u t i o n i s i n t h e h a n d s of t h e a d u l t , n o t t h e c h i l d .

M o s t o f t h e c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s p r o p o s e d r e l a t e t o e x i s t i n g p r a c t i c e s . Some a r e new. Some i n v o l v e p u b l i c : r o l v e a r a n g e o f f a c t o r s i n c l u d i n g , p u b l i c i t y and e n f <

V e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t s a c c o u n t f o r t h e g r e a t e s t number o f c h i l d r o a d c a s u a l t i e s . The s i n g l e m o s t e f f e c t i v e means o f p r o t e c t i o n is a c h i l d r e s t r a i n t o r s e a t b e l t . W e a r i n g r a t e s a r e s t i l l q u i t e low. Even i n V i c t o r i a , w h i c h h a s made c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o g r e s s i n w e a r i n g r a t e s , t e e n a g e w e a r i n g r a t e s i n t h e rear s e a t a r e s t i l l i n need o f i m p r o v e m e n t . I t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t d r i v e r s o u g h t t o b e l i a b l e f o r o c c u p a n t s u p t o a g e 1 8 , and t h a t w h a t is n e e d e d i s p u b l i c i t y and e n f o r c e m e n t o n a c o n t i n u a l b a s i s o v e r a number o f y e a r s .

I-_--

__ ---

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P e d e s t r i a n A c c i d e n t s a r e t h e s e c o n d l a r g e s t c o n t r i b u t o r t o c h i l d r o a d c a s u a l t i e s . However , when l o o k e d a t i n p e r s p e c t i v e t o a l l p e d e s t r i a n c a s u a l t i e s , a d u l t s a r e f a r more s i g n i f i c a n t . A number o f c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s a r e p r o p o s e d :

- a mass m e d i a p u b l i c i t y c a m p a i g n a imed a t a d u l t s a b o u t c h i l d

__

ped e s t r i a n s a fe t y . - c h a n g i n g t h e s t a t u s o f r e s i d e n t i a l s t r e e t s so t h a t a l l r o a d s

( d e s i g n a t e d ) i n r e s i d e n t i a l s t r e e t s a r e q i v e n t h e same l e g a l s t a t u s a s e x i s t s f o r p e d e s t r i a n c r o s s i n g .

- l o w e r i n g v e h i c l e s p e e d s i n r e s i d e n t i a l s t r e e t s .

- h e h a v i o u r a l t r a i n i n g f o r p r e - s c h o o l e r s , i n v o l v i n g p a r e n t s a n d p r e - s c h o o l t e a c h e r s .

P e d a l C y c l e A c c i d e n t s a r e c l e a r l y much more s i g n i f i c a n t t h a n r o a d a c c i d e n t s t a t i s t i c s r e v e a l . The s u g g e s t e d c o u n t e r m e a s u r e i n v o l v e s a much g r e a t e r a p p l i c a t i o n o f ' B i k e - E d ' a n d s u g g e s t i o n s a r e made a s t o how t o b r i n q t h i s a b o u t . C h i l d s a f e t y h e l m e t s a r e c o n s i d e r e d and t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n i s t h a t mass m e d i a p u b l i c i t y b e a imed a t t h e p a r e n t and t e a c h e r , n o t t h e c h i l d .

W h i l s t a number of o t h e r c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s a r e recommended, young ~- d r i v e r s a r e c o n s i d e r e d i n d e t a i l b e c a u s e o f t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e t o ( a ) c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t s , and ( b ) t h e t o t a l r o a d a c c i d e n t _I

s t a t i s t i c s . G r a d u a t e d l i c e n s i n g i s recommended w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e p r o v i s i o n s r e l a t i n g t o s u p e r v i s i o n , a n d t h e s u g g e s t e d l a c k o f p r e s e n c e of c h i l d and t e e n a g e p a s s e n g e r s .

The a n a l y s i s i s c o m p l e t e d by some s u g g e s t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o a r e a s i n need o f a d d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h . T h i s f i n a l c h a p t e r i s n o t e x h a u s t i v e . The s u g g e s t i o n s r e f l e c t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n n e e d s i n t h i s a r e a a s s e e n b y t h e r e s e a r c h a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n p s y c h o l o g i s t who h a s c a r r i e d o u t t h i s a n a l y s i s a n d t h o s e i n t h e F e d e r a l O f f i c e o f Road S a f e t y who r e a d t h e d r a f t m a n u s c r i p t . The p u r p o s e i n m a k i n g t h e s e s u g g e s t i o n s is t h e h o p e t h a t somebody , somewhere , s o m e t i m e w i l l i n v e s t i g a t e f u r t h e r .

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A. THE CHILL) ROAD ACCIDENT SITUATION

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1 . 1 1 . 2 1 . 3

1 . 4 1 . 5 1 . 6

1 . 7 1 . 8 1 . 9

B a c kq round The C o n t i n u i n g N a t u r e o f t h e P r o b l e m The I n c i d e n c e o f Road C r a s h e s I n v o l v i n g C h i l d r e n i n A u s t r a l i a The P r o b l e m o f U n r e p o r t e d A c c i d e n t s M e t h o d o l o g i c a l P r o b l e m s i n R e p o r t i n g A c c i d e n t s C h i l d Road A c c i d e n t s i n P e r s p e c t i v e 1 . 6 1 D e a t h s 1 . 6 2 I n j u r i e s Some I n t e r n a t i o n a 1 Corn pa r i s o n s The P r o b l e m o f Age D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n Age C a t e g o r i s a t i o n s Used i n t h e C u r r e n t S t u d y

T h i s i n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p t e r a t t e m p t s t o p u t r o a d c r a s h e s i n v o l v i n g a c c i d e n t s t o c h i l d r e n i n t o p e r s p e c t i v e i n terms o f t h e i r r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e when compared t o o t h e r a g e g r o u p s , t o o t h e r causes of d e a t h o r i n j u r y . A u s t r a l i a n c h i l d r o a d d e a t h s and r o a d i n j u r y s t a t i s t i c s a r e compared w i t h a v a i l a b l e e q u i v a l e n t W e s t e r n o v e r s e a s c o u n t r i e s . The i s s u e s o f u n r e p o r t e d a c c i d e n t s a n d t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m o f r e p o r t i n g a c c i d e n t s a r e r a i s e d . F i n a l l y , t h e a g e s u s e d t o d e f i n e " c h i l d " a s 0 , 1 7 , i . e . , 0 t o 1 6 y e a r s i n c l u s i v e , a r e d e l i n e a t e d i n c l u d i n g s u b - g r o u p i n g s .

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2

1 . 1 Background

The F e d e r a l O f f i c e of Road S a f e t y (FORS), w i t h i n t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f T r a n s p o r t ( D O T ) , c o m m i s s i o n e d B . J . E l l i o t t & A s s o c i a t e s t o u n d e r t a k e " b a c k g r o u n d r e s e a r c h " w h i c h was r e q u i r e d by t h e Off i c e for t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a p p r o p r i a t e r o a d s a f e t y e d u c a t i o n m a t e r i a l a s p a r t of t h e i n t e n d e d 1984-1986 N a t i o n a l Road S a f e t y P u b l i c E d u c a t i o n P rogram. T h i s P r o g r a m would b e a imed a t i m p r o v i n g t h e r o a d s a f e t y of c h i l d r e n .

The o r i g i n a l " S p e c i f , i c a t i o n " , ( J u l y 1 9 8 3 ) , i n c l u d e d , i n f u l l , a s A p p e n d i x A , s t a t e d t h a t :

-- 1-111

"The a i m of t h i s p r o g r a m i s t o e x a m i n e t h e s e . c r a s h e s t o i d e n t i f y s p e c i f i c f a c t o r s wh ich c o u l d l e a d t o improved s a f e t y , and b e e f f e c t i v e l y c o n v e y e d b y a p u b l i c i t y c a m p a i g n . "

-_

The e n v i s a g e d f i n a l o u t c o m e , a s per t h e " S p e c i f i c a t i o n " , w a s t o b e a N a t i o n a l r o a d s a f e t y p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m a imed a t r e d u c i n g t h e i n c i d e n c e of c h i l d r e n a g e d 0-16 i n c l u s i v e i n v o l v e d i n r o a d c ra shes .

R . J . E l l i o t t & A s s o c i a t e s (now E l l i o t t & S h a n a h a n R e s e a r c h ) were c o m m i s s i o n e d o n t h e 22nd of December 1 9 8 3 t o u n d e r t a k e t h e f o l l o w i n g , a s p r t h e o r i g i n a l " S p e c i f i c a t i o n " :

" R e s e a r c h R e q u i r e d

" I n i t i a l r e s e a r c h i s r e q u i r e d t o d e f i n e t h e g e n e r a l n a t u r e o f r o a d c r a s h e s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n .

" F a c t o r s w h i c h s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d i n c l u d e :

1 . The f r e q u e n c y and t y p e o f a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n ;

2 . A c c i d e n t t y p e and l e v e l o f s e v e r i t y ;

3. S i t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i t h a h i g h a c c i d e n t f r e q u e n c y o r s e v e r i t y ;

4. R i s k e x p o s u r e of v a r i o u s g r o u p s .

" H a v i n g i d e n t i f i e d h i g h r i s k a c c i d e n t s i t u a t i o n s c o n s i d e r a t i o n s h o u l d t h e n b e g i v e n t o i d e n t i f y i n g s p e c i f i c t a r g e t b e h a v i o u r s w h i c h c o u l d b e m o d i f i e d t o l o w e r t h e r i s k o f a c c i d e n t or s e r i o u s i n j u r y .

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"The n e x t s t a g e of t h e p r o j e c t would b e t o i d e n t i f y t h e k n o w l e d g e , b e h a v i o u r and a t t i t u d e s t o r e l e v a n t g r o u p s i n r e l a t i o n t o i n d i v i d u a l t a r g e t b e h a v i o u r s a n d , i f r e l e v a n t , t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l and p h y s i o l o g i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s of c h i l d r e n i n t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s .

" R e s e a r c h s h o u l d a l s o i d e n t i f y w h a t i s t h e a p p r o p r i a t e r o l e f o r p a r e n t s , t e a c h e r s and o t h e r s i n e d u c a t i n g c h i l d r e n i n r o a d s a f e t y m a t t e r s .

"The o b j e c t i v e of t h i s r e s e a r c h i s t o d e v e l o p t o " c o n c e p t " s t a g e , a b r i e f w h i c h c o u l d b e handed t o a n a d v e r t i s i n g a g e n c y wh ich i d e n t i f i e s s p e c i f i c t a r g e t b e h a v i o u r s , t a r g e t g r o u p s and e f f e c t i v e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s t r a t e g i e s . ' ( D O T . , J u l y 83, pp.2-3).

1.2 The C o n t i n u i n s N a t u r e o f t h e P r o b l e m . I

T h e r e i s s o m e t h i n g ' s p e c i a l ' a b o u t c h i l d h o o d . A c h i l d i s n o t a l i t t l e a d u l t . When c h i l d r e n a r e i n v o l v e d i n r o a d a c c i d e n t s t h e l e v e l o f e m o t i o n a l t r a u m a t o a l l i n v o l v e d a p p e a r s l i k e l y t o b e c o n s i d e r a b l y g r e a t e r t h a n w h e r e a n o l d e r p e r s o n i s i n v o l v e d . C h i l d r e n h a v e a l i f e t i m e a h e a d o f them. A d u l t s a r e l i k e l y t o r e a c t more e m o t i o n a l l y t o w a r d c h i l d r e n t h a n t o o t h e r a d u l t s . W h a t e v e r t h e r e a s o n , c h i l d r e n a r e somewhat ' s p e c i a l ' .

Road c r a s h e s c a n i n v o l v e c o n s i d e r a b l e human s u f f e r i n g and e c o n o m i c c o s t t o b o t h t h e v e h i c l e d r i v e r / o w n e r and f a m i l y , and t o t h e b r o a d e r communi ty . Road c r a s h e s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n may or may n o t c r e a t e s u b s t a n t i a l p e r s o n a l and communi ty c o s t s b u t t h e e m o t i o n a l a n g u i s h t o ' s i g n i f i c a n t o t h e r s ' i s r e c o g n i s e d a s c o n s i d e r a b l e , l e t a l o n e t h e p e r s o n a l s u f f e r i n g t o t h e c h l l d and t h e t r a u m a t h a t i t c r e a t e s f o r l o v e d o n e s .

The r e c e n t O r g a n i s a t i o n f o r Economic C o - o p e r a t i o n and D e v e l o p m e n t ( O E C D ) (1983) r e p o r t T r a f f i c S a f e t y o f C h i l d r e n c o n c l u d e d t h a t :

" A p a r t f rom t h e e c o n o m i c p r o b l e m d u e t o t h e loss o f l i f e a m o n g s t t h o s e who h a v e n o t y e t become p r o d u c t i v e members o f t h e communi ty , t h e p r e m a t u r e d e a t h o f t h e s e young r o a d u s e r s i s p e r c e i v e d t h r o u g h o u t s o c i e t y a s p o s i n g g r a v e human and m o r a l p rob lems . ' ' ( O E C D 1983, p . 2 5 ) .

The S w e d i s h p i o n e e r e x p e r t i n f i e l d , S t i n a S a n d e l s , c o n s i s t e n t l y a r g u e d t h a t , b e l o w t h e a g e of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 y e a r s , c h i l d r e n d o n o t h a v e t h e s e n s o r y or c o q n i t i v e a b i l i t y t o c o p e w i t h modern - t r a f f i c . A c c o r d i n g l y , r e m e d i a l m e a s u r e s m u s t I b e p r i m a r i l y a imed a t s e g r e g a t i n q c h i l d r e n a n d t r a f f i c .

____- _ -_

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T h e i m p l i c a t i o n o f S a n d e l s ' c o n c l u s i o n s i s t h a t c h i l d r e n and t r a f f i c o u g h t t o b e s e p a r a t e d . However , t h i s c a n o n l y b e a c h i e v e d b y s u b s t a n t i a l s o c i a l d i s r u p t i o n and m a s s i v e e c o n o m i c c o s t s .

W h i l s t S a n d e l s may b e c o r r e c t , i t i s e q u a l l y t r u e t h a t many c h i l d r e n b e l o w t h e a g e o f 1 0 d o c o p e s u c c e s s f u l l y w i t h -- t r a f f i c . R a t h e r t h a n a c c e p t S a n d e l s ' a n a l y s i s , t h e r e i s a n e e d , a s s u g g e s t e d b y H o w a r t h , R o u t l e d g e , a n d R e p e t t o - W r i g h t ( 1 9 7 4 ) :

__ II-__________I_I_I___i_

" t o know more p r e c i s e l y and q u a n t i t a t i v e l y j u s t how b i g a r e t h e r i s k s wh ich c h i l d r e n r u n i n d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s , why some c h i l d r e n a r e l e s s a t r i s k t h a n o t h e r s , w h a t a r e t h e l i m i t s t o w h a t c a n b e a c h i e v e d by t r a i n i n g , an,d w h a t a r e t h e m o s t e f f e c t i v e ways t o s e g r e g a t e c h i l d r e n a n d t r a f f i c " . ( H o w a r t h , e t . a l . , 1 9 7 4 , p . 3 2 0 ) .

Van d e r Molen ( 1 9 8 1 ) a r g u e s t h a t w h i l s t S a n d e l s ' c o n c l u s i o n s h a v e d o m i n a t e d t h e t r a f f i c w o r l d f o r some t i m e , r e a l w o r l d o h s e r v a t i o n s o f c h i l d r e n c o p i n g w i t h t r a f f i c and e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h d o n o t j u s t i f y s u c h a c o n c l u s i o n .

I n t h e o r y , t h e c h a i n o f c a u s a l l i n k s l e a d i n g t o a c h i l d a c c i d e n t c a n h e b r o k e n a t a n y point. P e a r n and N i x o n ( 1 9 8 1 ) p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e l inks- i n t h e c h i l d h o o d t r a u m a c h a i n i n c l u d e s u c h

-- -_--I_

p r e d i s p o s i n g f a c t o r s a s t h e n a t u r e o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e s o c i o e c o n o m i c s t a t u s , t h e s t a n d a r d o f h o u s i n g , s o c i e t a l a t t i t u d e s t o c h i l d s a f e t y l e g i s l a t i o n i n t h e l o c a l a u t h o r i t y , and a m i s c e l l a n y of o t h e r f a c t o r s , i n c l u d i n g t h e p r o p o r t i o n _- o f t h e p u b l i c p u r s e s p e n t on r o a d e n g i n e e r i n q . ---- The c h a i n o f c a u s a l l i n k s c a n b e b r o k e n a t a n y p o i n t . The key l i e s i n f i n d i n g t h o s e l i n k s w h i c h c a n a f f e c t t h e l a r g e s t number o f c h i l d a c c i d e n t s i t u a t i o n s . J a r v i s ( 1 9 8 3 ) i s o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t , a s f a r a s p e d e s t r i a n and b i c y c l e a c c i d e n t s a r e c o n c e r n e d ,

- - ~ -_I

- ----

t h e m a j o r c a u s e i s t h e u n p r e d i c t a b l e b e h a v i o u r o f t h e c h i l d i n a n o t h e r w i s e b a s i c a l l y s t a b l e r o a b - e n v i r o n m e n t .

" I f t h i s i n d i v i d u a l b e h a v i o u r i s d i f f i c u l t t o a l t e r b y d i r e c t a c t i o n , t h e n a t t e n t i o n m u s t b e q i v e n t o o t h e r c o n t r i b u t i n g c a u s e s w h i c h m o s t d i r e c t l y a f f e c t t h e l e v e l a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h e t r i q g e r i n g mechan i sm" . ( J a r v i s 1 9 8 3 , p . 3 6 ) .

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C h i l d r e n a r e o f t e n q u i t e p r e d i c t a b l e , b u t t h e y c a n , and d o , e x h i b i t u n p r e d i c t a b l e r o a d b e h a v i o u r s . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d u n d e r w h a t c i r c u m s t a n c e s p r e d i c t a b l e b e h a v i o u r b r e a k s down and r e s u l t s i n " u n s a f e " r o a d b e h a v i o u r s . Such u n p r e d i c t a b l e b e h a v i o u r s may a l s o b e r e l a t e d t o c h i l d r e n ' s c a p a c i t y ( a b i l i t i e s ) t o c o p e w i t h t r a f f i c . S i n c e s u c h g u r u s l i k e S a n d e l s ( 1 9 7 5 ) h a v e s u c h g r a v e d o u b t s a b o u t t h e a b i l i t i e s o f younq c h i l d r e n u n d e r 8 , a n d p e r h a p s u n d e r 1 2 , t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n d e p e n d e n t l y i n t r a f f i c , some r e s e a r c h e r s (e .9 . J a r v i s , 1983) h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e r e a l c h a l l e n g e i s t o e d u c a t e b o t h p a r e n t s and d r i v e r s a b o u t t h e i r I r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s t o c h i l d r e n i n t r a f f i c , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h r e g a r d t o p e d e s t r i a n s . C h i l d c y c l i n g a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v e l a r g e l y o lde r c h i l d r e n and t h e y s h o u l d b e a m e n a b l e t o e d u c a t i o n a l p r o g r a m s .

1 . 3 T h e I n c i d e n c e o f Road C r a s h e s I n v o l v i n g C h i l d r e n

II__

-~ ---1---11 __l__ll

-~ i n A u s t r a l i a . I I

I n t h e o r y , i t may b e p o s s i b l e t o c o n c e i v e o f a s o c i e t y w h e r e b y c h i l d d e a t h s c a n be r e d u c e d t o a v e r y l o w l e v e l . However , i n p r a c t i c e , i t seems u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e y c a n b e t o t a l l y e l i m i n a t e d . What i s a r e a l i s t i c , t o l e r a b l e , l e v e l t o w h i c h r o a d t r a f f i c a u t h o r i t i e s s h o u l d a im? Road S a f e t y Campa igns v a r y i n t h e i r e f f ec t i v e n e s s . C h i l d c a m p a i g n s _ - E n d I t o b e p a r t i c u l a r l y i n e f f e c t i v e b e c a u s e t h e a g e o f t h e c h i l d makes him or h e r d i f f i c u l t t o i n f l u e n c e . P e a r n s u g g e s t s , t h a t a s a r e a l i s t i c s h o r t - t e r m g o a l f o r t h o s e r e s p o n s i b l e for c h i l d r e n ' s w e l f a r e and s a f e t y ;

"No S t a t e s h o u l d a c c e p t a c h i l d run-down a c c i d e n t r a t e g r e a t e r t h a n 3 .0 p e r 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 ( c h i l d r e n 0 - 1 5 ) . S i m i l a r l y , no S t a t e s h o u l d a c c e p t a c h i l d . d e a t h - r a t e ( f r o m i n t e r - v e h i c l e c r a s h e s ) g r e a t e r t h a n 3.0 per 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 . . . . ( P e a r n , 1 9 7 8 , p. 77).

_I- -lll_-l- h a = The f o l l o w i n g t h r e e t a b l e s r e v e a l t h a t , a s y e t , gome s t a t e s - n o t b e e n a b l e t o a c h i e v e t h i s g o a l .

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TABLE 1 C H I L D ROAD FATALITIES - 1 9 8 1 I

( M umb e r s )

T o t a l NSW V i c g g WA Tas ACT E

0 - 4 9 3 37 2 8 1 1 2 5 3 1 6 5 - 7 73 2 6 1 5 2 0 5 1 3 - 3 * 8 - 1 2 9 9 34 31 1 1 1 0 * 5 4 * - 4 *

I_ --- - -I

1 5 1 5 2 2 9 3 3 1 8 * 8 5* 2 4 * -_--__-~-l_-_-l_-

1 3 - 1 6 1 7 I__

0 - 1 6 # 4 1 6 1 4 9 1 0 3 7 5 3 5 1 9 1 5 3 __ ~- P a s s . C a r 1 7 7 6 6 3 8 3 2 1 3 * 1 1 5 * 2 1 o *

5 * P e d ' r i a n 1 3 6 5 5 3 8 1 8 8* 3 P e d a l

1 C y c l i s t 62 1 4 22 1 4 7 4 Motor b i k e / p i l l i o n 2 5 1 2 2 7 2 * - 1 - 1 * C a r

8* 1

- -

S o u r c e : I n f o r m a t i o n s u p p l i e d b y e a c h S t a t e on r e q u e s t .

Some e s t i m a t i o n r e q u i r e d b e c a u s e a g e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n d a t a s u p p l i e d n o t i d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e u s e d i n t h i s t a b l e .

# i . e . 0 < 1 7

TABLE 2 I

N.S.W. V I C . Q ' L D . S . A . W . A . TAS. A.C.T.

C H I L D R O A D FATALITIES - 1 9 8 1 I

D e a t h s - P o p u l a t i o n 0-1 6# P e d e s t r i a n P a s s e n g e r s

No. R a t e * a t R i s k ' 0 0 0 ---l_l_l-

- - R a t e * --- No. I lll-l_

1 4 4 0 1 1 1 3

6 9 1 3 5 7 384 1 2 6

7 4

5 5 3.8 6 6 4.6 38 3.4 38 3.4 1 8 2.6 3 2 4.6 8+ 2.2 1 3 + 3.6 3 0.8 1 1 2.9 8+ 6.3 5+ 4.0 1 1.4 2 2.7

-__- N . T . 4 4 - 5 + 11 .3 1 0 + 22.7 A U S T R A L I A 4 2 2 9 1 3 6 3.2 1 7 7 4.2

S o u r c e : S t a t i s t i c s s u p p l i e d by e a c h S t a t e on r e q u e s t . * Number of d e a t h s per 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 c h i l d r e n 0-16 . + E s t i m a t e s due t o s t a t e s c o l l e c t i n g d a t a i n d i f f e r e n t

# i . e . O(17 a g e c a t e g o r i e s i n t o p a g e c a t e g o r y .

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TABLE 3 I

C H I L D R O A D FATALITIES - 1982 -I__--

P o p u l a t i o n 0-1 6# P e d e s t r i a n P a s s e n g e r s a t R i s k ' 0 0 0 -

R a t e * I I__

R a t e * No. _I

No. _I -_

N .S .W. 1444 51 3.5 77 5.3

Q ' L D . 707 18 2.5 41 5.8 S . A . 354 8+ 2.3 13+ 3.7 W.A. 390 1 1 2.8 27 6.9

4+ 3.2 6+ 4.8 TAS. 125 A C T . 74 1 1.4 - -

45 N.T. AUSTRALIA 4247 126 3.0 --- 21 0 5.0

S o u r c e : S t a t l s t i c s s u p p l i e d b y e a c h S t a t e o n r e q u e s t Number of d e a t h s per 100,000 c h i l d r e n 0-16.

+ E s t i m a t e s d u e t o s t a t e s c o l l e c t i n g d a t a i n d i f f e r e n t

# i . e . 0 ~ 1 7

V I C . 1108 28 2.5 36 3.2

-I_ -lll--__ll___l____-_- 5+ 11 . 1 10+ 22.2 -_

a g e c a t e g o r i e s i n t o p a g e c a t e g o r y .

A s a p r o p o r t i o n o f a l l r o a d a l i t i e s , o r a l l r o a d i n j u r i e s , c h i l d r e n 0-16 r e p r e s e n t o n l y a s m a l l , b u t s i g n i f i c a n t , p r o p o r t i o n when c o m p a r e d t o t h e t o t a l , as c a n b e s e e n i n t a b l e 4 b e l o w .

_I l_-l__-_-_I

I n i n t e r p r e t i n g r o a d c r a s h d a t a , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o r e c o g n i s e t h a t t h e d a t a may n o t t e l l t h e w h o l e s t o r y . C e r t a i n l y , a s f a r as f a t a l s a r e c o n c e r n e d , t h e d a t a i s l i k e l y t o b e a r e a s o n a b l y a c c u r a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e s t a t e o f a f f a i r s i n 1980. However , f o r a c c i d e n t i n j u r i e s , t h e f i g u r e s c o u l d w e l i b e s u b s t a n t i a l l y u n d e r s t a t e d .

_I-__

AUSTRALIA 1980 I

TABLE 4 I

P o p u l a t i o n A s a P e r c e n t A s a P e r c e n t .of I n c i d e n c e o f F a t a l s Road I n j u r i e s __ -- A G E

C h i l d r e n (0-16) 28.3 12.7 15.4 Y o u t h ( 1 7-25) 17.1 36.6 40.1 A d u l t s (26-59) 41.2 34.3 32.9

7.9 A d u l t s 60 and o v e r 13.4 T O T A L 100% 100% 96.3%

_I

% % %

-~ 16.4 --

S o u r c e : R A C S (1982) "Road Trauma" - d e r i v e d f r o m T a b l e s pl5-16.

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8

1 . 4 T h e P r o b l e m o f U n r e p o r t e d A c c i d e n t s

T h e r e i s e v i d e n c e t h a t many a c c i d e n t s go u n r e p o r t e d . F u r t h e r , some r e p o r t e d a c c i d e n t s d o n o t f i n d t h e i r way i n t o t h e o f f i c i a l r o a d t r a f f i c a c c i d e n t s t a t i s t i c s . S e a r l e s ( 1 9 8 0 1 , i n a s t u d y c a r r i e d o u t f o r t h e N a t i o n a l Roads and M o t o r i s t s ' A s s o c i a t i o n ( N R M A ) i n N.S.W., compared a random sample o f " c o m p r e h e n s i v e " i n s u r a n c e c l a i m s f o r c r a s h e s o c c u r r i n g w i t h i n t h e C o u n t y o f C u m b e r l a n d ( S y d n e y ) w i t h t h e o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s and f o u n d :

-____ll_ll_l_

" T w e n t y - p e r c e n t of 1 1 9 5 s a m p l e c r a s h e s i n v o l v i n q t h e i n s u r e d ' s v e h i c l e b e i n g towed f r o m t h e c r a s h s c e n e w e r e r e p o r t e d t o P o l i c e b u t d i d n o t a p p e a r i n t h e o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s . . . . " O n l y 1 . 5 % o f u n r e p o r t e d c r a s h e s i n v o l v e d p e r s o n a l i n j u r y . N i n e - p e r c e n t of c r a s h e s r e p o r t e d t o t h e P o l i c e i n v o l v e d p e r s o n a l i n j u r y b u t d i d n o t a p p e a r i n o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s . . . . ' I . . . . a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n ( 3 5 % ) o f t h e s a m p l e c a s u a l t y c r a s h e s were r e p o r t e d t o t h e P o l i c e b u t d i d n o t a p p e a r i n t h e o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s . " ( S e a r l e s , 1 9 8 0 , p . 6 4 - 6 6 ) .

T h o r s o n & S a n d e ( 1 9 7 1 ) found t h a t o n l y 2 8 p e r c e n t o f p e r s o n s s e r i o u s l y i n j u r e d i n Sweden were r e p o r t e d , a s s u c h , i n t h e o f f i c i a l r o a d a c c i d e n t s t a t i s t i c s and a f u r t h e r 20 p e r c e n t were r e c o r d e d a s s l i g h t l y i n j u r e d . They s u g g e s t t h a t o n e h a l f o f t h e s e r i o u s l y i n j u r e d d i d n o t a p p e a r a t a l l i n t h e o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s .

B u l l & R o b e r t s ( 1 9 7 3 ) compared p o l i c e and h o s p i t a l r e c o r d s i n B i rmingham c i t y i n E n g l a n d , w h e r e h o s p i t a l s and d o c t o r s were u n d e r no o b l i g a t i o n ( a t t h a t t i m e ) t o r e p o r t a c c i d e n t s t o t h e p o l i c e ( e x c e p t i n t h e case of d e a t h ) . They f o u n d a l o w l e v e l o f n o t i f i c a t i o n f o r c y c l i n g i n j u r i e s , e s p e c i a l l y when n o m o t o r v e h i c l e was i n v o l v e d ( 2 % o n l y n o t i f i e d ) . On ly 8 1 % o f a l l s e r i o u s i n j u r i e s and 65% o f s l i g h t i n j u r i e s were r e p o r t e d for a l l a c c i d e n t s .

The O E C D ( 1 9 8 3 ) S c i e n t i f i c E x p e r t Group , i n i t s r e p o r t o n " T r a f f i c S a f e t y o f C h i l d r e n ' , a d d r e s s e d t h i s p r o b l e m and c o n c l u d e d ( p . 1 3 ) t h a t o n l y 25-50% o f a c c i d e n t v i c t i m s i n h o s p i t a l s had b e e n r e p o r t e d t o p o l i c e . The G e e l o n g B i k e P l a n ( 1 9 7 8 ) i n V i c t o r i a , A u s t r a l i a , a l s o found t h a t o n l y 1 i n 3 0 c y c l e a c c i d e n t s t o s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l c h i l d r e n r e q u i r i n g m e d i c a l a t t e n t i o n w e r e r e p o r t e d .

-- --

l__l_lll _I

_-I_-

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9

1 . 5 M e t h o d o l o g i c a l P r o b l e m s i n R e p o r t i n g A c c i d e n t s

O n e o f t h e p r o b l e m s i n c o n d u c t i n g a n y a n a l y s i s w i t h a c c i d e n t d a t a , i s t h e v a r i e t y o f m e t h o d s u s e d b y d i f f e r e n t i n s t i t u t i o n s i n v o l v e d i n c o l l e c t i n g and r e p o r t i n g t h e d a t a .

I n A u s t r a l i a , t h e S t a t e T r a n s p o r t D e p a r t m e n t s f o r w a r d s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a t o t h e A u s t r a l i a n B u r e a u o f S t a t i s t i c s ( A B S ) and t h e r e i s some d e g r e e of c o n s e n s u s i n some o f t h e m a t e r i a l q a t h e r e d . C l a s s i f i c a t i o n f o r a ' f a t a l i t y ' i s s t a n d a r d - d e a t h w i t h i n 3 0 d a y s - b u t a d i f f e r e n c e l i e s i n t h e r e p o r t i n g o f c a s u a l t y d a t a . Much o f t h e d a t a l a c k s s p e c i f i c c a u s a l f a c t o r s , w h i c h makes i t d i f f i c u l t t o i d e n t i f y t h e r e a s o n f o r t h e a c c i d e n t and t o c o n d u c t a n y c o m p a r a t i v e a n a l y s e s w i t h e x i s t i n g d a t a .

I t i s n o t e a s y t o c o m p a r e A u s t r a l i a n d a t a w i t h o v e r s e a s p u b l i s h e d s t a t i s t i c s . Some s t u d i e s u s e t h e number o f a c c i d e n t s per 1 0 , 0 0 0 o r 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 of p o p u l a t i o n , p e r c e n t a g e o f p o p u l a t i o n , p e r c e n t a g e o f m i l e s t r a v e l l e d , or number o f m o t o r v e h i c l e s r e g i s t e r e d . A n o t h e r p r o b l e m is t h e r e c o r d e d r e a s o n f o r t h e d e a t h or i n j u r y - was t h e c a u s e t h e c o l l i s i o n w i t h t h e m o t o r v e h i c l e or t h e i m p a c t on t h e r o a d ; d i d t h e s u b j e c t s u f f e r some o t h e r a c c i d e n t , s u c h a s a h e a r t a t t a c k , w h i c h c a u s e d t h e d e a t h ; and was d e a t h a d i r e c t r e s u l t o f t h e a c c i d e n t or some m e d i c a l c o m p l i c a t i o n ? The q u e s t i o n o f how many d a y s a f t e r t h e a c c i d e n t s h o u l d a d e a t h h e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e t r a f f i c a c c i d e n t i s a l s o a s o u r c e o f v a r i a t i o n b e t w e e n c o u n t r i e s .

O n e f u r t h e r i s s u e i s t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f ' s l i g h t ' and ' s e r i o u s ' i n j u r i e s . U s u a l l y , i n j u r i e s r e q u i r i n g h o s p i t a l i s a t i o n a r e c l a s s i f i e d a s s e r i o u s , b u t t h e p r o b l e m i s compounded w h e n w h a t w a s i n i t i a l l y c o n s i d e r e d a s l i g h t i n j u r y becomes a s e r i o u s i n j u r y a f t e r a p e r i o d , and v i c e v e r s a .

Some o f t h e s e p r o b l e m s c a n b e o v e r c o m e b y s t a n d a r d i s i n g t h e a c c i d e n t r e p o r t i n g f o r m s , b y t r a i n i n g m e d i c a l p e r s o n n e l i n t h e i r c o r r e c t u s e , b y t h e w i d e r u s e of c o m p u t e r s i n h o s p i t a l s , w h i c h w i l l a l l o w g r e a t e r access and a n a l y s i s o f a c c i d e n t d a t a . -But e v e n more i m p o r t a n t l y , i n A u s t r a l i a , i s t h e n e e d t o c e n t r a l i s e r o a d a c c i d e n t r e c o r d s so t h a t u n i f o r m i t y c a n b e a c h i e v e d and a much g r e a t e r a c c e s s t o r e c o r d s i n o r d e r t h a t c a r e f u l a n a l y s i s i s e n c o u r a g e d r a t h e r t h a n i n h i b i t e d a s i s c u r r e n t l y t h e s i t u a t i o n . I n t h e p r o c e s s , t h e r e i s a v i t a l n e e d t o c o l l e c t - and c e n t r a l i s e - d a t a r e l a t i n g t o t h e c a u s e o f t h e a c c i d e n t .

__

-

I _____

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The c r i t i c a l n a t u r e of t h e l a c k o f s t a n d a r d i s a t i o n h a s b e e n e m p h a s i s e d i n t h e mos t r e c e n t R e p o r t of t h e House of R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s S t a n d i n g C o m m i t t e e o n Road S a f e t y (HORSCORS) i n t h e v e r y f i r s t c o n c l u s i o n :

"1 . The C o m m i t t e e b e l i e v e s t h a t a s e t of s t a n d a r d i s e d s t a t i s t i c s s h o u l d b e d e v i s e d and c o l l e c t e d t h r o u g h o u t A u s t r a l i a t o p r o v i d e a more s u b s t a n t i a l r o a d s a f e t y d a t a b a s e f o r A u s t r a l i a . . . . " (HORSCORS 1 9 8 4 , p . v i i i ) .

A t t h e moment, p r e c i s e d a t a , e v e n r e l a t i n g t o f a t a l s a m o n g s t c h i l d r e n 0-16 i n c l u s i v e , i s n o t r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e . I n t h i s vo lume a v a r i e t y of s o u r c e s h a v e b e e n u s e d i n a n e f f o r t t o d e r i v e a n a c c u r a t e p i c t u r e . N o m a t t e r w h a t s o u r c e s a r e u s e d , t h e f i s u r e s v a r y . A c c o r d i n g l y , it i s d i f f i c u l t t o b e a c c u r a t e . T a b l e 5 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e p r o b l e m . T h e d a t a i s j u s t f o r f a t a l i t i e s w h e r e d e f i n i t i o n is much more c l e a r - c u t .

. T A B L E 5

C H I L D FATALITY F I G U R E S - 1981 I_I__ _ _ - - ~

C h i l d r e n 0-1 6 --

0 -4 5 -7 8 - 1 2

ABS* I

94 73

DOT** I

91 69 91

S t a t e s * * * -

93 73 98

S o u r c e s : ABS. 9405.0 S u p p l e m e n t a r y T a b l e s 18 .4 .84 .

* * DOT. F a t a l F i l e 1 9 8 1 . * * * S t a t e s s t a t i s t i c s s u p p l i e d o n r e q u e s t b y e a c h S t a t e

I_--

( i n some i n s t a n c e s a g e g r o u p s were n o t i d e n t i c a l and e x t r a p o l a t i o n was r e q u i r e d i n t h e s m a l l s t a t e s o n l y ) .

# A B S . d a t a u s e s 8 -16 a g e g r o u p .

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1 1

1 . 6 C h i l d Road A c c i d e n t s i n P e r s p e c t i v e

1 .61 D e a t h s

W h i l s t c h i l d r e n a r e " s p e c i a l " , y o u t h ( 1 5 - 2 4 ) a r e a much g r e a t e r p r o b l e m , a t l e a s t i n terms o f i n c i d e n c e o f f a t a l s and r o a d i n j u r i e s . T h e r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e of r o a d a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n and young p e o p l e c a n b e s e e n when c o m p a r a t i v e f i g u r e s f o r p r i n c i p a l c a u s e of d e a t h a r e examined i n T a b l e 6. For " a l l a g e s " , o n l y 3 .4% d i e a s a r e s u l t o f r o a d a c c i d e n t s . For i n f a n t s ( 0 - 4 1 , t h e r e l a t i v e f i g u r e i s 3.6%. F o r c h i l d r e n ( 5 - 1 4 ) , i t i s 30 .1% and for y o u t h ( 1 5 - 2 4 ) i t i s 5 0 . 5 % ; i . e . f o r e v e r y d e a t h

--II-_

-

11111111111111

--

_ _ ~ ____________ __ ~~~~~ ~~~

a m o n g s t y o u t h , o n e o u t o f two o_ccurs a s a r e s u l t - o f a r o a d a c c i d e n t . For c h i l d r e n t h e f i g u r e i s a l m o s t o n e o u t o f e v e r y t h r e e d e a t h s .

When compared w i t h y o u t h ( 1 5 - 2 4 ) , t h e f i g u r e s i n t a b l e 6 t e n d t o h i d e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f r o a d a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n . T h i s a r i s e s b e c a u s e of " a l l o t h e r c a u s e s " i n t h e 0-4 a g e g r o u p . However , a p a r t f rom c h i l d r e n u n d e r o n e y e a r , r o a d a c c i d e n t s a r e t h e l e a d i n g c a u s e of d e a t h f o r a l l c h i l d r e n 1-16 y e a r s of a g e .

- - - ~ - - ~ 1 _ - l_l-

TABLE 6 _I_-

PRINCIPAL C A U S E O F D E A T H - 1980 ---- Age G r o u p s __-_I_

0-4 5-14 15-24 A l l Ages I

% % % % Road A c c i d e n t s 3 .6 30.1 50 .5 3.4 O t h e r A c c i d e n t s 6 .9 20.2 1 3 . 0 2.6

94 .0 -I

A l l o t h e r c a u s e s 89 .5 49.7 36 .5 l T 5 C l o o $ 100% 100%

B a s e . Number 3 , 0 7 5 694 2 , 5 9 3 1 0 6 , 5 6 8

S o u r c e : RACS. ( 1 9 8 2 ) "Road Trauma" - d e r i v e d f r o m t a b l e p.17.

O 'Connor ( 1 9 8 2 ) s t u d i e d c h i l d d e a t h s i n A u s t r a l i a i n a n a t t e m p t t o i d e n t i f y t h e p r i n c i p a l c a u s e s of a c c i d e n t i n j u r y a n d d e a t h i n A u s t r a l i a n c h i l d r e n ( 0 - 1 4 ) o v e r a p e r i o d o f t w e n t y y e a r s ( 1 9 5 8 - 1 9 7 8 ) .

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The f o l l o w i n g q u o t a t i o n s h a v e b e e n e x t r a c t e d f rom O ' C o n n o r ' s "Summary and S y n t h e s i s " ( u n d e r l i n i n g n o t i n o r i g i n a l ) .

" . . . a c c i d e n t s a r e o n e o f t h e l e a d i n g c a u s e s o f d e a t h i n A u s t r a l i a n c h i l d r e n ; i n d e e d , beyond t h e a g e o f o n e y e a r t h e y a c c o u n t f o r t h e m a j o r i t y o f d e a t h s . F u r t h e r m o r e , as a c h i l d h e a l t h p r o b l e m t h e y a r e i n c r e a s i n g i n i m p o r t a n c e r e l a t i v e t o o t h e r c a u s e s of d e a t h . . . .

" T r a n s p o r t a c c i d e n t s h a v e b e e n t h e l e a d i n g c a u s e o f d e a t h i n c h i l d r e n f o r t h e y e a r s s t u d i e d b e t w e e n 1921 and 1 9 7 8 , and f u r t h e r m o r e i t i s t h e o n l y c a u s e w h i c h h a s shown a n i n c r e a s i n g d e a t h r a t e o v e r t i m e . . . . .

___- I--_

-l_i

-- "The h i g h e s t t r a n s p o r t a c c i d e n t d e a t h r a t e s w e r e f r o m " m o t o r t r a f f i c a c c i d e n t s " , e s p e c i a l l y i n v o l v i n q c o l l i s i o n w i t h : p e d e s t r i a n s ; o t h e r m o t o r v e h i c l e s ( r e s u l t i n g i n d e a t h t o c h i l d p a s s e n g e r s ) ; . and w i t h c y c l i s t s .

" D e a t h r a t e s f r o m ' m o t o r v e h i c l e t r a f f i c a c c i d e n t s ' h a v e i n c r e a s e d o v e r t i m e i n c h i l d r e n a g e d 5 y e a r s and o v e r , e s p e c i a l l y i n 10 -14 y e a r o l d f e m a l e s w h e r e t h e r a t e h a s i n c r e a s e d b y 60% i n t h e l a s t 2 0 y e a r s . . . .

-I_- -_ I

-_ " A n a l y s i s of c a u s e s of d e a t h s i n e a c h S t a t e shows a v e r y s i m i l a r p a t t e r n t o t h e c a u s e s o f d e a t h i n A u s t r a l i a a s a w h o l e . . . . I n t h e N o r t h e r n T e r r i t o r y t h e d e a t h r a t e f rom t r a n s p o r t a c c i d e n t s and d r o w n i n g s a r e o v e r t w i c e a s h i g h a s a n y o t h e r s t a t e . . . . I ' ( O ' C o n n o r 1 9 8 2 , pp. 1 1 0 5 - 1 0 7 ) .

T a b l e 7 r e v e a l s t h a t t h e d e a t h r a t e s f r o m m o t o r v e h i c l e t r a f f i c a c c i d e n t s i n c r e a s e d b e t w e e n 1 9 5 6 / 5 8 and 1 9 7 6 / 7 8 b u t t h e s e i n c r e a s e s d i d n o t o c c u r e q u a l l y a c r o s s e a c h of t h e t h r e e a g e g r o u p s . The 5-9 y e a r o l d s i n c r e a s e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y , b u t n o t a s much a s t h e 10-14 y e a r o l d s w h e r e t h e r a t e w e n t u p b y 3 5 % ; a n d , w h e r e a s i n 1 9 5 6 / 5 8 i t w a s 2 2 % . l e s s t h a n t h e 0-4 v e a r o l d s . it

--

. ~ ~~~ - . - - e x c e e d e d t h e 0-4 y e a r o l d r a t e i n 1 9 7 6 / 7 8 .

T A B L E 7 - A G E SPECIFIC D E A T H RATES ( / l O O , O O O )

FROM MOTOR V E H I C L E S TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS -- -

1 9 5 6 / 5 8 1 9 6 6 / 6 8 1 9 7 6 / 7 8 % c h a n g e * Age G r o u p 0-4 8.5 9.8 9.0 + 5 5 - 9 1 0 - 1 4

7.9 8.8 9.2 +16 6.7 8.3 9.1 +35

* P e r c e n t c h a n g e 1 9 5 6 / 5 8 t o 1 9 7 6 / 7 8 S o u r c e : 0' Connor ( 1 9 8 2 ) , p. 1 5 , d e r i v e d f r o m t a b l e 1 .20 .

Page 25: Children and road accidents: An analysis of the problems ... · - more children 0-4 are involved in road accidents than children aged 5-7 and males outnumber females. Vehicle Passenqers

50:

Percentage

Contribution of each Road User Type

to total

40%

309

10%

0 %

FIGURE A : CHILD ( 0-17 I ROAD DEATHS 1956- 1983 Contribulion 01 each ROAD USER Category I O TOTAL CHILD ROAD FATALITIES

:. .. .. 4 1

L

PEDESTRIANS

"...... CYCLISTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : :: .-, :: .: . : ; : ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . ;' ...; ..: .. ; - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

. . . . . . . . . ,?.:

Sauces: 11) A.B.S. Cat. 14.9 (1956-72), Cat. 9403.0 11973-781, Cat. 9405.0 19RW

(2) D.O.T. F.O.R.S. 1978-79

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Tab le 8 r e v e a l s t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e s i n d e a t h r a t e s h a v e b e e n d u e p r i m a r i l y t o f e m a l e s i n t h e 0-4 and 10-14 a g e g r o u p s , b u t males a r e s t i l l t h e m a j o r p r o b l e m , e v e n t h o u g h f e m a l e s h a v e become more s i g n i f i c a n t .

T A B L E 8

I

ll_l__---l_

__--I- I-_______-

A G E AND SEX SPECIFIC D E A T H R A T E S (/lOO,OOO) FROM MOTOR V E H I C L E TRAFFIC A C C I D E N T S . _I_I-

-- I---- I_

Year _I

Age G r o u p 5-9

F

-I--

10-1 4 -- -_ 0 - 4 -_ M : F - F - M - M: F

I - M - F M:F - M - R a t i o R a t i o R a t i o ---

1956/58 10.3 6.7 1.5 9.8 6.0 1.6 9.5 4.0 2.4 1966/68 11.0 8.5 1.3 10.0 7.5 1.3 12.1 4.9 2.5 1976/78 10.3 7.7 1.3 11.3 7.0 1.6 11.0 7.0 1.6

% c h a n g e 56/58 t o 76/78 0 +13 +15 +17 +16 +16

S o u r c e : O 'Connor (1982) p. 16 T a b l e 1.21

I t was n o t p o s s i b l e t o u p d a t e O ' C o n n o r ' s d a t a b e c a u s e t h e p u b l i s h e d A B S s t a t i s t i c s d o n o t u s e t h e 0-4, 5-9, 10-14 a g e g r o u p i n g s . F u r t h e r m o r e a n y a t t e m p t a t p l o t t i n g A B S F a t a l d a t a o v e r t i m e b y a g e g r o u p s f a c e s a l a c k of a g e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , and a l a c k of u n i f o r m i t y , o v e r t i m e . I n 1956, t h e d a t a p r o v i d e d f o r A u s t r a l i a i s u n d e r 5 y e a r s , 5-6 y e a r s , and 7-16 y e a r s . I n 1978 and 1979 t h e r e i s no ABS d a t a . I n 1980, and f o l l o w i n g , t h e d a t a i s s u p p l i e d a s u n d e r 5 , and 5-16 y e a r s .

F i g u r e A p r o v i d e s a n h i s t o r i c a l a n a l y s i s of c h i l d r o a d f a t a l i t i e s l _ l ~ 1956 - 1983. Two of t h e 28 y e a r s d a t a (1978-73). was s u p p l i e d b y t h e F e d e r a l O f f i c e of Road S a f e t y ( F O R S ) . The f i g u r e d e p i c t s t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f e a c h o f t h e r o a d u s e r t y p e s t o t h e t o t a l of a l l c h i l d r o a d f a t a l i t i e s u s i n g A B S d a t a , for A u s t r a l i a as a w h o l e . The d a t a i s r e l a t i v e , n o t a b s o l u t e . T h u s , a s o n e r o a d u s e r c a t e g o r y i n c r e a s e s o n e o r more o t h e r c a t e g o r i e s h a s t o d e c l i n e .

I___

I

l_ll~--

__I________-

I

Page 27: Children and road accidents: An analysis of the problems ... · - more children 0-4 are involved in road accidents than children aged 5-7 and males outnumber females. Vehicle Passenqers

500

Number of Child Road Deaths

400

300

200

100

0

Child

Populalian

in Millions

FIGURE E: NUMBERS of CHILD ROAD DEATHS 1956 - 1983 by ROAD USER TYPES, and

POPULATION 0-17

PASSENGERS

PEDESTRIANS

Page 28: Children and road accidents: An analysis of the problems ... · - more children 0-4 are involved in road accidents than children aged 5-7 and males outnumber females. Vehicle Passenqers

1 4

The mos t n o t a b l e c h a n g e o v e r t h e l a s t 2 8 y e a r s h a s b e e n t h e d r a m a t i c r e l a t i v e i n c r e a s e i n v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r d e a t h s (Tram 3 7 % t o a r o u n d I 5 0 % ) and t h e d r a m a t i c d e c l i n e i n t h e r e i a t i v e i n c i d e n c e o f p e d e s t r i a n k i l l e d ( f r o m 46% t o 2 9 % ) . A p a r t f r o m t h e s e s u b s t a n t i a l c h a n g e s , t h e s e two r o a d u s e c a t e g o r i e s s t i l l a c c o u n t

- -I _i__

ll_l- ___I_

f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same combined r e l a t i v e p e r c e n t o f c h i l d r o a d d e a t h s ( i . e . a r o u n d 8 0 % ) .

P e d a l c y c l e d e a t h s r e p r e s e n t e d 1 4 % o f t h e f a t a l i t i e s i n 1 9 5 6 and s t e a d i l y d e c l i n e d , r e l a t i v e l y , u n t i l 1974 . S i n c e t h e n , t h e i r r e l a t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n h a s s t e a d i l y grown a g a i n ( 1 9 8 3 - 1 7 % ) .

-I_-__

_I I_---_ II

Motor c y c l i s t s and d r i v e r s r e p r e s e n t a s m a l l , b u t s l o w l y g r o w i n g p r o p o r t i o n , o f c h i l d r o a d d e a t h s . Motor c y c l i s t s a c c o u n t e d for l e s s t h a n 1 % i n 1 9 5 7 , b u t h a v e b e e n a s h i s h a s 5% b e t w e e n

--I

_I___-

~~ - 1974-1976 and 1980 . D r i v e r s a c c o u n t e d f o r 2 % u n t i l 1 9 6 5 , b u t r e p r e s e n t e d 1 4 % i n 1980 .

F i g u r e B, r e p r e s e n t s t h e a b s o l u t e number o f c h i l d r e n k i l l e d i n r o a d c r a s h e s b e t w e e n 1 9 5 6 and 1 9 8 3 a l o n g w i t h t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f - T h e p o p u l a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n , u n d e r 1 7 , p e a k e d i n 1974-77 and moved b a c k t o a l o w e r p l a t e a u i n 1978-1983 , a r o u n d 1972-73 l e v e l s . The t o t a l number o f c h i l d r o a d d e a t h s moved f r o m a r o u n d 260 i n 1 9 5 6 t o a p e a k o f 536 i n 1 9 7 0 , w e l l a h e a d of t h e p o p u l a t i o n p e a k i n 1974 . The i n c i d e n c e of f a t a l s d e c l i n e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y f r o m 1 9 7 7 . a t t h e same t i m e a s t h e p o p u l a t i o n d e c l i n e d .

I_

--I

i______l_____--

I n a b s o l u t e n u m b e r s , v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r a n d p e d e s t r i a n d e a t h s a r e o n t h e d e c l i n e . P e d e s t r i a n d e a t h s , i n 1 9 8 3 , w e r e l o w e r t h a n f o r -I_ I

_ _ _ _ _ _ ~ ~ ~ ~ __ a n y o t h e r y e a r o v e r t h e 28 y e a r s , i n c l u d i n g t h e low o f 1959. V e h i c l e p a s s e n q e r d e a t h s , w h i l s t d e c l i n i n g , a r e s t i l l a b o v e 1 9 6 3 l e v e l s and a r o u n d t h e a v e r a g e o f p e d e s t r i a n d e a t h s o v e r t h e 2 8 y e a r s .

P e d a l c y c l e d e a t h s peaked i n 1 9 6 5 , b u t t h e downward t r e n d seems t o have r e v e r s e d i n r e c e n t y e a r s .

O v e r t h e p e r i o d , c h i l d r o a d d e a t h s f o r c h i l d d r i v e r s and m o t o r c y c l i s t s ( m o s t l y a l l i l l e g a l ) h a v e grown s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n number and h a v e s i m i l a r p a t t e r n s ( b u t t h i s c o u l d b e a f u n c t i o n o f s m a l l n u m b e r s ) . I n 1 9 5 6 , t h e r e were 2 c h i l d d r i v e r s k i l l e d and 6 c h i l d m o t o r c y c l i s t s . I n 1983 , i t was 1 2 d r i v e r s and 1 4 m o t o r c y c l i s t s . The p e a k f o r d r i v e r s was 1971 ( 2 0 1 , and f o r m o t o r c y c l i s t s 1 9 7 4 / 7 5 ( 2 3 i n e a c h y e a r ) .

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I n j u r y d a t a o v e r t h i s p e r i o d c a n n o t b e compared b e c a u s e o f d e f i n i t i o n a l c h a n g e s . However , t h e s m a l l number o f c h i l d d r i v e r s and m o t o r c y c l i s t s k i l l e d s h o u l d b e s e e n a l s o i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e f a c t t h a t a r o u n d 200 c h i l d r e n i n e a c h o f t h e l a s t f o u r y e a r s h a v e b e e n a d m i t t e d to h o s p i t a l f o r a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g m o t o r c y c l e s , and a r o u n d a n o t h e r 100 p e r annum as c a r d r i v e r s .

1.62 I n j u r i e s

A n a l y s i s of r o a d t r a f f i c i n j u r y d a t a , a s d i s t i n c t from f a t a l i t i e s , r e v e a l s t h e e x t e n t o f t h e p r o b l e m o f c h i l d r e n and r o a d a c c i d e n t s . I n 1978, d e a t h r a t e s d u e t o r o a d t r a f f i c were o f t h e o r d e r o f 10; i . e . 10 d e a t h s p e r 100,000 c h i l d r e n 0-14, b u t , a s T a b l e 9 r e v e a l s , a c c i d e n t r a t e s w e r e a t l e a s t t w e n t y t i m e s h i g h e r , and i n o n e s t a t e , a l m o s t 40 t i m e s h i g h e r .

C h i l d h o o d r o a d t r a f f i c a c c i d e n t r a t e s w e r e h i g h e r a m o n g s t m a l e s a n d v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y b e t w e e n s t a t e s w i t h N.S.W., N.T . and S . A . h a v i n g t h e h i g h e s t r a t e s i n 1978.

_-___I_

~ - _ - ~ __I_____I--_

TABLE 9

R O A D TRAFFIC A C C I D E N T I N J U R Y RATES/100,000 1978

--- - -

S t a t e

N.S.W. S . A . N . T . W .A. V i c . Q ' l d . T a s . A.C.T.

5-9 10-14 Male F e m a l e I --- 0-4

294 41 8 430 429 333 222 349 475 407 31 4 235 268 282 281 237 190 253 326 287 221 151 259 299 284 196 163 225 277 261 183 158 249 240 260 174 115 193 320 249 156

--

S o u r c e : O 'Connor (1982), p.98-99 d e r i v e d f r o m t a b l e s 3.34 and 3.35. A B S s u p p l i e d d a t a .

An a t t e m p t w a s made t o p r o v i d e a n h i s t o r i c a l look, s i n c e 1956 t o d a t e , i n terms o f a g e and r o a d u s e r t y p e f o r a l l r o a d a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g i n j u r i e s . However t h e p u b l i s h e d ABS d a t a d o e s n o t a l l o w m e a n i n g f u l t r e n d s t o b e e s t a b l i s h e d e v e n on a N a t i o n a l b a s i s . F i r s t , t h e a g e g r o u p i n g s c h a n g e . S e c o n d , t h e r e i s no d a t a f o r 1978 and 1979. T h i r d , and most i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f ' i n j u r e d ' or ' s e r i o u s l y i n j u r e d ' c h a n g e s so d r a m a t i c a l l y t h a t t h e d a t a f r o m 1980 o n w a r d s b e a r s no r e s e m b l a n c e t o t h a t a v a i l a b l e b e f o r e 1980.

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1 6

1 . 7 Some I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o m p a r i s o n s

C o m p a r i s o n s o f r o a d a c c i d e n t s t a t i s t i c s a r e f r a u g h t w i t h d i f f i c u l t i e s f o r some of t h e r e a s o n s posed i n 1 .4 a b o v e . I n o r d e r t o p u t some p e r s p e c t i v e on c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t s i n A u s t r a l i a , t a b l e 1 0 a t t e m p t s t o r e l a t e A u s t r a l i a n c h i l d r o a d d e a t h s w i t h a c o m p o s i t e s t a t i s t i c a l e q u i v a l e n t f o r n i n e c o n t r i b u t i n g OECD c o u n t r i e s (Germany, F i n l a n d , F r a n c e , N e t h e r l a n d s , Norway, Sweden, S w i t z e r l a n d , U n i t e d Kingdom, U n i t e d

The f i g u r e s a r e m e a n t t o b e i n d i c a t i v e , and n o t S t a t e s ) . d e f i n i t i v e . The f a t a l i t y f i g u r e s f o r t h e d i f f e r i n g c o u n t r i e s u s e v a r i o u s d e f i n i t i o n s of d e a t h w i t h i n 2 4 h o u r s , 3 d a y s , 6 d a y o r 3 m o n t h s , w h i l s t f o r A u s t r a l i a , i t i s w i t h i n 30 d a y s .

The f i g u r e s i n t a b l e 1 0 a c t a s a s a l u t a r y r e h i n d e r t o a l l c o n c e r n e d w i t h r o a d s a f e t y i n A u s t r a l i a . F i r s t , i t s u g g e s t s t h a t a l m o s t o n e i n e v e r y t h r e e d e a t h s a m o n g s t 5-14 y e a r o l d s w i l l o c c u r a s a r e s u l t o f a . r o a d a c c i d e n x . S e c o n d , it s u g g e s t s t h a t A u s t r a l i a ' s r e c o r d i n r o a d a c c i d e n t f a t a l i t i e s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n i s a m o n g s t t h e worst i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m p a r i s o n s . I n b o t h a g e s p l i t s , A u s t r a l i a i s n o t o n l y a b o v e t h e mean of t h e n i n e c o u n t r i e s , i t i s n e a r o r a b o v e t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l s i n t h e r a n g e . A d m i t t e d l y , a number o f a l t e r n a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n s c a n b e p o s t u l a t e d f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t a b l e 1 0 . Any s u c h e x p l a n a t i o n s m u s t b e p u r e l y s p e c u l a t i v e .

T a b l e 1 0 a l s o r e v e a l s t h a t A u s t r a l i a h a s a much h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e

_I-___ --- the of " y o u t h " d y i n g i n r o a d a c c i d e n t s t h a n t h e a v e r a g e o r e x t r e m e o f t h e r a n g e . F u r t h e r m o r e , a s a p e r c e n t a g e o f a l l r o a d d e a t h s f o r a l l a g e s t o a l l d e a t h s A u s t r a l i a i s a b o v e t h e OECD mean and r a n g e .

T h e O E C D R e p o r t c o n c l u d e d :

I

i_______l~-~I--_-

_I

- - _

-___~-I~-- -- ---

-- - -ll_l--lI

--

"Road a c c i d e n t s may, t h u s , b e s e e n t o c o n s t i t u t e a r e a l s c o u r g e i n t h e c a s e of c h i l d r e n and t h i s p r o b l e m r e q u i r e s t o b e i n v e s t i g a t e d i n g r e a t e r d e p t h s o a s t o c o m b a t it more e f f e c t i v e l y . " OECD ( 1 9 8 3 1 , p. 16.

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1 7

TABLE 1 0

PERCENTAGE O F R O A D A C C I D E N T DEATHS TO A L L DEATHS ~--------l_l_-_-I-_-

Mean Range A u s t r a l i a * OECD** O E C D

1 9 8 0 1 9 7 9 1 9 7 9 Age G r o u p

0 - 4 3.6 2.2 0.9 - 2.5 30.1 25.5 17 .9 - 33.3 5-1 4

0 - 1 4 8.5 6.7 4.7 - . 9.5 ______l______-ll__________l_l____

50.5 39.7 22.5 - 46.0 1 5 - 2 4 A l l a g e s 3.4 2.1 1 . 0 - 2 . 6

l_ll--

S o u r c e s : * RACS. ( 1 9 8 2 ) "Road Trauma" ( p . 7 ) . * * OECD ( 1 9 8 3 ) " T r a f f i c S a f e t y o f C h i l d r e n "

( p 1 6 )

The r e l a t i v e m a g n i t u d e of t h e A u s t r a l i a n p r o b l e m , v i s - a - v i s o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , i s n o t c o n f i n e d t o c h i l d r o a d d e a t h s o r a c c i d e n t s . J a r v i s ( 1 9 7 8 ) r a n k e d 21 c o u n t r i e s f o r p e d e s t r i a n ( a l l a g e s ) d e a t h r a t e s / 1 0 , 0 0 0 r e g i s t e r e d v e h i c l e s f o r 1 9 7 4 . The U n i t e d S t a t e s o f A m e r i c a had t h e l o w e s t r a t e a t .064, w h i l s t P o l a n d had t h e h i q h e s t r a t e a t 1.78. A u s t r a l i a had a r a t e o f . 13 w h i c h i s r o u g h l y d o u b l e t h a t o f t h e U.S.A. A d m i t t e d l y , i n 1 9 7 4 , A u s t r a l i a was i n t h e t o p f i v e c o u n t r i e s f o r t h e l o w e s t r a t e s . However , b a c k i n 1 9 6 6 and 1 9 7 0 A u s t r a l i a w a s r a n k e d t h i r d l o w e s t b e h i n d Sweden and t h e U.S.A.

T h e G e e l o n g B i k e P l a n ( 1 9 7 8 ) s u g g e s t e d t h a t A u s t r a l i a ' s t o t a l c y c l e a c c i d e n t r a t e w a s f i v e t i m e s t h a t of t h e U.S.A. and t h a t i t h a d i n c r e a s e d , and w a s g o i n g t o i n c r e a s e , d u e t o t h e i n c r e a s e i n i n t e r e s t i n c y c l i n g , r e s u l t i n g i n h i g h e r c y c l e s a l e s .

The a b o v e c o m p a r i s o n s s h o u l d n o t b e t a k e n a s s o l i d e v i d e n c e o f A u s t r a l i a ' s r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n . . They d o s u g g e s t t h a t A u s t r a l i a , i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y , h a s a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h p r o p o r t i o n o f c h i l d d e a t h s d u e t o r o a d a c c i d e n t s .

1 . 8 *Problem of A g e D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n I

T h u s f a r , i t h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t r o a d a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n a r e a s i z e a b l e p r o p o r t i o n o f a c c i d e n t s and s e c o n d o n l y t o t h e p r o b l e m of y o u t h . O n e of t h e p r o b l e m s o f d e f i n i t i o n and m a k i n g c o m p a r i s o n s i s t h e v a r i a t i o n s i n d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n , o r y o u t h , e t c . , b y a g e .

-I_ --I-__-I

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1 8

G e n e r a l l y , c h i l d r e n a r e d e f i n e d a s 0-14 and t h i s a p p l i e s i n A u s t r a l i a and t h e OECD r e p o r t i n g n a t i o n s . Youth a r e , t h e r e f o r e , d e f i n e d a s 15 -24 y e a r s of a g e . The O E C D s p l i t s c h i l d r e n i n t o t h r e e a g e g r o u p s 0-4 , 5 -9 , 10 -14 . The A u s t r a l i a n B u r e a u o f S t a t i s t i c s ( A B S ) d i f f e r e n t i a t e s two g r o u p s o n l y , 0-4 and 5-14 i n c l u s i v e , a l t h o u g h t h e 5-9 a g e s p l i t is c o l l e c t e d b u t f r e q u e n t l y n o t p u b l i s h e d .

W i t h i n t h e r e l e v a n t A u s t r a l i a n S t a t e Road S a f e t y b o d i e s , and t h e v a r i o u s s t a t e o f f i c e s o f t h e A B S , t h e r e i s a v a r i e t y o f a g e s u s e d i n d a t a c o l l e c t i o n : e . g .

- Q u e e n s l a n d ABS C a t . No. 9 4 0 4 . 3 / 9 4 0 3 . 3 u n d e r 5 , --I- I

5 - 6 , 7-16 ,

- V i c t o r i a A B S C a t . N o . 9402 .2 u n d e r 7 , 7-16. ___ Road T r a f f i c A u t h o r i t y "Road A c c i d e n t F a c t s " J u l y 1 9 8 3 Under 5 , 5-16. -I_--- __

- N S W T r a f f i c A u t h o r i t y - "Annual R e p o r t " 1982-83 - T a b l e 2 A p p e n d i x 7. 0 -2 , 3 -7 , 8 - 1 2 , 13-16 . _ _ "Road T r a f f i c C r a s h e s i n N . S . W . S t a t i s t i c a l S t a t e m e n t " Y e a r Ended December 3 1 s t , 1982. 0-4 , 5-7, 8 - 9 , 1 0 - 1 4 , 15-19. " S u p p l e m e n t t o 1982 S t a t i s t i c a l S t a t e m e n t " 0-4 , 5 - 7 , 8 -16 .

1 . 9 Age C a t e g o r i s a t i o n s Used i n t h e C u r r e n t S t u d y .

I n c a r r y i n g o u t t h e a n a l y s e s r e p o r t e d l a t e r i n t h i s vo lume f o u r a g e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s a r e c o n s i s t e n t l y employed w h e n e v e r t h e d a t a c a n b e o b t a i n e d t o f i t t h e a g e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n : c h i l d r e n 0-16 ( 0 < 1 7 )

_i-

0-4 y e a r s - p r e - s c h o o l 5-7 y e a r s - i n f a n t s / l o w e r p r i m a r y 8 - 1 2 y e a r s - u p p e r p r i m a r y 1 3 - 1 6 y e a r s - h i g h s c h o o l 0-16 ;gars - p r e - d r i v e r ' s l i c e n c e .

__-I-

The o r i g i n a l " S p e c i f i c a t i o n " (FORS 1 9 8 3 ) d e f i n e d c h i l d r e n 0-16. S i n c e 1 7 y e a r o l d s a r e a b l e t o b e l i c e n s e d d r i v e r s t h e c u t o f f at 1 6 h a s a n i n t u i t i v e a p p e a l . A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f s i x t e e n y e a r o l d s w i t h 1 5 y e a r o l d s seems l o g i c a l s i n c e 1 7 y e a r o l d s a r e t r e a t e d a s a d u l t s i n terms of b e i n g a b l e t o b e l i c e n s e d d r i v e r s . T h i s a p p l i e s a c r o s s most A u s t r a l i a n S t a t e s and T e r r i t o r i e s . I n some s t a t e s , 1 6 y e a r o l d s c a n o b t a i n some f o r m of d r i v e r ' s l i c e n c e .

The d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f 0-16 i n t o f o u r a g e g r o u p s h a s b e e n i n s t i t u t e d so a s t o r o u g h l y c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n a l f r a m e w o r k , r e c o q n i s i n q o f c o u r s e t h a t t h e y t o o d i f f e r s l i g h t l y ac ross t h e r e s p e c t i v e s t a t e s .

I_-- -_I_

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2 .0 ANALYSIS OF CHILD ROAD ACCIDENT STATISTICS -

2.1 O v e r s e a s E x p e r i e n c e 2 . 2 A u s t r a l i a n A c c i d e n t D a t a 2 . 3 V a r i a t i o n s i n A u s t r a l i a n P a t t e r n s b y S t a t e 2 . 4 D e t a i l e d C a s u a l t y A c c i d e n t A n a l y s i s

- T h r e e Most P o p u l o u s S t a t e s 2 . 4 1 Age and S e x 2 . 4 2 S e x and Age by Maln Road U s e r Types

2 . 4 2 1 - V e h i c l e P a s s e n g e r s 2 . 4 2 2 - P e d e s t r i a n s 2 . 4 2 3 - P e d a l C y c l i s t s

2 . 4 3 Road User T y p e s 2 . 4 4 M e t r o v e r s u s Non-Metro 2 . 4 5 Summary A n a l y s i s

2 . 5 R i s k and E x p o s u r e 2 . 6 N a t u r e of I n j u r i e s

T h i s s e c t i o n of t h e r e p o r t a t t e m p t s t o e x t e n d f u r t h e r t h e a n a l y s i s commenced i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n . I t b e g i n s w i t h a b r i e f look a t t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of key r o a d u s e r t y p e s t o c h i l d r o a d d e a t h s and i n j u r i e s i n O E C D member c o u n t r i e s . N a t i o n a l r o a d c a s u a l t y d a t a i s p r o v i d e d a l o n g w i t h a b r i e f a n a l y s i s b y s t a t e . The e m p h a s i s , i n t h i s s e c t i o n of t h e r e p o r t , i s on a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of t h e t h r e e most p o p u l o u s s t a t e s : i n terms o f a g e , s e x , r o a d u s e r t y p e , and m e t r o p o l i t a n v e r s u s u r b a n . D e t a i l e d s t a t i s t i c s f o r e a c h of t h e t h r e e main c h i l d r o a d u s e r c a t e g o r i e s a r e i n c l u d e d : An o v e r v i e w i s a l s o p r o v i d e d i n a n a t t e m p t t o summar ise t h e r o a d c a s u a l t y s t a t i s t i c s . The s e c t i o n c o n c l u d e s b y b r i e f l y e x a m i n i n g d a t a on r i s k and e x p o s u r e , and t h e n a t u r e o f i n j u r i e s .

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2 . 1 O v e r s e a s E x p e r i e n c e

I n o r d e r t o p l a c e some p e r s p e c t i v e on t h e s u b s e q u e n t d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of A u s t r a l i a n d a t a , o t h e r W e s t e r n n a t i o n s c a n p r o v i d e a s t a r t i n g p o i n t and a c t a 5 a f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e . S i x t e e n O E C D member c o u n t r i e s ( B e l g i u m , C a n a d a , Denmark, F i n l a n d , F r a n c e , West Germany, I r e l a n d , J a p a n , N e t h e r l a n d s , Norway, P o r t u g a l , S p a i n , Sweden , S w i t z e r l a n d , U n i t e d Kingdom and U n i t e d S t a t e s ) p r o v i d e d d a t a f o r 1 9 7 9 a s r e p o r t e d i n , t h e O E C D 1 9 8 3 r e p o r t on " T r a f f i c S a f e t y o f C h i l d r e n " . The r e s u l t s s u g g e s t t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s :

-l_l_-

Of a l l c h i l d r o a d d e a t h s w h i c h o c c u r r e d i n 1 9 7 9 , a c r o s s t h e 1 6 O E C D c o u n t r i e s :

-- p e d e s t r i a n s a c c o u n t e d f o r 4 4 % u 5 e r s of m o t o r i s e d two w h e e l e r s 4 % c y c l i s t s a c c o u n t e d f o r 17% o c c u p a n t s a c c o u n t e d f o r 3 5 %

T a b l e 1 1 r e v e a l s t h a t t h e 0 - 4 a g e g r o u p i s t h e l e a s t a f f e c t e d i n c h i l d r o a d d e a t h s a c c o u n t i n g f o r 2 8 % o f a l l r o a d d e a t h s a m o n g s t 0 - 1 4 y e a r o l d s .

TABT.E 1 1

* 0-4 5 - 9 1 0 - 1 4

C H I L D ROAD A C C I D E N T S ACROSS 1 6 OECD MEMBER C O U N T R I E S - 1 9 7 9 - I

C h i l d Road D e a t h s -- 0-1 4

Mean %

2 8 3 7 3 4

1 0 0 % I

S o u r c e : O E C D ( 1 9 8 3 ) , P 1 6 , --

C h i l d Road I n j u r i e s -- 0-1 4

Mean %

23 3 7 4 0

1 0 0 % -

t a b l e s 1 1 . 2 and 1 1 . 3 .

C h i l d ( 0 - 1 4 ) r o a d d e a t h s r e p r e s e n t , on a v e r a g e , 8 . 4 % o f a l l r o a d d e a t h s ( r a n g e 7 . % - 1 3 . 6 % ) . T h i s f i g u r e v a r i e s s u b s t a n t i a l l y a c c o r d i n g t o r o a d u s e r t y p e :

- c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n s - 1 8 . 4 % o f a l l p e d e s t r i a n f a t a l i t i e s - c h i l d c y c l i s t s - 2 4 . 1 % o f a l l c y c l i s t f a t a l i t i e s - c h i l d o c c u p a n t s - 4 . 7 % o f a l l o c c u p a n t f a t a l i t i e s

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Tab le 1 2 r e v e a l s t h a t t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of e a c h age g r o u p v a r i e s b y r o a d u s e r c a t e g o r y . The 5-9 y e a r o l d s a r e t h e main c o n t r i b u t o r t o p e d e s t r i a n d e a t h s and i n j u r i e s . F o r p e d a l c y c l i s t s , i t i s t h e 10-14 a g e g r o u p . F o r p a s s e n g e r s , a l l t h r e e s u b - a g e g r o u p s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t .

TABLE 1 2 - --- 1979 " M E A N " PERCENTAGE OF C H I L D 0-14 R O A D D E A T H A N D ROAD INJURIES F O R 16 O E C D MEMBER C O U N T R I E S

- - -_-_I-

P a s s e n g e r s _I--

P e d e s t r i a n s , C y c l i s t s D e a t h I n j u r y D e a t h I n j u r y -~ _I_ -~ D e a t h I n j u r y

I_ A G E

0-4 y e a r s 33.6 23.1 4.0 4.4 36.8 31.2 5-9 " 46.4 50.9 30.3 36.3 28.1 33.2

I

10-14 " 35.6 __ -- -- 57.7 59.3 35.1 20.0 26.0 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

S o u r c e : OECD .(1983) " T r a f f i c S a f e t y o f C h i l d r e n " , ( f i g u r e s d e r i v e d f r o m t a b l e s - c h . 2 ) .

A n a l y s i s of r o a d d e a t h s b y t y p e of r o a d u s e r s a m o n g s t t h e 16 member OECD c o u n t r i e s i n 1979 i n d i c a t e s :

_I

__ 44% o f t h e 0-14 y e a r o lds k i l l e d were k i l l e d a s p e d e s t r i a n s and t h i s r e p r e s e n t e d 18% o f a l l p e d e s t r i a n f a t a l i t i e s .

* 35% of t h e 0-14 y e a r o l d s k i l l e d were k i l l e d a s o c c u p a n t s and t h i s r e p r e s e n t e d 5% o f a l l o c c u p a n t f a t a l i t i e s .

* 17% o f t h e 0-14 y e a r o l d s k i l l e d were k i l l e d a s c y c l i s t s a n d t h i s r e p r e s e n t e d 24% o f a l l c y c l i s t f a t a l i t i e s .

2.2 A u s t r a l i a n A c c i d e n t D a t a

O v e r 400 c h i l d r e n a g e d 0-16 a r e k i l l e d on A u s t r a l i a n r o a d s e a c h y e a r , a n d , a t l e a s t a n a d d i t i o n a l 4500 a r e s e r i o u s l y i n j u r e d ( i . e . , a d m i t t e d t o h o s p i t a l ) . The m a g n i t u d e o f t h e p r o b l e m i s f a i r l y c o n s t a n t from y e a r t o y e a r . F u r t h e r m o r e , a t l e a s t a s many a g a i n a r e t r e a t e d for i n j u r i e s w h i l s t many more a r e i n v o l v e d i n a c c i d e n t s w h i c h go u n r e p o r t e d .

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.̂.

T A B L E 12A

1980 1981 1982 1983

C H I L D R O A D C A S U A L T I E S _-l_l_i

K E r A d m i t t e d t o H o s p i t a l - l l l _ ~

41 5 41 8 41 0 335

4970* 51 54** 4628 4356

S o u r c e s : * RACS 1982 "Road Trauma' ' i_-- * * A B S 9405.0 18.4.84

T a b l e 1 3 p r e s e n t s a n a n a l y s i s of c h i l d r e n s e r i o u s l y i n j u r e d i n r o a d a c c i d e n t s b y a g e , s e x , and t y p e of r o a d u s e r .

- - - ~ _

C h i l d p a s s e n g e r i n j u r i e s r e p r e s e n t 47% of a l l r o a d a c c i d e n t i n j u r i e s a m o n g s t 0-16 y e a r o l d s . P e d e s t r i a n s a c c o u n t for 28%, C y c l i s t s 16%, m o t o r c y c l i s t s 6%. and d r i v e r s 2% o f s e r i o u s c h i l d r o a d i n j u r i e s ( i . e . a d m i t t e d t o h o s p i t a l ) . A n a l y s i s b y s e x o f a c c i d e n t r e v e a l s t h a t males a c c o u n t f o r 62% of a l l a c c i d e n t s v i c t i m s 0-16, 51% of a l l p a s s e n g e r s i n j u r i e s 0-16, 6 1 % of a l l p e d e s t r i a n s i n j u r i e s 0 - 1 6 , 81% of a l l mo to r c y c l e i n j u r i e s 0 - 1 6 , 83% of a l l p e d a l c y c l e i n j u r i e s 0-16, and 83% of a l l d r i v e r i n j u r i e s 0-16.

T A B L E 13 A U S T R A L I A N C H I L D R O A D I N J U R I E S ' ~ . - 1980

--I - ---I_

0-1 6 I - 0-4 5-1 6

F. T o t a l - M. - F. - M. - F. - M. - Type o f Road User

P a s s e n g e r s P e d e s t r i a n s P e d a l C y c l i s t s Moto r C y c l i s t s D r i v e r s U n c l a s s i f i e d A l l u s e r s

I_

273 223 930 919 1203 1142 2345 178 83 675 456 853 539 1392

6 1 638 132 644 133 777 5 2 244 57 249 59 308 - - 93 20 93 20 1 1 3

35 1 2 17 1 5 18 17 463 311 2597 1599 3060 1910 4970

I

S o u r c e : R A C S (1 982) "Road Trauma" 1 . A d m i t t e d t o h o s p i t a l .

-I-_

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23

A n a l y s i s of r o a d d e a t h s i n A u s t r a l i a f o r 1980 r e v e a l s a s i m i l a r p i c t u r e t o t h a t of s e r i o u s i n j u r i e s ( i . e . a d m i t t e d t o h o s p i t a l )

-

U s e r

P a s s e n g e r s 24 23 81 57 105 80 185

P e d a l C y c l i s t s 1 - 41 1 1 42 1 1 53 P e d e s t r i a n s 26 12 56 43 82 55 137

M o t o r C y c l i s t s - - 21 4 21 4 25 D r i v e r s - - 8 3 8 3 1 1

4 - 4 4 51 35 207 122 258 157 415

U n c l a s s i f i e d - - -

S o u r c e : RACS ( 1982) "Road Trauma"

A c o m p a r i s o n of c h i l d r o a d d e a t h s w i t h c h i l d r o a d i n j u r i e s for 1980 a p p e a r s i n t a b l e 15 a n d c o n f i r m s t h e e a r l i e r s t a t e m e n t t h a t , a s f a r a s r o a d u s e r c a t e g o r i e s a r e c o n c e r n e d , D e a t h s a n d I n j u r i e s p r e s e n t a v e r y s i m i l a r p i c t u r e .

TABLE 15 TOTAL ROAD USERS 0-16 - 1980

D e a t h s I n j u r i e s 1. % %

P a s s e n g e r s 45 47 P e d e s t r i a n s 33 28 P e d a l C y c l i s t s 13 16 M o t o r C v c l i s t s 6 6 D r i v e r s 3

100% - 2

100% -

S o u r c e : RACS (1982) "Road T r a u m a " , d e r i v e d f r o m t a b l e s

1. A d m i t t e d t o h o s p i t a l . p . 15-16.

W h i l s t t h e r e a r e s l i g h t d i f f e r e n c e s i n d e a t h a n d i n j u r i e s by r o a d u s e r c a t e g o r y , t h e y a r e n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . The same f i n d i n g a l s o a p p l i e s f o r m a l e s i n v o l v e d i n r o a d a c c i d e n t s .

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T A B L E 1 6 I-_-

P R O P O R T I O N O F MALES I N V O L V E D I N ACCIDENTS 0-16 - 1 9 8 0 --II__- -

D e a t h s I n j u r i e s 1 . A l l Users 6 2 % 62% P a s s e nge rs 51 % 5 7 % P e d e s t r i a n s P e d a l C y c l i s t s M o t o r c y c l i s t s D r i v e r s

61 % 83% 81 % 8 3 %

6 0 % 79% 84 % 73%

S o u r c e : RACS ( 1 9 8 2 ) "Road Trauma" d e r i v e d f r o m t a b l e s p. 1 5 - 1 6 . 1 . A d m i t t e d t o h o s p i t a l .

--

T h e a n a l y s i s o f OECD d a t a r e v e a l t h a t e a c h o f t h e s u b - a g e g r o u p s c o n t r i b u t e s d i f f e r e n t i a l l y t o t h e c h i l d a c c i d e n t s t a t i s t i c s . E s s e n t i a l l y , t h e same p i c t u r e e m e r g e s i n A u s t r a l i a . The 1 9 7 6 / ? 8 A u s t r a l i a n a c c i d e n t r a t e d a t a r e v e a l s t h a t p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s p e a k i n t h e 5-9 a g e g r o u p , and c y c l e a c c i d e n t s i n t h e 1 0 - 1 4 g r o u p , w h i l e p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t s r e m a i n f a i r l y s t a b l e a c r o s s a l l a g e s .

M V + P e d e s t r i a n 4.4 4.9 2.4 MV + MV ( O c c u p a n t s ) 2 . 6 2.1 2.2 MV + O t h e r ( i n c . 0.1 0 .9 2.0

c y c l e & c a r t )

~- S o u r c e : O 'Connor ( 1 9 8 2 ) p.17 d e r i v e d f r o m T a b l e 1 .22 .

R e c e n t l y J a r v i s ( 1 9 8 3 ) , i n a n a l y s i n g t h e a c c i d e n t s t o c h i l d r e n on A u s t r a l i a n r o a d s , d i f f e r e n t i a t e d t h o s e a c c i d e n t s i n w h i c h t h e c h i l d i n v o l v e d i s a n a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t ; v i z . , as a p e d a l c y c l i s t o r a p e d e s t r i a n , v e r s u s t h e o t h e r v e r y l a r g e c a t e g o r y o f a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n a s " o t h e r p e o p l e ' s a c c i d e n t s " w h e r e t h e c h i l d i s a p a s s e n g e r i n a c a r .

J a r v i s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t , i n 1 9 7 6 , c h i l d r e n u n d e r a b o u t 7 y e a r s of a g e a r e t h e major p e d e s t r i a n p r o b l e m s i n c e t h e r a t e o f r o a d d e a t h s a s p e d e s t r i a n s i n t h i s a g e g r o u p i s o v e r t w i c e t h a t of t h e m i d d l e age g r o u p s ( 7 y e a r s - 3 0 y e a r s ) and t h e r a t e of i n j u r y f o u r times f o r b o t h s e x e s . W i t h r e g a r d t o p e d a l c y c l i s t s , h e c o n c l u d e d t h a t c h i l d r e n o f s c h o o l age, b e t w e e n 7 a n d 1 6 , are g r e a t l y o v e r - r e p r e s e n t e d i n p e d a l c y c l e a c c i d e n t s . I n t h e 7-16 a g e g r o u p , b o t h d e a t h a n d i n j u r y r a t e s f o r males a r e 5 t o 6 t i m e s t h o s e f o r f e m a l e s . The G e e l o n g B i k e P l a n S t u d y ( 1 9 7 8 ) a l s o f o u n d t h a t s c h o o l c h i l d r e n a r e i n v o l v e d i n 7 2 % of a l l r e p o r t e d b i c y c l e a c c i d e n t s .

___

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25

2.3 V a r i a t i o n i n A u s t r a l i a n P a t t e r n s by S t a t e

T a b l e 9, i n s e c t i o n 1.62, i n d i c a t e s t h a t r o a d a c c i d e n t i n j u r y r a t e s v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y by s t a t e , by a g e , a n d by s e x , w i t h N.S.W., S.A. a n d N o r t h e r n T e r r i t o r y h a v i n g t h e h i g h e s t r a t e p e r 1,000 c h i l d r e n 0-14 i n 1978. S i m i l a r d a t a i s p r e s e n t e d i n t a b l e 18 w h i c h r e v e a l s t h a t N . S . W . , i n p a r t i c u l a r , h a s a h i g h i n j u r y r a t e a m o n g s t t h e two l a r g e s t r o a d u s e r c a t e g o r i e s - p a s s e n g e r s a n d p e d e s t r i a n s .

TABLE 18

A G E SPECIFIC I N J U R Y RATES/100,000 C H I L D R E N AGED 0-14 YEARS FROM ROAD T R A F F I C ACCIDENTS

A C C O R D I N G T O TYPE O F R O A D U S E R - 1978

Type of S t a t e Road U s e r NSW V i c . Q l d . W.A. S . A . T a s . A C T . N . T .

D r i v e r of M . V . 0.5 0 . 3 0 4.5 0.6 0 0 0 Motor c y c l i s t 1.3 0.8 1.6 1.2 2.5 1.8 4.5 2.6 P e d a l c y c l i s t 39.3 38.9 37.6 20.7 79.1 22.2 49.8 31.3 P a s s e n g e r 223.7 139.1 139.3 157.1 205.1 125.1 99.6 190.1 P e d e s t r i a n 117.3 61.2 44.6 56.3 73.9 69.2 37.7 36.5 O t h e r 0.4 0.6 0 12.0 0.6 0 12.1 0

S o u r c e : O 'Connor (1982) p.99 T a b l e 3.36

T a b l e 19 shows t h a t t h e p r o b l e m f a c e d by N.S.W. o c c u r s a c r o s s t h e t h r e e a g e s u b d i v i s i o n s for p a s s e n g e r s a n d p e d e s t r i a n s . However , S.A. d o e s h a v e a h i g h e r r a t e t h a n N . S . W . f o r p a s s e n g e r s a g e d 10-14 y e a r s .

TABLE 19

A G E SPECIFIC (0-4, 5-9, 10-14) I N J U R Y RATES/lOOrOOO F O R SELECTED TYPE6 O F ROAD USER - 1978.

Road U s e r P e d a l C y c l i s t P a s s e n g e r P e d e s t r i a n

S t a t e 0-4 5-9 10-14 0-4 5-9 10-14 0-4 5-9 10-14

N.S.W. 2 38 77 218 224 229 118 V I C . 1 31 82 113 146 156 55 Q L D . 0 33 17 134 126 158 38 W.A. 2 15 44 153 150 169 29 70 68 S.A. 4 48 175 176 198 237 42 37 73 TAS. 0 22 42 108 125 141 50 102 47 A . C . T . 0 42 168 88 100 112 18 46 51 N . T . 7 51 36 184 196 191 44 22 46

S o u r c e : O 'Connor (19821, p a g e 100 T a b l e 3.37

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2 6

T a b l e 2 0 p r e s e n t s t h e most r e c e n t d a t a for c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t r a t e s i n t h e t h r e e most p o p u l o u s s t a t e s . Aga in t h e much h i g h e r number and r a t e of a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n 0 - 1 6 i n N . S . W . w a r r a n t s f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

T A B L E 2 0

CHILDREN'S CASUALTIES PER 100 ,000 -___ POPULATION I- 0 - 1 6 ( i n c l u d e s d e a t h s and i n j u r i e s ) 1.

1 9 8 2 - _I

1 9 8 1 NSW V I C QLD NSW 2 QLD Road U s e r s

M.V. P a s s e n g e r s 2 3 4 1 4 3 1 3 3 1 9 8 1 3 6 1 2 1 P e d e s t r i a n s 1 0 7 61 4 5 9 5 64 43 P e d a l C y c l i s t s 5 9 6 0 51 60 65 51 Motor c v c l i s t s &

I A -- - _1--

P i l l i o n P a s s e n g e r s 1 7 4 9 1 9 6 1 1 -- -- 2 2 6

_I I -I

4 1 7 2 6 8 2 3 8 3 7 2 271 T o t a l C a s u a l t i e s 6 0 5 5 3 0 5 5 1 6 4 4 5 4 4 9 3 0 1 3 1 5 9 3 T o t a l Pop. 0 0 0 1 4 4 0 1 1 1 3 691 1 4 4 4 1 1 0 8 7 0 7

S o u r c e s : T A R U ( N . S . W . ) ; RTA ( V i c . ) ; D O T ( Q ' l d . ) . 1. I n c l u d e s k i l l e d , h o s p i t a l i s e d , t r e a t e d i n j u r e d

and o t h e r i n j u r e d .

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TABLE '2 1

A - ROAD U S E R C A - -I-

U A L T I E S 1. 111 -

N.S.W. V I C . Q'LD. 82 81- 82

I

81 - I - 82 Age/Sex Pop2. - 81 - I 0-4 (27%) (981) (884) (479) (461) (270) (239)

Male 568 479 264 F e m a l e S e x N . S .

5-7 (18%) ~

Male F e m a l e S e x N .S.

8-12 (32%) Male F e m a l e S e x N.S.

41 2 398 1 7

(915) (786) 5 71 455 3 44 3 2 5 - 6

(1824) (1665) 1029 992 795 669

4 -

21 5 - 474 267 207 - 986 608

270 191 - 438 279 159 - 946 556

141 129 - (212) 124 88 -

(474) 275

377 390 199 1 - -

13-16 (23%) (2335) (2114) (1 119) ( 1 166) (688 Male 1323 1274 649 690 422 F e m a l e 1012 83 6 469 475 266 S e x N.S. - 4 1 1 - _I 0-1 6 (6055)*(5449)** (3058)(3011) ( 1644

Male 3491 3200 1788 1795 962 F e m a l e 2563 2228 1268 1 2 1 5 682

133 106 - 234 139 95 -

455 289 166 - (665) 388 277 - ----

(1593) 949 644

S o u r c e s : TARU (NSW), RTA ( v i c . ) , DOT ( Q ' l d l . 1. I n c l u d e s k i l l e d , h o s p i t a l i s e d , t r e a t e d i n j u r e d , and

2. P e r c e n t a g e of c h i l d p o p u l a t i o n 0-16 i n c l u s i v e i n t h i s

* I n c l u d e s 1 S e x n o t s p e c i f i e d * * I n c l u d e s 21 S e x n o t s p e c i f i e d .

I~

d

o t h e r i n j u r e d .

a g e c a t e g o r y . -

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2 7

2 . 4 D e t a i l e d C a s u a l t y A c c i d e n t A n a l y s i s - T h r e e Most -l__l

P o p u l o u s S t a t e s .

A n a l y s i s o f t h e m o s t r e c e n t d a t a a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e t h r e e m o s t p o p u l o u s s t a t e s , a p p e a r s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g t a b l e s . The a n a l y s i s i s r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e s e s t a t e s b e c a u s e t h e y , i n t o t a l , a c c o u n t f o r 78% of a l l r o a d f a t a l i t i e s and a n e v e n g r e a t e r p e r c e n t a g e of s e r i o u s and r e p o r t e d i n j u r i e s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n 0-16 y e a r s . F u r t h e r m o r e , access t o t h e i r s t a t i s t i c s w a s r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e i n t e rms of o b t a i n i n g d a t a f o r t h e s p e c i f i c a g e g r o u p s u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . T h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d is t h e m o s t r e c e n t a v a i l a b l e a t t h e t ime o f w r i t i n g . I n p r e p a r i n g t h e t a b l e s i n t h i s s u b - s e c t i o n of t h e r e p o r t , ' c h i l d d r i v e r s ' a r e e x c l u d e d (see s e c t i o n 2 . 4 2 ) . D e a t h s , o r f a t a l i t i e s , r e f e r t o d y i n g w i t h i n 30 d a y s o f a r e p o r t e d r o a d c r a s h and t h e d e a t h i s a t t r i b u t a b l e t o i n j u r i e s s u s t a i n e d d u r i n g t h e c r a s h . C a s u a l t i e s r e f e r t o r o a d d e a t h s and i n j u r i e s . I n j u r i e s i n v o l v e a v a r i e t y o f d e g r e e s . Any p e r s o n , b e l i e v e d b y p o l i c e t o h a v e b e e n h u r t i n a m o t o r t r a f f i c c r a s h h a s h i s or h e r i n j u r i e s a n d / o r t r e a t m e n t d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p o l i c e r e p o r t of t h e c r a s h . I n j u r e d i n c l u d e s t h o s e . a d m i t t e d t o h o s p i t a l , t h o s e t r e a t e d b u t n o t a d m i t t e d and t h o s e i n j u r e d b u t n o t t r e a t e d .

2.41 Age and Sex - ( T a b l e 2 1 - o p p o s i t e )

T a b l e 2 1 r e v e a l s t h a t somewha t more c h i l d r e n a g e d 0-4 a r e i n v o l v e d a s r o a d c a s u a l t i e s t h a n c h i l d r e n a g e d 5 - 7 . However , t h e e x t e n t o f t h i s v a r i e s b y s t a t e and d o e s a l t e r somewhat y e a r b y y e a r . I n t h e s e two y o u n g e s t a g e g r o u p s , males o u t n u m b e r f e m a l e s and t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s p r e s e n t f o r b o t h y e a r s a c r o s s a l l t h r e e s t a t e s .

-_I-

W h i l s t i n t u i t i v e l y t h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n c e r n a b o u t t h e r o a d s a f e t y o f y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n ( 0 - 7 ) , i n terms o f n u m b e r s t h e s e y o u n q e r c h i l d r e n , a c r o s s t i m e and t h e t h r e e s t a t e s , a c c o u n t for o n l y b e t w e e n 29% and 35% o f a l l a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n 0-16. I t i s t h e o l d e r c h i l d r e n ( 8 - 1 6 ) who a r e o v e r - r e p r e s e n t e d i n r o a d c a s u a l t y s t a t i s t i c s . A d m i t t e d l y , t h e c l a s s i n t e r v a l s a r e n o t e q u a l . The 0-7 y e a r o l d s a c c o u n t f o r o n e t h i r d o f t h e a c c i d e n t s ( f o r e i g h t y e a r s of l i f e ) and t h e 8-16 y e a r o l d s a c c o u n t for two t h i r d s o f t h e a c c i d e n t s ( f o r n i n e y e a r s o f l i f e ) .

I n t h e o l d e r a g e g r o u p s , t h e i n c i d e n c e of a c c i d e n t s i n c r e a s e s q u i t e s u b s t a n t i a l l y b e t w e e n t h e two s u b - a g e g r o u p s . A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e r o a d a c c i d e n t p r o b l e m , a t l e a s t i n terms of numbers i n c r e a s e s w i t h a g e so t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t numbers a r e % t e e n a g e r s n o t t h e u p p e r p r i m a r y s c h o o l aged c h i l d r e n n o r t h e y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n . I n t h e o l d e r g r o u p s , t h e i n c i d e n c e of males i s s t i l l c o n s i d e r a b l y g r e a t e r t h a n f e m a l e s a c r o s s t i m e and s t a t e s .

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2 8

A c o m p a r i s o n , i n T a b l e 2 2 , of t h e t h r e e m o s t p o p u l o u s s t a t e s r e v e a l s t h a t c a s u a l t y a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i d g c h i l d r e n 0 - 1 6 and f a t a l a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n 0 - 1 6 a r e n o t s p r e a d e v e n l y b e t w e e n t h e s t a t e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p o p u l a t i o n a g e d 0 - 1 6 .

V i c t o r i a h a s a b e t t e r r e c o r d o v e r t h e two y e a r s t h a n t h e o t h e r two s t a t e s . Q u e e n s l a n d i s u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t e d i n " a l l a c c i d e n t s " b u t i s o v e r - r e p r e s e n t e d i n a c c i d e n t s w i t h c h i l d r e n 0-1 6 i n v o l v i n g a c h i l d d e a t h . N . S . W . , o v e r t h e two y e a r s , a c c o u n t s f o r p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y more a c c i d e n t s and more f a t a l s t h a n i t s s h a r e o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n aged 0 - 1 6 l i v i n g i n , t h e t h r e e s t a t e s .

TABLE 2 2 I

COMPARISON O F SHARE* O F ROAD CASUALTIES --4-11~--

I N V O L V I N G C H I L D R E N 0-1 6 WITH P O P U L A T I O N 0-1 6 - 1981 A l l - 1 9 8 2

A 1 1 -

C a s u a l D e a t h s -II -I_

POP. I-

Pop. C a s u a l D e a t h s I_

S t a t e

N.S.W. 4 4 . 4 5 6 . 3 4 6 . 2 4 4 . 3 5 4 . 2 4 8 . 7 V i C . 3 4 . 3 2 8 . 4 3 1 . 5 3 4 . 0 2 9 . 9 2 7 . 3

2 4 . 0 Q ' l d . 2 1 . 3 1 5 . 3 2 2 . 3 2 1 . 7 3 S t a t e T o t a l 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 % . 100% B a s e No. 3 2 4 4 * * 1 0 , 7 5 4 3 2 7 3 2 5 9 * * 1 0 , 0 5 5 3 0 0

% % % % % %

- - I_ - ~ -- 1 5 . 9

S o u r c e s : T A R U ( N S W ) ; R T A ( V i c . ) ; DOT ( Q ' l d ) . * S h a r e b a s e d on 3 S t a t e T o t a l * * 0 0 0

2 . 4 2 S e x a n d Age By Main Road U s e r T y p e s

I n t h i s s e c t i o n of t h e r e p o r t a n a n a l y s i s i s made o f t h e t h r e e ma in r o a d u s e r c a t e g o r i e s ( v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s , p e d e s t r i a n s , p e d a l c y c l i s t s ) f o r t h e y e a r s 1 9 8 1 and 1 9 8 2 f o r t h e t h r e e m o s t p o p u l o u s s t a t e s . The " o t h e r " r o a d u s e r c a t e g o r i e s ( m o t o r c y c l i s t s , p i l l i o n p a s s e n g e r s , c a r d r i v e r s ) a r e e x c l u d e d b e c a u s e c h i l d r o a d c a s u a l t i e s i n t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s a r e s m a l l i n number r e p r e s e n t i n g t h r e e p e r c e n t o f a l l c h i l d ( 0 - 1 6 ) r o a d c a s u a l t i e s . S t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s of t h e s e r o a d u s e r g r o u p s i s n o t f e a s i b l e . Over 9 0 % o f a l l c h i l d r o a d u s e r s k i l l e d o r i n j u r e d a s d r i v e r s , m o t o r c y c l e r i d e r s or p i l l i o n p a s s e n g e r s a r e a g e d 1 3 - 1 6 y e a r s . T h e s e " o t h e r " c a t e g o r y a r e p r i m a r i l y m a l e s a g e d 1 3 - 1 6 y e a r s and m o s t l y i n v o l v e motor c y c l e s . Even so, t h e " o t h e r " c a t e g o r y s t i l l o n l y a c c o u n t s f o r l e s s t h a n 10% o f t h e 1 3 - 1 6 a g e g r o u p .

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T A B L E 2 4 ~ - -

1 9 8 1 Aqe/Sex P o p 2 . * * N.S.W. V I C .

V E H I C L E PASSENGER CASUALTIES* 1. 1 9 8 1 - 8 2 I_ --

I 0 -4 ( 2 7 % ) Male Female S e x N . S .

Male Female

- 5 - 7 ( 1 8 % )

S e x N.S.

7 2 6 ) ( 3 4 1 ) 39 5 1 7 1 3 3 0 1 7 0

4 5 5 ) ( 2 4 9 ) 2 4 4 1 1 4 21 1 1 3 5

- 1

- - I_- 8 - 1 2 ( 3 2 % ) ( 8 7 4 ) ( 4 7 1 )

Male 3 8 5 2 2 5 Female 4 8 9 2 4 6 Sex N.S. - - Male 591 2 5 5 Female 7 4 9 3 1 2

1 3 - 1 6 ( 2 3 % ) ( 1 3 4 0 ) ( 5 6 8 )

QLD.

( 2 0 9 ) 9 6

1 1 3

( 1 1 3 )

-

- 5 9 5 4

( 2 2 9 ) 1 0 8 1 2 1

( 3 6 7 ) 1 7 5 1 9 2

-

-

-

1 9 8 2 - N . S . W . V I C . --I I_

( 6 3 1 ) ( 3 2 3 ) 3 1 0 1 7 7 3 1 4 1 4 6

7 - ( 3 6 8 ) ( 2 0 5 )

1 8 0 1 0 9 1 8 4 9 6

4 - ( 7 8 6 ) ( 4 0 9 )

3 6 7 1 7 8 4 1 7 2 3 1

( 1 1 0 5 ) ( 5 7 7 ) 4 9 4 2 4 1 6 0 7 3 3 5

- 2

__ QLD.

( 1 8 1 1 9 0 91

( 1 0 4 ) 5 5 4 9

( 2 0 5 ) 1 0 1 1 0 4

( 3 6 2 ) 1 5 7 2 0 5

-

-

-

- 1 4 1 S e x N . S . -

Male 1 6 1 5 7 6 5 4 3 8 1 3 5 1 7 0 5 4 0 3

--- - 0-1 6 ( 3 3 9 C T T i C 2 C T - ~ i 8 ) D g o ) ( 1 5 1 4 I ( 8 5 2 )

F e m a l e 1 7 7 9 8 6 3 4 8 0 1 5 2 2 8 0 8 4 4 9 S e x N.S. 1 1 - 1 7 1

0 -4 21 21 2 3 22 21 21 5 - 7 1 3 1 5 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 2 8 - 1 2 2 6 29 2 5 27 2 7 2 4

1 3 - 1 6 4 0 3 5 4 0 38 38 4 3

- ( P e r c e n t a g e s )

S o u r c e s : T A R U (NSW); RTA ( v i c . ) ; D O T ( Q ' l d . 1 . * I n c l u d e s k i l l e d , h o s p i t a l i s e d , t r e a t e d i n j u r e d , and

* * P e r c e n t a g e of c h i l d p o p u l a t i o n 0 - 1 6 i n c l u s i v e i n t h i s o t h e r i n j u r i e s.

a g e c a t e q o r y .

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2 9

I n i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e t a b l e s i n a l l s u b s e c t i o n s o f s e c t i o n 2 . 4 , i t m u s t b e n o t e d t h a t , t h e a g e c a t e g o r i e s employed i n t h e a n a l y s i s d o n o t c o n t a i n e q u a l i n t e r v a l s i n t e rms of number o f y e a r s , n o r d o t h e y c o n t a i n e q u a l n u m b e r s of c h i l d r e n 0 - 1 6 ; i . e . 4 a g e g r o u p s e a c h w i t h 4 y e a r i n t e r v a l s would r e s u l t i n e a c h of t h e f o u r g r o u p s r e p r e s e n t i n g 2 5 % o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n a g e d 0 - 1 6 . The ~- age g r o u p 0 - 1 6 s p a n s 1 7 y e a r s . The d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e a g e s a c r o s s t h e t h r e e m o s t p o p u l o u s s t a t e s i s a lmos t i d e n t i c a l .

-I_---

TABLE 2 3 - 1 9 8 1 POPULATION DISTRIBUTION O F

( P e r c e n t a g e s )

I_I

C H I L D R E N A G E D 0-16 - --I_

Age C a t e g o r y N.S.W. I_ V I C . Q ' L D .

0 - 4 ( 5 ) 2 7 . 2 2 6 . 6 2 7 . 2 5 - 7 ( 3 ) 1 7 . 5 1 7 . 3 1 7 . 5 8-1 2 ( 5 ) 3 2 . 0 3 2 . 3 3 2 . 2

2 3 . 1 1 3 - 1 6 ( 4 ) 2 3 . 3 2 3 . 8 T o t a l 1 7 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 % B a s e N o . ( 0 0 0 ) 1 4 4 0 1 1 3 6 9 1

( y e a r s ) % % %

I- __-

S o u r c e : APASCO Demograph ic I n f o r m a t i o n S y s t e m .

2 . 4 2 1 V e h i c l e P a s s e n g e r s

A c c o r d i n g t o t a b l e 2 4 ( o p p o s i t e ) , f e m a l e s a r e o n l y m a r g i n a l l y m o r e l i k e l y t h a n males t o b e i n v o l v e d i n p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t s . The l e a s t i n v o l v e d i n p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t s a r e t h e 5 - 7 a g e g r o u p .

The i n c i d e n c e of o c c u p a n t a c c i d e n t s a m o n g s t t h e o l d e r a g e g r o u p s , a n d e s p e c i a l l y t h e 1 3 - 1 6 a g e g r o u p , i n d i c a t e s t h a t i t is t h e s e o l d e r c h i l d r e n who a r e t h e b i g g e s t p r o b l e m a s o c c u p a n t s .

T a b l e 2 5 r e v e a l s t h a t a s i g n i f i c a n t l e v e l o f p a s s e n g e r c a s u a l t i e s i s p r e s e n t i n b o t h s e x e s and a c r o s s v i r t u a l l y a l l a g e g r o u p s . Any c o u n t e r m e a s u r e a imed a t s o l v i n g t h e p r o b l e m c o u l d a l s o c o n s i d e r d r i v e r s a s a key t a r g e t r a t h e r t h a n a n y o n e s p e c i f i c c h i l d a g e g r o u p .

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3 0

TABLE 2 5 I_--

5 - 7 8 - 1 2

1 3 - 1 6 TOTAL B A S E NO.

V E H I C L E PASSENGER CASUALTIES ( 1 9 8 1 m ( P e r c e n t a g e s )

N . S . W . Age Year s 81 82

% % 0 - 4 ( 5 ) 21 1 6

3 ) 1 3 1 4 5 ) 2 6 3 1

4 0 3 9 4 ) 7 1 0 0 1 0 0

3 3 9 5 2 8 9 0

- --_

V I C . Q ' L D . POP. 81 8 2 81 8 2 * % % % % 21 1 5 1 6 1 5 2 7 1 5 1 5 1 3 1 5 1 8 29 31 29 2 8 3 2

2 3 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

- 4 2 I

35 3 9 - 4 2 ___ I 1 6 2 9 1 5 1 4 9 1 8 8 5 2

S o u r c e s : T A R U ( N S W ) ; R T A ( V i c . ) ; D O T ( Q ' l d ) . * P e r c e n t a g e o f c h i l d p o p u l a t i o n ( 0 - 1 6 ) i n e a c h

a g e g r o u p .

A c o m p a r i s o n of f a t a l s w i t h a l l c a s u a l t i e s i n t a b l e 2 6 r e v e a l s a somewhat s i m i l a r p i c t u r e e x c e p t t h a t c h i l d r e n 0 - 4 y e a r s of age a r e o v e r - r e p r e s e n t e d i n f a t a l s . However , c a u t i o n m u s t be e x e r c i s e d i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n b e c a u s e o f t h e s m a l l b a s e numbers .

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31

TABLE 2 6 V E H I C L E PASSENGER A C C I D E N T S -I-__--

( P e r c e n t a g e of c h i l d r e n 0 - 1 6 i n v o l v e d i n r o a d

Age

a c c i d e n t s o r f a t a l i t i e s 1

1 9 R l . Q ' L D . A l l F a t a l s * I_-

N.S.W. V I C . I

All F a t a l s * - _-I A l l F a t a l s * I -_ % % % % % %

0 -4 21 33 21 37 23 25 5 - 7 1 3 9 1 5 1 8 1 2 25 8 -1 2 2 6 17 29 1 3 25 1 2

4 0 41 3 5 3 2 4 0 3 8 0 - 1 6 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

I

1 3 - 1 6

Male 4 8 4 8 4 7 4 7 4 8 4 8 F e m a l e 5 2 5 2 53 5 3 5 2 52

B a s e N o . 3 3 9 5 6 6 1 6 2 9 3 8 91 8 3 2

A G E I

1 9 8 2 V I C . Q ' L D . A l l F a t a l s * A l l F a t a l s * __ N . S . W .

I_

I I _ ~ _-I- A l l F a t a l s * % % % % % %

0 - 4 2 2 2 5 21 39 21 27 5 - 7 1 3 6 1 4 1 4 1 2 1 0 8 - 1 2 27 1 7 27 2 8 24 29

Male 4 7 4 5 45 5 6 4 7 6 6 Female 5 3 5 5 55 4 4 53 34

Base N o . : 2 8 9 0 7 7 1 5 1 4 3 6 8 5 2 41

S o u r c e s : TARU ( N S W ) ; R T A ' ( V i c ) ; DOT ( Q ' l d . 1 . * C a u t i o n : S m a l l B a s e Numbers. I-_

C o n s i d e r i n g t h e t h r e e most populous s t a t e s a s a t o t a l , o v e r t h e t w o y e a r s 1 9 8 1 and 1 9 8 2 , N.S.W. i s g r o s s l y o v e r - r e p r e s e n t e d i n v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r c a s u a l t i e s when compared w i t h t h e i n c i d e n c e o f c h i l d r e n 0 - 1 6 l i v i n g i n N . S . W . ,

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TABLE 2 8

PEDESTRIAN CASUALTIES* 1 9 8 1 - 8 2 - l_-_l

1 6 1 8 0

3 6 3 2 4 3 1 2 0

5 72 3 3 2 2 5 0

-

-

-

1 9 8 2 _- 1 9 8 1 ~

N.S.W. V I C . QLD.

0 -4 ( 2 7 % ) ( 2 4 1 ) ( 1 3 3 ) ( 5 8 ) ( 2 3 3 ) ( 1 1 9 ) ( 5 5 ) Male 8 9 4 2 81 41

A g e / S e x pop. N . S . W . V I C . __ QLD. _I_ -I -I * * I

Female S e x N.S. - 5 - 7 ( 1 8 % )

Male F e m a l e S e x N.S.

Mal e F e m a l e S e x N .S .

Male F e m a l e

8-1 2 ( 3 2 % ) I_

1 3 - 1 6 ( 2 3 % )

S e x N.S.

Male

- 0-1 6 ( _I

Female S e x N . S .

0 - 4 5 - 7 8 - 1 2

1 3 - 1 6

4 4

( 1 5 3 9 9 5 4

( 2 3 2 1 5 2

8 0

-

-

-

1 6

( 7 2 ) 4 6 2 6

( 1 2 2 ) 75 4 7

-

-

- 3 7 6 ) ( 1 7 8 ) ( 6 1 ) 1 9 0 83 3 8 1 8 6 9 5 2 3

5 5 2 ) ( 6 9 6 ) ( 3 1 3 ) ( 91 6 4 2 3 2 0 1 6 3 6 2 7 3 1 1 2

- - - -~I---- --

- - -

1 5 6 7 7

3 0 1 1 8 2 1 1 8

1 51 7 31 3 2 0 2

2

- 3 8 1 4

( 1 5 5 ) ( 9 2 1 0 5 5 4

5 0 38

( 2 5 0 ) ( 1 0 1 7 0 31

- -

- -

- 1 4 2 1 0 8 -

3 2 8 ) ( 1 8 6 1 8 5 1 0 1 1 4 3 8 5

3 7 9 ) ( 7 1 0 8 3 6 4 2 9 5 4 0 2 8 1

- - ----

- 3 ( P e r c e n t a g e s )

1 6 1 9 1 9 1 7 1 7 23 2 2 2 3 22 22 3 7 33 39 37 35 24 2 6 1 9 24 2 6

S o u r c e s : TARU ( N S W ) ; RTA ( V i c . ) ; D O T ( Q ' l d . ) . * I n c l u d e s k i l l e d , h o s p i t a l i s e d , t r e a t e d i n j u r e d ,

* * P e r c e n t a g e of c h i l d p o p u l a t i o n 0 - 1 6 i n c l u s i v e i n and o t h e r i n j u r e d .

t h i s age category .

( 5 9 ) 3 5 24 - --_--

( 3 0 7 ) 2 0 0 1 0 7 -

1 8 3 0 33 1 9

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3 2

Not o n l y i s N.S.W. o v e r - r e p r e s e n t e d i n v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r c a s u a l t i e s , i t i s a l s o o v e r - r e p r e s e n t e d i n v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r f a t a l i t i e s i n v o l v i n q c h i l d r e n 0 - 1 6. Q u e e n s l a n d , w h i l s t n o t o v e r - r e p r e s e n t e d i n c a s u a l t i e s , i s o v e r - r e p r e s e n t e d i n c h i l d f a t a l i t i e s . V i c t o r i a had t h e b e s t r e c o r d o v e r t h e s e two y e a r s . O f c o u r s e , t h e s m a l l b a s e numbers a c c o u n t for t h e movements and d i f f e r e n c e s .

_i- _-____i________-__I

_--_I-_-- ~ - - I --_I-I_-

T A B L E 2 7

C O M P A R I S O N O F SHARE* O F -I_

V E H I C L E P A S S E N G E R CASUALTIES I N V O L V I N G C H I L D R E N 0-1 6 W I T H P O P U L A T I O N 0-1 6

-- -I_

( P e T c e n t a g e s )

1 9 8 1 ALL I-

1 9 8 2 ALL I_

__ I

Pop. Pass.Acc. F a t a l s - Pop. Pass .Acc . F a t a l s I- I ___- S t a t e

-I_

% % % % % % N . S . W . 44.4 57.1 48.5 44.3 55 .0 50 .0 V I C . 34.3 27.4 28 .0 34.0 28.8 2 3 . 4

2 6 . 6 -_I

~ Q ' L D . 21 .3 15.5 23.5 - 21.7 16 .2 3 S t a t e

___ T o t a l 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 % Base No.: 3 2 4 4 * * 5 9 4 1 1 3 6 1 5 4 3 2 5 9 * * 5 2 5 6

S o u r c e s : T A R U ( N S W ) ; R T A ( V i c . ) ; DOT ( Q ' l d . ) . * S h a r e based on 3 s t a t e T o t a l . * * 0 0 0

_I--

2 . 4 2 2 P e d e s t r i a n s - I The p e d e s t r i a n p rob lem ( T a b l e 2 8 o p p o s i t e ) i s skewed t o w a r d s m a l e s . The 8 - 1 2 a g e g r o u p i s a l s o c o n s i d e r a b l y o v e r - r e p r e s e n t e d i n c a s u a l t i e s b u t t h e p rob lem i s s i z e a b l e i n a l l a g e g r o u p s . T a b l e 29 p r o v i d e s a c o m p a r a t i v e t a b l e u s i n g p e r c e n t a g e s .

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3 3

The ma le b i a s i n p e d e s t r i a n c a s u a l t i e s is e v e n g r e a t e r when f a t a l i t i e s a r e e x a m i n e d . T a b l e 29 s u g g e s t s t h a t , w h i l s t p e d e s t r i a n c a s u a l t i e s o c c u r i n a l l a g e g r o u p s , t h e l e a s t l i k e l y t o be i n v o l v e d a r e young g i r l s 0 - 7 y e a r s of a g e .

TABLE 2 9

PEDESTRIANS CASUALTIES 1 9 8 1 I ( P e r c e n t a g e o f e a c h s e x / a g e g r o u p i n v o l v e d

a s c a s u a l t i e s o r f a t a l i t i e s ) . N .S .W. V I C . Q ' L D

~ 1 1 F a t a l s * A l i F a t a i s * A ~ I F a t a l s * I -__ ~

Age/Sex % % % % % % 0 - 4 Male 1 0 1 6 1 3 2 9 1 3 1 1 0 - 4 F e m a l e 5 1 1 6 8 5 5

5 - 7 Male 1 6 22 1 4 1 6 1 5 3 3 5 - 7 F e m a l e 8 9 8 - 8 1 1

8 - 1 2 Male 21 2 0 22 21 2 4 1 1 8 - 1 2 F e m a l e 1 6 4 1 1 8 1 5 - 1 3 - 1 6 Male 1 2 9 1 2 1 0 1 2 1 7 1 3 - 1 6 Female 1 2 9 1 4 8 7 1 1

0 -1 6 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 % Male 5 9 6 7 61 7 6 6 4 7 2 F e m a l e 41 3 3 39 2 4 3 6 2 8 Base No. 1 5 5 2 55 6 9 6 3 8 31 3 1 8

-I----

S o u r c e s : T A R U (N.S.W), RTA ( V i c . ) , DOT (Q'ld). * C a u t i o n : S m a l l Base Numbers .

The same p a t t e r n s e m e r g e o v e r t i m e a s shown i n t a b l e 30.

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34

TABLE 30

PEDESTRIAN CASUALTIES 1982 ( P e r c e n t a g e of e a c h s e x / a g e g r o u p s i n v o l v e d i n a c c i d e n t s o r f a t a l i t i e s )

Age/Sex Q'LD - _I

N.S.W. V I C .

% % % % % % A l l F a t a l s * A l l F a t a l s * A l l F a t a l s * __ -I I __ I

0-4 Male 1 1 29 1 1 18 13 28 0-4 F e m a l e 6 12 5 18 5 6 5-7 Male 13 16 15 18 18 1 1 5-7 F e m a l e 9 12 7 7 12 22 8-12 Male 23 12 20 7 23 17 8-12 Female 15 6 15 4 10 - 13-1 6 Male 13 10 14 21 1 1 17 13-1 6 F e m a l e 10 4 12 7 8 - T o t a l 0-16 1 0 0 % 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

---I_-_ - _I__

Male 61 67 60 64 65 72 Female 39 33 40 36 35 28 B a s e No. 1379 51 71 0 28 307 18

S o u r c e s : T A R U (NSW9, R T A ( V i c . ) , D O T ( Q ' l d . ) . * C a u t i o n S m a l l Base Numbers .

The v a r i a t i o n s b e t w e e n 1981 and 1982 i n a n y o n e a g e s e x / g r o u p f o r f a t a l i t i e s r e f l e c t s t h e v e r y s m a l l b a s e number o f f a t a l i t i e s .

A c o m p a r i s o n i n t a b l e 31 o f p e d e s t r i a n c a s u a l t i e s and p e d e s t r i a n d e a t h s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n 0-16 w i t h t h e p o p u l a t i o n a g e d 0-16 i n t h e t h r e e s t a t e s a g a i n r e v e a l s a n u n e v e n d i s t r i b u t i o n .

Based o n s h a r e of c h i l d p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e 3 m o s t p o p u l o u s s t a t e s , N.S.W. a g a i n c o n t r i b u t e s a g r e a t e r s h a r e o f a l l c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n c a s u a l t i e s and p e d e s t r i a n f a t a l i t i e s a g e d 0-16 y e a r s . V i c t o r i a i s u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t e d i n b o t h c a s u a l t i e s and f a t a l i t i e s e x c e p t i n 1981 w h e r e i t s s h a r e of 3 s t a t e f a t a l i t i e s m a t c h e d i t s s h a r e o f 3 s t a t e p o p u l a t i o n . Q u e e n s l a n d h a s a v e r y l o w i n c i d e n c e o f p e d e s t r i a n c a s u a l t i e s and a l o w i n c i d e n c e o f p e d e s t r i a n f a t a l i t i e s . T h i s may r e f l e c t t h e e a r l i e r o b s e r v a t i o n s t h a t p e d e s t r i a n c a s u a l t i e s and f a t a l i t i e s a r e much more l i k e l y t o o c c u r i n u r b a n or m e t r o p o l i t a n a r eas .

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35

T A B L E 31

C O M P A R I S O N OF S H A R E * OF P E D E S T R I A N C A S U A L T I E S I N V O L V I N G I--

C X I L D R E N 0-16 WITH P O P U L A T I O N 0-16 l__l 11--

( P e r c e n t a g e s ) 1982

_I -- 1981 P o p . P e d . A c c . P o p .

% % % % % %

--_ P e d . A c c . F a t a l s I_--I - S t a t e

F a t a l s

N . S . W . 44.4 6 0 . 6 49.6 44.3 57.6 52.6 V I C . 34.3 27.2 34.2 34.0 29.6 28.9 Q ' l d . 21.3 12.2 16.2 21 .7 12.8 18.5 3 S t a t e T o t a l 100 100 100 t 00 100 100 B a s e No. 3244** 2561 1 1 1 3259** 2396 97

I_-

-I---- ---

S o u r c e s : TARU (NSW). R T A ( V i c . ) , DOT (Q'ld.1. * Share b a s e d - o n 3 S t a t e T o t a l * * 000

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TABLE 3 2 - PEDAL C Y C L E L P I L L I O N PASSENGER CASUALTIES* 1 9 8 1 - 8 2 - -- -- I_-_-

A g e / S e x pop

- 0 -4 ( 2 7 % ) * *

Male F e m a l e

N -

- 5 - 7 ( 1 8 % ) Male F e m a l e

S e x N . S . 8-1 2 ( 3 2 % ) I_

Male F e m a l e S e x N.S.

Male - 1 3 - 1 6 ( 2 3 % )

1 9 8 1 S.W. VIC. i_-

1 2 ) ( 5 ) 1 0 4

2 1 94 1 ( 7 2 ) 82 5 4 1 2 1 8 - -

( 3 6 5 ) ( 2 8 1 ) 31 2 2 3 0

53 51 1

( 3 9 1 ) ( 3 2 4 ) 3 4 4 2 7 3

-

N -- Q ' L D . - ( 3 )

3

1 9 8 2 s.w V I C . --_ _I

1 6 ) ( 1 8 ) 1 1 1 2

5 6 1 6 ) ( 7 7 ) 9 2 64 23 1 3 - 1

1 9 ) ( 3 4 4 ) ( 2 8 0 ) 9 0 2 9 6 2 3 0 29 4 8 50 - - - 01 ) ( 4 3 4 ) ( 3 4 5 ) 6 4 3 9 2 2 9 4

4 7 51 3 7 4 2 5 1 Female

Male 74 8 5 6 1 2 7 6 771 600 ( 9 1 0 ) ( 7 z - 1_-------14--_- - 0-1 6 ( 8 6 2 ) ( 6 8 3 ) ( 3 5 0 )

Female 1 1 4 1 2 1 7 4 1 1 8 1 2 0 1 S e x N . S . - - 1 -

0 -4 P e r c e n t a g e s

1 1 1 1 2 - ~ - -

5 - 7 1 1 1 1 8 1 3 1 1

Q ' L D

( 3 ) 2 1

( 3 7 ) 3 0

7

-

- 1 4 4 1 1 5

29

1 7 3 1 4 2

-

31 3 5 7 ) 2 8 9

68 -

1 0

8 - 1 2 1 3 - 1 6

4 3 41 34 38 39 4 0 4 5 4 7 5 7 4 8 4 8 4 9

S o u r c e s : T A R U (NSW), R T A ( V i c . ) , DOT ( Q ' l d . ) . I n c l u d e s k i l l e d , h o s p i t a l i s e d , t r e a t i n j u r e d ,

* * P e r c e n t a g e of c h i l d p o p u l a t i o n 0 - 1 6 i n c l u s i v e and o . t h e r i n j u r e d .

i n t h i s a g e c a t e g o r y .

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3 6

2 . 4 2 3 P e d a l C y c l i s t s --I_

The 3 s t a t e d a t a f o r 1 9 8 1 and 1 9 8 2 a p p e a r s i n t a b l e 3 2 o p p o s i t e . A c o m p a r i s o n of a l l c a s u a l t i e s v e r s u s f a t a l s f o l l o w s i n t a b l e 3 3 .

V i c t o r i a h a s more p e d a l c y c l e f a t a l i t i e s , i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n 0 - 1 6 y e a r s , t h a n d o e s Q u e e n s l a n d o r N e w S o u t h Wales . The 1 9 8 2 f i n d i n g was a l s o t r u e f o r 1 9 8 1 ( a l t h o u g h n o t shown i n t h e t a b l e ) .

T A B L E 3 3

PEDAL CYCLE CASUALTIES 1 9 8 2 A l l A c c i d e n t s

V I C . Q'LD. -- N.S.W. -- Ped . Ped. A c c i d . F a t a l s A c c i d . -I -

~ ~~ I_-

% No. % No.

Ped . F a t a l s A c c i d . F a t a l s

__ % No.

0 - 4 Males 1 - 2 - > 1 - 0 - 4 F e m a l e s > 1 1 1 - > 1 - 5 - 7 Males 1 0 2 9 4 8 4 5 - 7 F e m a l e s 2 - 2 - 2 - 8 - 1 2 M a l e s 33 4 3 2 2 32 2 8 - 1 2 F e m a l e s 5 - 7 - 8 2 1 3 - 1 6 M a l e s 4 4 3 41 1 0 4 0 4 1 3 - 1 6 F e m a l e s 4 - 7 1 9 T o t a l 0 - 1 6 1 0 0 % 1 0 1 0 0 % 1 7 1 0 0 % 1 2 Male 8 8 9 8 3 1 6 81 1 0 F e m a l e 1 2 1 1 7 1 1 9 2 B a s e N o . 91 0 1 0 2 2 0 1 7 3 5 7 1 2

- I

S o u r c e s : T A R U (NSW), RTA (Vie.), DOT ( Q ' l d . 1 .

Any a n a l y s i s o f b i c y c l e c a s u a l t y d a t a s h o u l d b e c a r r i e d o u t w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e c a u t i o n b e c a u s e o f t h e v e r y h i g h l e v e l of n o n - r e p o r t i n g ( s e e s e c t i o n 1 .4 ) . B o u v i e r ( 1 9 8 4 ) e s t i m a t e d t h a t b i c y c l e a c c i d e n t s a l l a g e s a r e a r o u n d 9 0 0 , 0 0 0 f o r V i c t o r i a a l o n e . T h i s e s t i m a t e w a s b a s e d on t h e a u t h o r s a t t e n d a n c e a t BMX a n d o t h e r c y c l i n g r a l l i e s and a s t u d y of t h e S t . J o h n Ambulance case s h e e t s f o r t h e s e meets. H e r e f e r s t o t h e a c c i d e n t i c e b e r g w h e r e s t a t i s t i c s r e v e a l o n l y t h e t i p . I t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e l e v e l of n o n - r e p o r t i n g v a r i e s b y g e o g r a p h i c area.

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37

On t h e b a s i s of t h e c a s u a l t i e s d a t a a v a i l a b l e , t h e r e l a t i v e s i t u a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t h r e e most p o p u l o u s s t a t e s a p p e a r s i n t a b l e 34.

T A B L E 34

COMPARISON O F SHARE* OF

I N V O L V I N G C H I L D R E N 0-16 ( P e r c e n t a g e s ) PEDAL CYCLE L P I L L I O N P A S S E N G E R CASUALTIES -__ - __I_

- 1982 1981

Pop. C y c l e F a t a l s Pop. C y c l e F a t a l s

---

___ - __I__ -- S t a t e -_ A c c i d . * * * -I_ A c c i d . _I

% % % % % %

* * *

N.S.W. 44.4 45.5 28.0 44.3 45.8 25.6 V I C . 34.3 36.0 44.0 34.0 36.2 43.6 Q ' L D . 21.3 18.5 28.0 21.7 18.0 30.8 3 S t a t e T o t a l 100 100 100 100 100 100 B a s e No.** 3244 1895 50 3259 1987 39

S o u r c e : T A R U (NSW), R T A ( V i c . ) , D O T ( Q ' l d . ) . * S h a r e b a s e d o n 3 S t a t e T o t a l * * 0 0 0 * * * C a u t i o n : P e r c e n t a g e d o n v e r y s m a l l b a s e numher .

O f t h e t h r e e m a j o r r o a d u s e r c a t e g o r i e s , where c h i l d r e n 0 - 1 6 a r e i n v o l v e d a s c a s u a l t i e s P e d a l c y c l e c a s u a l t i e s mos t c l o s e l y a p p r o x i m a t e p o p u l a t i o n i n c i d e n c e s for t h e t h r e e m o s t p o p u l o u s s t a t e s ( s e e t a b l e s 27, 31, 34). However , w i t h r e g a r d t o f a t a l i t i e s , N . S . W . had t h e b e s t r e c o r d f o r t h e y e a r s 1981 and 1982 and V i c t o r i a t h e w o r s t . T h i s d a t a t a k e s no a c c o u n t o f r i s k o r e x p o s u r e , s i n c e n o s u c h d a t a i s a v a i l a b l e . One p o s s i b l e p r o x y m e a s u r e for e x p o s u r e i s b i c y c l e o w n e r s h i p or b i c y c l e s a l e s , b u t n o c o m p a r a b l e s t a t i s t i c s a p p e a r t o e x i s t .

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3 8

2 .43 Road User T y p e s I__--

A n a l y s i s of a l l c h i l d c a s u a l t i e s o r a l l a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n q c h i l d - f a t a l i t i e s r e v e a l s t h a t two r o a d u s e r c a t e g o r i e s a c c o u n t f o r t h e b u l k o f ' r e p o r t e d ' a c c i d e n t s . A t h i r d r o a d u s e r c a t e g o r y i s a l s o

--_____-I

_I-__I-__ _ s i g n i f i c a n t and v e r y l i k e l y t o be much more s i g n i f i c a n t t h a n

n a t i o n a l p i c t u r e f o r " a l l " c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t s a n d ' a l l " f a t a l i t i e s a p p e a r e d i n t a b l e s 1 3 a n d 1 4 ( i n s e c t i o n 2 . 2 ) . I n t h e a n a l y s i s w h i c h f o l l o w s " d r i v e r s " a r e e x c l u d e d s i n c e m o s t c h i l d d r i v e r s a r e d r i v i n g i l l e g a l l y ( i n c l u d i n g m o t o r c y c l e d r i v e r s ) . T a b l e 1 4 ( s e c t i o n 2 . 2 ) r e v e a l e d t h a t 1 1 d r i v e r s 0 - 1 6 y e a r s o f a g e w e r e k i l l e d i n A u s t r a l i a i n 1 9 8 0 w h i l e t a b l e 1 3 i n d i c a t e s t h a t 1 1 3 w e r e i n j u r e d . ' D r i v e r s " r e p r e s e n t s a r o u n d 2 % o f f a t a l s and 2 % o f a l l c a s u a l t i e s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n 0 - 1 6 y e a r s of a g e .

r e v e a l e d b y t h e c a s u a l t y s t a t i s t i c s ( s e e s e c t i o n 1.4) . A

T A B L E 3 5

ALL CASUALTIES BY TYPE O F R O A D USERS 11_-

1 9 8 1 Road Users N.S.W. I_ V I C . Q ' L D .

F. T o t a l V e h . P a s s . 1 6 1 5 1 7 7 9 3 3 9 5 * 7 6 5 8 G 1 6 2 9 * 4 3 8 4 8 0 918 I

T o t a l 5 F. T o t a l 5 -- _- F. _- M. - P e d e s t 9 1 6 6 3 6 1 5 5 2 4 2 3 2 7 3 6 9 6 201 1 1 2 3 1 3 Cyc./P.P. 7 4 8 1 1 4 8 6 2 5 5 8 1 2 1 6 8 0 * 2 7 6 7 4 3 5 0

3 9 1 1 5 0 4 7 1 6 63 Mot c y c 1 6 3 5 1 6 8 P i l l P a s s . 4 9 29 7 8 T o t a l 3 4 9 1 2 5 6 3 6 0 5 5 1 7 8 5 1 2 6 8 3 0 5 5 9 6 2 6 8 2 1 6 4 4

1 9 8 2 _I

V e h . P a s s . 1 3 5 1 1 5 2 2 2 8 9 0 * 7 0 5 8 0 8 1 5 1 4 * 403 4 4 9 8 5 2 P e d e s t 8 3 6 5 4 0 1 3 7 9 * 4 2 9 281 7 1 0 2 0 0 1 0 7 3 0 7 CYC./P.P. 791 1 1 8 9 1 0 * 600 1 2 0 7 2 2 * 2 8 9 6 8 3 5 7 Mot c y c 1 8 8 6 1 9 4

T O t a l 3 2 0 0 2 2 2 8 5 4 4 9 1 8 2 2 1 2 3 3 3 0 1 3 9 4 9 6 4 4 1 5 9 3 P i l l pass. 3 4 4 2 7 6 5 7 2 0 6 7 5 7 2 0 7 7

S o u r c e s : T A R U ( N S W ) , R T A ( V i e . ) , DOT (Q'ld.). * I n c l u d e s s e x n o t s t a t e d -I_

V a r i a t i o n s a l s o e x i s t b e t w e e n t h e s t a t e s r e g a r d i n g t h e r e l a t i v e m a g n i t u d e of t h e r o a d u s e r c a s u a l t y c a t e g o r i e s . V e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s a r e t h e s i n g l e b i g g e s t p r o b l e m , b y f a r , a c r o s s t h e t h r e e m o s t p o p u l o u s s t a t e s . However t h e p i c t u r e c h a n g e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e t w e e n t h e s t a t e s f o r t h e n e x t two m a j o r p r o b l e m s b u t i s c o n s i s t e n t f o r t h e two y e a r s u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

_l_ll_ - I _ ~ ~ _

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3 9

O n e i n e v e r y two r o a d a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g a c h i l d 0 - 1 6 y e a r s o f a g e o c c u r s a s a " p a s s e n g e r " i n a v e h i c l e . P e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s a n d p e d a l c y c l e a c c i d e n t s a c c o u n t f o r m o s t o f t h e r e m a i n d e r .

-- - - ~ - -

TABLE 3 6 I

ALL CASUALTIES 1 9 8 1 - 8 2 ( P e r c e n t a g e of C h i l d r e n 0 - 1 6 y e a r s o f a g e

i n e a c h c a t e g o r y of r o a d u s e r ) .

------I--_-

C a t e g o r y o f U s e r N.S.W. V I C . Q ' L D . 8 2 - 81

I

El-- 8 2 -- - El-- 8 2 % % . % % % % I _-

V e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s 56 P e d e s t r i a n s 2 6 Ped . c y c l . / P i 1 1. P. 1 4 Moto r c v c l i s t s / 2 . 8

1 . 2 -- P i l l i o n p a s s e n g e r s 1 0 0 %

B a s e NO. 6055 5 S o u r c e s : TARU (NSW)

5 3 5 3 5 0 56 5 4 2 6 2 3 2 3 1 9 1 9 1 6 2 2 2 4 21 2 3

3 .6 1 . 4 2 3 4 4 --- -- oo$ l r n % 555% 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 % 4 9 3 0 5 5 3 0 1 3 1 6 4 4 1 5 9 3

R T A ( V i c . ) , D O T ( Q ' l d . ) .

A n a l y s i s of f a t a l i t i e s ( t a b l e 3 7 ) r e v e a l s a s i m i l a r p i c t u r e , e x c e p t f o r V i c t o r i a w h e r e , i n r e l a t i v e t e r m s , p e d e s t r i a n s and p e d a l c y c l i s t s a c c o u n t f o r a g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n o f f a t a l i t i e s t h a n a c c i d e n t s .

TABLE 3 7 F A T A L I T I E S 1 9 8 1 - 8 2

( 0 - 1 6 y e a r s of Aqe) . is81

V I C . Q ' L D . -- N.S.W. C a t e g o r y o f User No. % No. % N o . %

V e h i c l e P a s s e n g e r s 66 4 5 3 8 3 8 3 2 4 5

Ped .Cyc. / P i l l . P a s s . 1 4 1 0 2 2 2 2 1 4 2 0 Moto r c y c l i s t s / 8 5

4 3 2 2 7 1 0 P i l l i o n p a s s e n g e r s - T o t a l K i l l e d 1 4 7 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 71 1 0 0

P e d e s t r i a n s 55 3 7 3 8 38 1 8 2 5

1 9 8 2 - V e h i c l e P a s s e n g e r s 7 7 5 3 3 6 4 4 41 57 P e d e s t r i a n s 51 3 5 2 8 3 4 18 2 5 Ped . C y c . / P i l l . P a s 8 . 1 0 7 1 7 21 1.7 1 7 Motor C v c l i s t s / 4 3 - P i l l i o n p a s s e n g e r s 4 3 1 1 1

_I--I 1 -

T o t a l K i l l e d 1 4 6 1 0 0 % 8 2 1 0 0 % 7 2 1 0 0 %

S o u r c e s : T A R U ( N S W ) , R T A ( V i c . ) , D O T ( Q ' l d . ) .

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TABLE 39 ALL CASUALTIES

(METRO) VS (NON-METRO)

1981 -

NSW VIC QLD Metro(1) Other Metro(2) Other Metro(3) Other

No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. %

Record User Category

M.V. Passengers 1833( 48) 1562( 69) 1002( 47) 627( 67) 353( 45) 565( 65)

Pedestrians 1257( 33) 295( 13) 592( 28) 104( 11) 208( 27) 105( 12)

Pedal Cyclists & Pillion Passengers 588( 16) 274( 12) 490( 23) 190( 20) 189( 24) 161( 19)

Motorcyclists & Pillion Passengers 124( 3) 122( 6) 30( 2) 20( 2 ) 27( 4) 36( 4)

All Users* 3802(100) 2253(100) 2114(100) 940(100) 777(100) 867(100)

Male 2217( 59) 1220( 54) 1259( 60) 526( 56) 477( 61) 485( 56)

Female 1530( 41) 1033( 46) 854( 40) 414( 44) 300( 39) 382( 44)

1982 - M.V. Passengers 1482( 44) 1408( 67) ( 44) 593( 64) 350( 45) 502( 62)

Pedestrians 1070( 32) 309( 15) 586( 28) 124( 13) 202( 13) 105( 13)

Pedal Cyclists & Pillion Passengers 637( 19) 273( 13) 533( 26) 189( 20) 196( 20) 161( 20)

Motorcyclists & Pillion Passengers 135( 4) 135( 6) 40( 2) 27( 3) 30( 4) 47( 5)

All Users* 3324(100) 2125(100) 2080(100) 933(100) 778(100) 815(100)

Male 1982( 60) 1218( 57) 1272( 62) 523( 56) 491( 63) 458( 56)

Female 1327( 40) 901( 43) 805( 38) 410( 44) 287( 37) 357( 44)

(i) Metro defined as Sydney Statistical Division, Wollongong Statistical Division and Shell Harbour L.G.A., Newcastle Statistical Division and Lake Macquarie L.G.A. Other=rest of New South Wales

Metro defined as Melbourne Statistical Division, Geelong City Statistical Division plus L.G.A.'s. Ballerineo(l03) Corio(lO6) Geelong West(l08) Newtown(ll0) Queenscliff(ll2)

(ii)

(iii) Metro defined as Brisbane Statistical Division and Gold Coast

* Includes 'sex not stated'

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40

Over t h e two y e a r s a c o n s i s t e n t p i c t u r e emerges. T h e r e is a p o s s i b i l i t y , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s c o u l d b e d e c l i n i n g and p e d a l c y c l i s t s and p e d e s t r i a n s r i s i n g . T a b l e 38 r e v e a l s t h a t , o v e r t h e s e two y e a r s , t h e t o t a l number o f c h i l d c a s u a l t i e s and c h i l d f a t a l i t i e s d e c l i n e d s l i g h t l y i n e a c h o f t h e t h r e e m o s t p o p u l o u s s t a t e s .

T A B L E 38 --I-__

ALL CASUALTIES 1981 -82 ----- __-- ( C h i l d r e n 0-16 y e a r s of a g e )

V I C . Q ' L D . 8 7 82

_I C a t e g o r y o f User N.S.W.

V e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s 3395 2890 1629 1514 918 852 I - I 81 - . - I

82 87- 82 ----I----_-

P e d e s t r i a n s 1552 1379 696 710 313 307 P e d . c Y C . / P i l l . P a s s . 862 910 680 722 350 357 ~~ - . M o t . c y c . / P i l l . P a s s . ' 246 270 50 67 63 77

__--I

To t a l Cas ua 1 t i e s 6055 5449 3055 3013 1644 1593

S o u r c e : T A R U (NSW), R T A ( V i c . ) , DOT ( Q ' l d . 1 .

2.44 M e t r o v e r s u s Non-Metro

The a n a l y s i s , t h u s f a r , h a s t r e a t e d e a c h s t a t e a s a homogeneous e n t i t y . V i c t o r i a and N.S.W. a r e c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y a s i z e a b l e p r o p o r t i o n of t h e p o p u l a t i o n l i v i n g i n m e t r o p o l i t a n o r u r b a n a r e a s . Q u e e n s l a n d ' s p o p u l a t i o n t e n d s t o b e more d e c e n t r a l i s e d .

T a b l e 39 ( o p p o s i t e ) p r o v i d e s r o a d u s e r c a s u a l t y d a t a f o r e a c h of t h e t h r e e m o s t p o p u l o u s s t a t e s s p l i t b e t w e e n m e t r o and non m e t r o . The p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n s o c c u r i n t h e f o o t n o t e s . The t a b l e

I_

r e v e a l s t h a t t h e p e d e s t r i a n p r o b l e m i s r e s t r i c t e d p r i m a r i l y t o metro a r e a s w h i l s t v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s a c c o u n t f o r c o n s i d e r a b l y more c a s u a l t i e s t h e c o u n t r y . P e d a l c y c l e c a s u a l t i e s a r e more p r e d o m i n a n t i n t h e m e t r o a r e a s b u t a r e s t i l l s i g n i f i c a n t i n c o u n t r y a r e a s .

-_I

-___~I_~ -- ic- --I

~ ~ - - _ -___II

I n terms of o v e r a l l number of c a s u a l t i e s t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f c a s u a l t i e s m e t r o v e r s u s c o u n t r y a p p e a r s i n T a b l e 40 .

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TABLE 41 ALL CASUaTIES

METRO VS NON-"FC

I 1981 - NSW

(1) -

-* Other

- AGE No. % No. %

0-4 602( 16) 379( 17)

5-7 606( 16) 309( 14) 8-12 1201( 32) 623( 28)

13-16 1393( 37) 942( 42)

VIC

(2) -

Metro* Other

No. % No. %

317( 15) 162( 17)

335( 16) 139( 15)

698( 37) 285( 30)

764( 36) 355( 38)

QLD

(3) - - Metro* Other

No. 8 No. %

114( 15) 156( 18)

96( 16) 116( 13)

251( 32) 222( 26)

314( 41) 375( 43)

?btdl 0-16 3802 (100) 2253 (100)

N%'

(1) Metro* Other

AGE NO. % No. %

0-4 646( 14) 429( 20)

5-7 513( 16) 273( 13)

8-12 1073( 32) 592( 28)

13-16 1274( 38) 840( 39)

Total 0-16 3324 (100) 2125 (100)

-

2114 (100) 941 (100)

1982 - VIC

(2) - - Metro* other

No. % No. %

301( 14) 160( 17)

305( 15) 133( 14)

691( 33) 255( 27)

783( 38) 385( 41)

1080 (100) 933 (100)

777 (100) 867 (100)

- QLD (3)

Metro*

NO. %

116( 15)

119( 15)

243( 31)

300( 39)

778 (100)

- Other

No. %

123( 15)

115( 14)

212( 26)

365( 45)

815 (100)

(i) Metro defined as Sydney Statistical Division, Wollongons Statistical Division and Shell Harbour L.G.A., Newcastle Statistical Division and Lake Maquarie L.G.G. Other = rest of Nay south Wales.

Metro defined as Melbourne Statistical Division, Geelong City Statistical Division plus L.G.A.'s. gueenscliff (112).

(ii) Ballerineo (103), Corio (106), Geelong West (108), Naytown (110),

(iii) Metro defined as Brisbane SGtistical Division and Gold Coast.

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41

The t a b l e r e v e a l s a r e m a r k a b l y d i f f e r e n t p i c t u r e i n each s k a t e

f o r f a t a l i t i e s s u g g e s t i n g t h a t r e s o u r c e s a i m e d a t t h e c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t p r o b l e m may r e q u i r e e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t a l l o c a t i o n s i n e a c h s t a t e .

- ___________I___I-

A l l C h i l d F a t a l s A c c i d e n t s

_I To t a l P o p u l a t i o n * POP. * - 0-1 6

-I_ --_ % % % %

N . S . W -_ M e t r o 69 67 h 3 5 0 ._ _ _ O t h e r 31 33 37 50

M e t r o 74 72 69 62

___--I______l__I_

V I C .

63 -_ 48 53 I___-----_--__

45 - O t h e r -_ S o u r c e s : * APASCO Demograph ic I n f o r m a t i o n S e r v i c e s --

T A R U ( N S W ) , R T A ( V l c . ) , D O T (Q'ld).

A c o m p a r i s o n i n T a b l e 41 ( o p p o s i t e ) of M e t r o v e r s u s C o u n t r y a c c i d e n t d a t a b e t w e e n 1 9 8 1 a n d 1982 r e v e a l s f a i r l y c o n s i s t e n t p a t t e r n s i n t h e t h r e e m o s t p o p u l o u s s t a t e s i n terms o f a g e d i s t r i b u t i o n of a c c i d e n t s 0-16 and c a t e g o r y o f r o a d u s e r . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e a g e p r o f i l e d o e s n o t v a r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y b y g e o g r a p h i c l o c a t i o n .

2.45 Summary A n a l y s i s

T h i s s u b - s e c t i o n a t t e m p t s t o d r a w t o g e t h e r some o f t h e t h r e a d s o f s e c t i o n 2 t h u s f a r . I n o r d e r t o a s s i s t t h i s p r o c e s s summary T a b l e 1 i s a p p l i e d . T h i s t a b l e i s a u s e f u l means of k e e p i n g t h e key a g e s and r o a d u s e r s g r o u p s i n mind . The t a b l e r e f e r s o n l y t o f a t a l i t i e s , f o r A u s t r a l i a a s a w h o l e , f o r 1981.

-

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4 2

Summary T a b l e 1

C H I L D R E N K I L L E D I N ROAD C R A S H E S - 1 9 8 1 - A U S T R A L I A _ _ - ~ ( N u m b e r s )

Road U s e r Type Age of No. o f P a s s . Ped . Cyc. M.Cyc. D r i v . O t h e r T o t a l C h i l d

__ L

Years P . P . & P . P . -- -- - 8 91 0 - 4 y r s ( 5 ) 4 3 38 2 - - 7 6 9 5 - 7 " ( 3 ) 1 6 31 1 5 -

8 - 1 2 " ( 5 ) 2 4 3 4 2 7 1 - 5 91 ( 4 ) 31 21 21 1 3 1 0 1 6 1 6 5 1 3 - 1 6 "

0 - 1 6 ( 7 ) 1 4 8 1 3 4 65 22 1 3 30 4 1 2 _l____-__l____l_--_l_l_____l

-------I----_---__- 3 5 9 1 1 3 1 3 3 1 7 1 7 - 1 8 ( 2 ) 1 1 5 0 - 1 8 ( 1 9 ) 2 6 3 1 4 7 6 8 81 1 2 6 4 3 7 2 9

1 3 _

S o u r c e : D O T F a t a l F i l e 1 9 8 1 .

Road a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n 0-16 a s c a s u a l t i e s ( f a t a l s o r i n j u r e d ) a r e p r i m a r i l y r e l a t e d t o t h e c h i l d h e i n g a p a s s e n g e r i n a v e h i c l e , a p e d e s t r i a n o r a p e d a l c y c l i s t .

* I n t o t a l , c h i l d r e n 0 - 1 6 a r e l e s s o f a p r o b l e m t h a n a r e young people 1 7 - 2 5 . Young p e o p l e a r e c a s u a l t i e s p r i m a r i l y a s d r i v e r s , m o t o r c y c l e r i d e r s and v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s , b u t n o t a s p e d e s t r i a n s and p e d a l c y c l i s t s .

__~l_~l_l___l__-_ll

* The c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t p r o b l e m r e a l l y i s a w h o l e s e t o f d i f f e r e n t p r o b l e m s . C h i l d r e n a r e n o t a homogeneous q r o u p o f r o a d u s e r s . Each of t h e v a r i o u s s u b - a g e g r o u p s p o s e a n e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t s e t o f b e h a v i o u r p a t t e r n s and e a c h c o n t r i b u t e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t l y t o t h e t o t a l a c c i d e n t s t a t i s t i c s i n terms of r o a d u s e r c a t e g o r i e s :

- c h i l d v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s a c c o u n t f o r t h e g r e a t e s t number o f d e a t h s and r e p o r t e d r o a d i n j u r i e s ( o v e r 4 5 % ) ;

- c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s a c c o u n t f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e t h i r d of c h i l d r o a d d e a t h s and a r o u n d 3 0 % o f r e p o r t e d c h i l d r o a d i n j u r i e s ;

- c h i l d p e d a l c y c l i s t s a c c o u n t f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e s i x t h o f a l l r e p o r t e d c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t s ;

- a l m o s t 1 0 % of c h i l d r o a d d e a t h s and r o a d i n j u r i e s i n v o l v e c h i l d r e n a s d r i v e r s of c a r s o r r i d e r s / p i l l i o n p a s s e n g e r s on no t o r c y c l e s ;

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- t h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n b y s t a t e i n t h e a c c i d e n t p a t t e r n . N . S . W . , i n p a r t i c u l a r , h a s a h i g h a c c i d e n t r a t e f o r t h e two l a r g e s t c a t e g o r i e s of c h i l d r o a d u s e r a c c i d e n t s ; v i z . , v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s and p e d e s t r i a n s ;

- more c h i l d r e n 0-4 a r e i n v o l v e d i n r o a d a c c i d e n t s t h a n c h i l d r e n aged 5 - 7 and m a l e s o u t n u m b e r f e m a l e s .

V e h i c l e P a s s e n q e r s

* M a l e s and f e m a l e s a r e a l m o s t e q u a l l y i n v o l v e d .

* The l e a s t i n v o l v e d a r e t h e 5-7 a g e g r o u p .

The l a r g e s t i n c i d e n c e o f p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v e t h e 1 3 - 1 6 a g e g r o u p . They r e p r e s e n t 2 3 % of t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n , and a r o u n d 4 0 % o f t h e p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t s o r p a s s e n g e r r l e a t h s .

---_-i_

P e d e s t r i a n s i_--l_-

* The p e d e s t r i a n p r o b l e m i s skewed t o w a r d s males, e s p e c i a l l y i n c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n d e a t h s .

The 8 - 1 2 a g e g r o u p i s c o n s i d e r a b l y o v e r - r e p r e s e n t e d i n a c c i d e n t s , h u t t h e problem i s s i z e a b l e i n a l l a g e g r o u p s .

* The l e a s t l i k e l y g r o u p t o h e i n v o l v e d i n p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s a r e f e m a l e s aged 0 - 7 y e a r s o f a g e .

P e d a l C y c l i s t s __-1_--

* Over 80% of c h i l d a c c i d e n t s o r d e a t h s i n v c y c l i s t .

* The l a r g e s t number of a c c i d e n t s ( o v e r 4 0 % ( 1 3 - 1 6 y e a r s ) m a l e s who r e p r e s e n t 1 2 % of t h e Males a g e d 8 - 1 2 y e a r s a c c o u n t f o r 3 3 % o f t h e o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n .

l v e a ma le p e d a l

i n v o l v e t e e n a g e c h i l d p o p u l a t i o n . a c c i d e n t s and 1 6 %

N . B . C a u t i o n s h o u l d h e e x e r c i s e d i n p e d a l c y c l e s t a t i s t i c s b e c a u s e of t h e h i g h l e v e l o f n o n - r e p o r t i n g .

M e t r o v s Non-Metro

* The c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n p r o b l e m i s r e s t r i c t e d p r i m a r i l y t o m e t r o p o 1 i t a n a r e a s . C h i l d v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t s a c c o u n t f o r p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y more of n o n - m e t r o a c c i d e n t s .

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* P e d a l c y c l e a c c i d e n t s a r e more p r e d o m i n a n t i n t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a s b u t a r e s t i l l s i g n i f i c a n t i n n o n - m e t r o a r e a s .

* A n a l y s i s of metro v e r s u s non m e t r o v a r i e s d r a m a t i c a l l y b e t w e e n e a c h o f t h e t h r e e m o s t p o p u l o i i s s t a t e s s u g g e s t i n g t h a t r e s o u r c e s a imed a t t h e c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t p r o b l e m c o u l d r e q u i r e e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t a l l o c a t i o n s i n e a c h s t a t e .

2 . 5 R i s k and E x p o s u r e I

The h i g h a c c i d e n t i n v o l v e m e n t r a t e s of c h i l d r e n 0-16 a s p e d e s t r i a n s and c y c l i s t s , i n p a r t i c u l a r , i s l i k e l y t o b e p a r t i a l l y e x p l a i n e d b y h i g h l e v e l s o f e x p o s u r e . E x p o s u r e s t u d i e s a r e l a r g e l y n o n - e x i s t e n t , b o t h i n A u s t r a l i a and O v e r s e a s . Any c o m p a r i s o n s o f a c c i d e n t r a t e s b e t w e e n v a r i o u s s t a t e s , or b e t w e e n c o u n t r i e s , s h o u l d t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t e x p o s u r e and r i s k s i n c e t h e s e h a v e a d i r e c t b e a r i n g on a c c i d e n t numbers and r a t e s . F e w e x p o s u r e s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n c a r r i e d o u t i n A u s t r a l i a . The o n l y s t u d i e s p u b l i s h e d t o d a t e a r e t h o s e b y Cameron, S t a n t o n , & M i l n e ( 1 9 7 6 1 , and C a m e r o n and M i l n e ( 1 9 7 8 ) . A f u r t h e r s t u d y c o n d u c t e d b y t h e N.S.W. T r a f f i c A c c i d e n t R e s e a r c h U n i t , h a s t o d a t e o n l y p u b l i s h e d p r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s ( J a m i e s o n , C r o f t , & H e r b e r t 1 9 8 1 1. Wigan ( 1 9 8 3 a , b , c ) p r o v i d e s e x p o s u r e v a l u e s for b i c y c l e t r a v e l b u t n o t for t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a c c i d e n t r a t e s and e x p o s u r e o f c h i l d r e n on b i c y c l e s .

E x p o s u r e m e a s u r e s a r e n e e d e d t o d i a g n o s e w h i c h g r o u p s r e q u i r e s p e c i a l c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s ; i . e . , t o d e f i n e more p r e c i s e l y t h e t a r g e t g r o u p s f o r p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s or o t h e r c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s . For i n s t a n c e , b o y s h a v e more a c c i d e n t s t h a n g i r l s as p e d a l c y c l i s t s or p e d e s t r i a n s b u t t h i s d i f f e r e n c e m i g h t b e l a r g e l y d u e t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n l e v e l s of e x p o s u r e . A c c o r d i n g l y , c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s s h o u l d n o t b e b a s e d on s e x d i f f e r e n c e s a l o n e .

A d d i t i o n a l l y , e x p o s u r e m e a s u r e s e n a b l e a n a l y s i s of a c c i d e n t d a t a s o a s t o d e t e r m i n e ' w h e r e ' and ' w h e n ' e x p o s u r e and r i s k i s g r e a t e s t ; e.g. , ' w h e r e ' d o p e d e s t r i a n s c ross r o a d s ? ; e t c . T h i s d a t a e n a b l e s r i s k l e v e l s t o b e a t t a c h e d t o v a r i o u s c o u r s e s o f a c t i o n . For i n s t a n c e , t h e r e l a t i v e d a n g e r t o p e d e s t r i a n s b y ' t y p e s of r o a d s ' c a n b e a s s e s s e d . J a m i e s o n , e t . a l . , ( 1 9 8 1 ) i n t h e i r S y d n e y e x p o s u r e s t u d y , compared t h e r e l a t i v e r i s k l e v e l s f o r p e d e s t r i a n s ( a l l a g e s ) a c r o s s t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s o f r o a d s - A r t e r i a l r o u t e s , C o l l e c t o r r o u t e s , and L o c a l s t r e e t s . They p o i n t e d o u t , c r a s h r e c o r d s show t h a t t h e s e r o a d c l a s s e s a c c o u n t for 4 2 % , 2 2 % , and 36% r e s p e c t i v e l y of a l l p e d e s t r i a n c r a s h e s i n Sydney . However , i f e x p o s u r e i s m e a s u r e d ( p e d e s t r i a n s and v e h i c l e s ) and an i n d e x c a l c u l a t e d t h i s c a n b e r e l a t e d t o c r a s h e x p e r i e n c e b y r o a d c l a s s . They c o n c l u d e d :

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" W h i l e t h e L o c a l S t r e e t s h a v e a l o w e r p e d e s t r i a n c r a s h r a t e t h a n d o C o l l e c t o r Roads o r A r t e r i a l R o u t e s t h e y a l s o h a v e a much l o w e r e x p o s u r e i n d e x - so much so t h a t , i n terms o f t h e r e l a t i v e r i s k e x p e r i e n c e d b y p e d e s t r i a n s u s i n g t h o s e r o a d s , t h e y may b e r e g a r d e d a s t h e m o s t d a n g e r o u s . " ( J a m i e s o n , e t . a l . 1 9 8 1 , p . 4 ) .

T h u s , w h i l s t i n t u i t i v e l y ' M a i n ' r o a d s a r e r e g a r d e d a s more d a n g e r o u s , p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y more p e d e s t r i a n c a s u a l t i e s o c c u r on ' L o c a l ' s t r e e t s when t h e number o f p e d e s t r i a n s and v e h i c l e s u s i n g t h e d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s of r o a d s a r e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . O t h e r s u p p o r t i v e d a t a on t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f l o c a l s t r e e t s a p p e a r s i n t h e w o r k o f A n d r e a s s e n d , Hoque & Young ( 1 9 8 4 ) w h e r e a l m o s t 1 i n e v e r y 2 p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s i n l o c a l s t r e e t s i n v o l v e d a c h i l d 0-8 y e a r s . No t o n l y d i d A n d r e a s s e n d e t . a l . e x a m i n e a c c i d e n t s b y age and c l a s s o f r o a d , t h e y a l s o e x a m i n e d a c c i d e n t s on l i n k s and i n t e r s e c t i o n s b y r o a d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . F i f t y - f i v e p e r c e n t o f i n t e r s e c t i o n a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v e d a l o c a l r o a d . U n f o r t u n a t e l y it i s n o t p o s s i b l e f r o m e x i s t i n g c o m p u t e r i s e d a c c i d e n t r e c o r d s t o d e t e r m i n e w h i c h a p p r o a c h t h e a c c i d e n t o c c u r r e d on t h e l o c a l r o a d or t h e a r t e r i a l . However , t h e y s u g g e s t t h a t t h e i r a n a l y s i s o f M e t r o M e l b o u r n e d a t a f o r 1 9 8 1 , would s u p p o r t a h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e p e d e s t r i a n p r o b l e m i s l o c a t e d on l o c a l r o a d s r a t h e r t h a n s e c o n d a r y a r t e r i a l s . ____I__ _I _I_-__

I---_____

The p r i m a r y p u r p o s e o f e x p o s u r e d a t a i s t o c o m p u t e a n e s t i m a t e o f r i s k f o r t a r g e t g r o u p s a n d t a r g e t s i t u a t i o n s . G u n n a r s s o n d e f i n e d __I- - - _I__-_

r i s k :

" a s t h e p o t e n t i a l ( p r o b a b i l i t y ) f o r t h e o c c u r r e n c e of a n e v e n t h a v i n g u n d e s i r a b l e o r n e g a t i v e c o n s e q u e n c e s i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h a c e r t a i n g i v e n a c t i v i t y " . ( G u n n a r s s o n 1 9 8 2 , p . 1 0 5 )

The e x p o s u r e d a t a i t s e l f n e e d s t o b e u s e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e a c c i d e n t d a t a so a s t o c o m p u t e e s t i m a t e s o r i n d i c e s o f r i s k . The O E C D ( 1 9 8 3 ) R e p o r t " T r a f f i c S a f e t y and C h i l d r e n " , i n a d d i t i o n t o p r o v i d i n g a d e t a i l e d r a t i o n a l e f o r t h e n e e d f o r e x p o s u r e s t u d i e s , p r o v i d e s a b r i e f summary o f t h e major s t u d i e s c a r r i e d o u t ( s e e O E C D , 1 9 8 3 , pp. 3 0 - 3 1 ) .

A number o f s t u d i e s on r i s k ( i n c l u d i n g Goodwin and H u t c h i n s o n , 1 9 7 7 ; Howar th , R o u t l e d g e and R e p e t t o - W r i g h t , 1 9 7 4 ; Brog and K u f f n e r , 1 9 8 2 ; J o n a h , 1 9 8 1 ; a n d V a n d e r Molen , 1 9 8 1 ; a l l c i t e d O E C D R e p o r t [ 1 9 8 3 ) , h a v e f o u n d t h a t t h e a c c i d e n t r a t e / e x p o s u r e

_ _ - _ _ ~ - I__-

f o r c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n s - i s h i g h e r t h a n f o r o l d e r p e o p l e , and i s h i g h e r f o r m a l e s t h a n f ema les . T h i s c a n a l s o b e h e l d t r u e for c y c l i s t s ( H v o s l e f c i t e d , i n O E C D , 1 9 8 3 )

____l______ll

I

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S a d l e r ' s ( 1 9 6 9 ) l a r g e s c a l e s u r v e y q u e s t i o n n a i r e s t u d y a m o n g s t m o t h e r s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r c h i l d r e n ' s t r a f f i c b e h a v i o r i n E n g l a n d , Wales and S c o t l a n d , found a h i g h d e g r e e o f e x p o s u r e a m o n g s t c h i l d r e n f o r v a r i o u s a c t i v i t i e s . Some o f h e r f i n d i n g s were ; 1 1 % o f 2 y e a r o l d s and 4 3 % o f 8 y e a r o l d s r o d e t r i c y c l e s o r c y c l e s o n r o a d s ; o n e t h i r d t o o n e h a l f o f 3-8 y e a r o l d s p l a y i n g a r e a i n c l u d e d t h e s t r e e t ( a s r e p o r t e d b y t h e i r m o t h e r ) , h a l f t o t w o t h i r d s of 3 -8 y e a r o l d s d i d p l a y on t h e s t r e e t ; o f u n d e r 8 y e a r o l d s , 1 4 % w e n t t o t h e s h o p on t h e i r own and 24% r a n m e s s a g e s ; 4% o f 2 y e a r o l d s w e n t t o t h e i c e - c r e a m van a l o n e and t h i s r o s e t o 9 4 % b y t h e a g e o f 8; two t h i r d s o f c h i l d r e n w a l k e d t o and f rom s c h o o l , w i t h o n e t h i r d t o two t h i r d s u n a c c o m p a n i e d o r w i t h a n o t h e r c h i l d l e s s t h a n 1 0 y e a r s of a g e ( t h e v e r y younq g e n e r a l l y wa lked w i t h a p a r e n t ) ; t h r e e q u a r t e r s e i t h e r p l a y e d o r v i s i t e d a f t e r s c h o o l , away f rom home.

S a n d e l s ( 1 9 7 5 1 , i n h e r S w e d i s h s t u d i e s , r e p o r t e d t h a t more t h a n h a l f o f t h e 3-4 y e a r o l d s were u n a c c o m p a n i e d by a n a d u l t and o f t e n i f t h e y w e r e a c c o m m n i e d . t h e a d u l t d i d n o t h a v e n h v s i c a l - - - _ c o n t r o l of t h e c h i l d . T h e s e f i g u r e s i n d i c a t e t h e h i g h d e g r e e t o w h i c h c h i l d r e n , e s p e c i a l l y t h e p r i m a r y s c h o o l a g e g r o u p i n g a r e ' e x p o s e d ' t o t r a f f i c .

-- - - ~

H o w a r t h , R o u t l e d g e , & R e p e t t o - W r i g h t ( 1 9 7 4 1 , i n t h e U n i t e d Kingdom, f o u n d a s l i g h t i n c r e a s e i n t h e m e a s u r e o f r i s k f o r 5-6 y e a r o l d s ( d u e t o i n c r e a s e d e x p o s u r e w i t h commencing s c h o o l ) and t h a t r i s k d e c r e a s e d w i t h i n c r e a s i n g a g e . They f o u n d t h a t 5 y e a r o l d males were s i x t i m e s more a t r i s k t h a n t h e i r 1 0 y e a r o l d c o u n t e r p a r t s ; w h i l s t f o r f e m a l e s t h e r i s k w a s o n l y t h r e e times a s g r e a t . The g r e a t e s t number o f a c c i d e n t s o c c u r r e d t o males a g e d 5-7 y e a r s .

O t h e r s t u d i e s s u p p o r t t h e g e n e r a l f i n d i n g r e l a t i n g t o c h i l d r e n ' s

I_

I

s c h o o l j o u r n e y s ; v i z . , t h a t e x p o s u r e t o t r a f f i c r i s k i n c r e a s e s w i t h =and t h a t t h e r e a r e a g e d i f f e r e n c e s I_--_ i n r o a d - c r o s s i n g s t r a t e g i e s ( G r a y s o n 1 9 7 5 ( b ) ; R o u t l e d g e , R e p e t t o - W r i g h t & HOwarth 1 9 7 4 ( a ) & ( b ) and 1 9 7 6 ( a ) ) .

~-

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Chapman, F o o t and Wade ( 1 9 8 0 1 r e p o r t a n o b s e r v a t i o n a l s t u d y i n t h e ( 9 d a y s ) s u m m e r s c h o o l h o l i d a y s o f 1 9 7 9 a n d p r e - h o l i d a y s ( 1 0 d a y s ) . They f o u n d t h a t b o y s a r e more e x p o s e d t o t r a f f i c t h a n g i r l s b e c a u s e t h e y u s e t h e s t r e e t s more f o r r e c r e a t i o n a l p u r p o s e s . The s e x d i f f e r e n c e s were g r e a t e s t i n t h e 5-10 y e a r s _____ a q e g r o u p . They f o u n d no e v i d e n c e f o r t h e a d v e n t u r o u s male s t e r e o t y p e , n o r d i d b o y s r u n a n y m o r e t h a n g i r l s .

I l_____l_____ll__ll_~__

R o u t l e d g e , e t . a l . , ( 1 9 7 6 ( a ) ) , i n a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l paper , r e v i e w e d f o u r t e c h n i q u e s u s e d i n s t u d i e s o f c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n e x pos u r e. W h i l s t t h e t e c h n i q u e s w e r e d i f f e r e n t t h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e a g r e e m e n t a s t o t h e major f i n d i n g s :

* Marked i n c r e a s e i n e x p o s u r e b e t w e e n a g e s 5-11 y e a r s . "Young c h i l d r e n a r e t h e r e f o r e v e r y much more a t r i s k w h e n e v e r t h e y c r o s s a r o a d t h a n would a p p e a r f r o m t h e r a w a c c i d e n t s t a t i s t i c s . C h i l d r e n u n d e r t h e a g e o f 5 a r e u p t o 1 3 t i m e s more a t r i s k t h a n 5-7 y e a r o l d s who a r e 4 0 t i m e s more a t r i s k t h a n a d u l t s aged 2 0 - 5 0 y e a r s . . . . "

* L i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e i n e x p o s u r e b e t w e e n b o y s and g i r l s e s p e c i a l l y b e t w e e n 5-7 y e a r o l d s w h e r e t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n a c c i d e n t s t a t i s t i c s i s so s t r i k i n g . ".... t h e much g r e a t e r number of a c c i d e n t s t o young c h i l d r e n and e s p e c i a l l y t o young b o y s m u s t b e e x p l a i n e d l a r g e l y by d i f f e r e n c e s i n b e h a v i o u r when c r o s s i n g r o a d s r a t h e r t h a n b y d i f f e r e n c e s i n e x p o s u r e . ' '

* C h i l d r e n a r e more a t r i s k on m a j o r r o a d s e v e n when t r a f f i c d e n s i t y and s p e e d a r e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t .

' I . . . . r i s k c a l c u l a t e d i n t h e same way f o r a d u l t s shows no d i f f e r e n c e i n r i s k on m a j o r a n d m i n o r r o a d s . . . . l a c k of s k i l l may b e a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n t h e c a u s a t i o n o f c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s . 'I

* C h i l d r e n r u n a g r e a t e r r i s k when c r o s s i n g n e a r p a r k e d v e h i c l e s t h a n when away f r o m p a r k e d v e h i c l e s . " S u r p r i s i n g l y .... c h i l d r e n a r e more a t r i s k c r o s s i n g away f r o m r o a d j u n c t i o n s t h a n a t r o a d j u n c t i o n s . " ( R o u t l e d g e , e t . a l . 1 9 7 6 ( a ) , p .7B6-7) .

Van d e r Molen ( 1 9 8 1 ) , i n r e v i e w i n g t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t i n g t o c h i l d r o a d b e h a v i o u r c o n c l u d e s t h a t :

" C h i l d r e n pay more a t t e n t i o n t o t h e r o a d c r o s s i n g t a s k when c r o s s i n g a t j u n c t i o n s a n d a t r e l a t i v e l y h i g h t r a f f i c i n t e n s i t i e s . " (Van d e r Molen 1 9 8 1 , p. 2 1 0).

Page 68: Children and road accidents: An analysis of the problems ... · - more children 0-4 are involved in road accidents than children aged 5-7 and males outnumber females. Vehicle Passenqers

VARIATIONS I N PEDESTRIAN A C C I D E N T R I S K I__ - -----I T A B L E 42

A c c i d e n t s E x p o s u r e No. %

_I___ -- C a t e g o r y

Age: 0-4 70 0.7

5-1 0 184 5.4

11-20 153 18.2

A l o n e 82 1

R u n n i n g 254 Not C r o s s i n g ( i . e . P l a y i n g ) 44 Behind a n

o b j e c t 70 T I M E : 3-4 pm 85

4-5 pm 131 5-6 pfn. 104

D A Y : F r i d a y 195 S a t u r d a y 159 S u n d a y 69

I n t e r - s e c t i o n s 409 30 metres f rom i n t e r s e c t i o n 383

9-30 m e t r e s f rom i n t e r s e c t i o n 136 Z e b r a c r o s s i n g

30 m e t r e s f r o m 150

Z e b r a c r o s s i n g 30 metres f rom 19

Z e b r a c r o s s i n g 696 A t t r a f f i c

A c com pan i e d 102

l i g h t s -

62.9 37.1 14.8

12.9

25.0 8.6 8.9 8.4

16.5 15.3 2.8

37.7

32.7

29.6

9.1

3.9 69.9

-

E s t . R e l a t i v e R i s k

11.0 ( H )

3.72 (H

0.92

A l l Age 1.41 ( H

Ma les 15.02 (HI Females 7.71 (L) Males 4.56 ( H )

F e m a l e s 2.54(L) Males 0.80 F e m a l e s 1.10

R i s k 0 -10 A g e 24.99 ( H )

0.30 ( L ) 0.59 ( L 2.14 ( H ) 11.67 (H

0.36 (L) 6.98 ( H

0.33 ( L ) 5.63 (H 1.06 12-3 pm 5.85 1.58 (H)3-5 pm 13.85 1.33(H) 5-7 p m 13.18 1.27 ( H ) 1.12 2.65 ( H I 1.17 ( H ) 2.46 (L)

1.26 14.61 (H)

0.50 ( L ) 3.96 ( H I

1.77 (H) 2.97 (L)

0.52 (L) 1.03 (L) 1.08 ( H ) 10.22 (HI

- 0.48 (L)

S o u r c e : Cameron , S t a n t o n , & M i l n e (1976) e x t r a c t f rom T a b l e 1 and 2 p a g e s 1B4 and 185.

Page 69: Children and road accidents: An analysis of the problems ... · - more children 0-4 are involved in road accidents than children aged 5-7 and males outnumber females. Vehicle Passenqers

48

R e i s s ( 1 9 7 6 1 , c a l c u l a t e d s c h o o l t r i p a c c i d e n t i n v o l v e m e n t r a t e f o r e a c h a g e y e a r b e t w e e n 5 and 1 4 y e a r s . H e c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e y o u n g e s t s t u d e n t s w e r e c o n s i d e r a b l y o v e r - r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e s c h o o l t r i p a c c i d e n t d a t a and t h e o l d e s t s t u d e n t s u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t e d . But t h i s d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l y t h a t t h e y o u n g e s t p e d e s t r i a n s h a v e t h e q r e a t e s t e x p o s u r e t o v e h i c l e s as p e d e s t r i a n s . R o u t l e d g e , e t . a l . , ( 1 9 7 4 a & b ) s t u d i e s r e v e a l t h a t e x p o s u r e i n c r e a s e s w i t h a g e b u t r i s k and a c c i d e n t i n v o l v e m e n t d e c r e a s e w i t h a g e .

The m a j o r A u s t r a l i a n s t u d y u n d e r t a k e n b y Cameron, S t a n t o n L M i l n e ( 1 9 7 6 ) used a c c i d e n t d a t a c o l l e c t e d i n 1971 and e x p o s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s made i n 1973 . They d e f i n e d e x p o s u r e a s t h e p r o d u c t o f t h e number of v e h i c l e s and p e d e s t r i a n s o b s e r v e d a t t h e same i n t e r - s e c t i o n i n f i v e m i n u t e i n t e r v a l s , and t h e p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t r i s k a s e x p o s u r e d i v i d e d b y a c c i d e n t s , t h e y d e v e l o p e d r i s k r a t i n g s f o r v a r i o u s c a t e g o r i e s . A summary o f t h e i r r e s u l t s a p p e a r s i n T a b l e 42 ( o p p o s i t e ) .

Cameron and M i l n e ( 1 9 7 8 ) found t h a t t h e 5-10 age g r o u p a c c o u n t e d f o r n e a r l y 90% o f e x p o s u r e i n t h e u n d e r 1 1 a g e g r o u p . They f o u n d t h a t , f o r t h e same p e d e s t r i a n , t h e j o u r n e y made t o s c h o o l ( 7 - 9 am) p r o d u c e d 60% more e x p o s u r e t h a n t h e a f t e r s c h o o l j o u r n e y ( 3 - 5 pm). T h i s i s b e c a u s e t h e j o u r n e y i s made a t t h e same t i m e a s commute r t r a f f i c , b u t n e a r l y f i v e t i m e s as more a c c i d e n t s o c c u r i n t h e a f t e r n o o n p e r i o d , e s p e c i a l l y t o y o u n g e r males ( e s t . r i s k 1 8 . 2 ) . ( S e e a l s o L a u g e s e n L A n t o n i a d i s ( 1 9 8 4 ) who f o u n d , i n N e w Z e a l a n d , t h a t t h e j o u r n e y home f rom s c h o o l was f i v e t imes more d a n g e r o u s t h a n t h e j o u r n e y t o s c h o o l ) . The r i s k i s n o t e v i d e n t " i n c r o s s i n g " b u t "on r o a d s u r f a c e " , i . e . p l a y i n g o r s t a n d i n g o n r o a d s u r f a c e . Under 1 1 y e a r s o f a g e c r o s s i n g e x p o s u r e , w h i l e r u n n i n g , w a s 2 5 % and e v e n h i g h e r ( 3 1 % ) f o r young m a l e s . T h i s h i g h e r l e v e l of r i s k ( 5 . 6 3 ) i s a l s o e v i d e n t when c h i l d r e n c r o s s e d f r o m b e h i n d a n o b j e c t , p r i m a r i l y a p a r k e d c a r .

R i s k was l o w e r when c r o s s i n g a t a n i n t e r - s e c t i o n o r a p e d e s t r i a n f a c i l i t y , b u t r i s k i n c r e a s e d away from t h e s e f a c i l i t i e s . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t b o t h c h i l d r e n and d r i v e r s a r e more c a r e f u l o f t h e i r b e h a v i o u r a t a n i n t e r s e c t i o n o r a p e d e s t r i a n f a c i l i t y t h a n o n u n c o n t r o l l e d r o a d s e c t i o n s .

I_--

-_

Page 70: Children and road accidents: An analysis of the problems ... · - more children 0-4 are involved in road accidents than children aged 5-7 and males outnumber females. Vehicle Passenqers

TABLF 43 DATA FROM KONTIV 1976 SUIWEY

6. I 14.1 21.2 1.5 2.4 I014 9.6

28.0 9. I 1.7 4.3

66.0 49.0 tis NS 61.1 Male 47.1 34.0 51.0 NS NS 38.3 Femllr 52.9

51 284 000 9.6 21 885 000 6. I 1.35 48.6 14.1 97.1 89.8 62.0 1014 28 168 WO 5.2 59 143 ow 13.0 2.66 60.1 11.0 109.9 111.0 14.6 15.17

18-24 59 699 000 11.1 I 2 5 890 000 21.6 2 13 63.0 24.5 112.8 116.4 107.8 301 690 000 57.3 209 813 000 46.1 2.61 58.0 21.1 101.9 101.2 119.0 25.64

64 and oldrt 90 048 UOO 16.8 32719000 1.2 1.54 37.0 9.2 63.6 68.4 40.3 SCl

253 018 000 41.1 300 619 WO 66.0 2.66 62.8 30.4 109.9 116.1 133.4 ~~ 283 812 000 52.9 I54 831 000 34.0 2.21 46. I lS.8 91.3 8 5 . 2 69.5

Male Frmrlr Tolsl 536 890 000 4 5 5 510000 2.42 54. I 21.8

*Et 1014 9.6 9.h 14.7 21.2 114.9 322.5 116.5 262.9 116.8 241.4 15-17 5.2 5.: h.D :.?.E 108.1 334.8 126.2 340.0 121.1 389.7 1824 11.1 1 1 . 1 9.5 10.0 75.7 IW.0 82.3 105.7 83.2 119.0 25.64 51.3 51.3 41.8 3b.l 91.3 73.9 92.1 68.6 94.4 69.0 64mdoldur 16.8 IB .W 2b.O 9. I 112.2 43.5 122.6 48.6 106.5 48.3

scr 88.8 NS

109.3 NS M.lr 41.1 4- .1 40.0 NS 79.1 NS 86.6 NS

112.2 NS Frrndc s2.9 5:.u 51.0 xs 118.9 h'S

Source: Brog E, Kuffner (1982)

Page 71: Children and road accidents: An analysis of the problems ... · - more children 0-4 are involved in road accidents than children aged 5-7 and males outnumber females. Vehicle Passenqers

4 9

A l t h o u g h t h e r i s k / e x p o s u r e o f c y c l i s t s i s n o t a d d r e s s e d , i n t h e Cameron , e t . a l . s t u d i e s , c y c l e s a r e u s e d b y c h i l d r e n p r i m a r i l y i n t h e 7-17 a g e g r o u p f o r t r a n s p o r t and r e c r e a t i o n . The G e e l o n g B i k e P l a n ( 1 9 7 8 ) f o u n d t h a t 6 3 % o f c h i l d c y c l i s t s w e r e male. I t s e e m s r e a s o n a b l e t o s p e c u l a t e t h a t t h e h i g h e r d e g r e e of r i s k a n d e x p o s u r e e v i d e n t t o young p e d e s t r i a n s w o u l d , i n some way, c a r r y o v e r t o young c y c l i s t s , e s p e c i a l l y males.

Wigan ( 1 9 8 3 b ) , u s i n g h o u s e h o l d i n t e r v i e w d a t a i n M e l b o u r n e , p r o d u c e d m e a s u r e s of e x p o s u r e o f c y c l i s t s t o r i s k s on t h e r o a d . H e d e f i n e d e x p o s u r e a s t i m e s p e n t r i d i n g a b i c y c l e on t h e r o a d . The s t u d y d r e w upon a l a r g e r A u s t r a l i a n Road R e s e a r c h B o a r d ( A R R B ) p r o j e c t w h i c h m e a s u r e d b i c y c l e o w n e r s h i p i n A d e l a i d e , R r i s b a n e , C a n b e r r a and t h e Gold C o a s t (Wigan 1 9 8 2 ) . W i g a n ' s s t u d i e s r e v e a l t h a t i t i s t h e 1 1 - 1 7 y e a r s a g e g r o u p who make t h e g r e a t e s t u s e o f b i c y c l e s . I n M e l b o u r n e , 1 3 % o f t h i s a g e g r o u p u s e a b i c y c l e on a n y weekday , w h i l s t i n A d e l a i d e i t i s a l m o s t o n e

--- _l-__l_l_

t h i r d . N o s e x d a t a i s s u p p l i e d i n t h e s t u d y . Wigan ( 1 9 8 3 b ) c o n c l u d e s b y r ecommend ing t h a t a f u r t h e r s t u d y b e c a r r i e d o u t , on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a c c i d e n t r a t e s a n d e x p o s u r e .

The l a c k of r e l e v a n t e x p o s u r e d a t a r e s u l t s i n a l a c k o f e s t i m a t e s o f r i s k . F o r i n s t a n c e , i t w i l l b e r e v e a l e d i n l a t e r s e c t i o n s t h a t f i r s t y e a r d r i v e r s a r e o v e r - i n v o l v e d i n r o a d a c c i d e n t s w i t h c h i l d r e n 0-1 6. A c c o r d i n g l y , q u e s t i o n s l i k e t h e f o l l o w i n g n e e d t o b e a s k e d :

- a r e t h e s e d r i v e r s more e x p o s e d ? - a r e t h e y more e x p o s e d a t t imes when c h i l d r e n a r e

a l s o e x p o s e d a s p e d e s t r i a n s or c y c l i s t s ?

S u c h q u e s t i o n s r e q u i r e e x p o s u r e d a t a f o r a n a n s w e r . I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t v e r y few e x p o s u r e s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n c a r r i e d o u t i n A u s t r a l i a d e s p i t e H e n d e r s o n ' s p l e a , o v e r t e n y e a r s a g o , i n r e f e r r i n g t o ' T h e D a t a G a p ' :

"The most i m p o r t a n t d e f e c t i n t h e p r e s e n t s y s t e m , h o w e v e r , i s t h a t t h e r e i s no s a t i s f a c t o r y o n g o i n g i n d e x of EXPOSURE T O R I S K , b e c a u s e w i t h o u t t h i s i n d e x it i s s i m p l y i m p o s s i b l e t o s a y w i t h a c c u r a c y w h e t h e r t h e t r a f f i c s i t u a t i o n i s c h a n g i n g , and if so, w h e t h e r f o r t h e b e t t e r or t h e w o r s e . " ( H e n d e r s o n , 1 9 7 1 , p . 1 0 ) .

One means of c o l l e c t i n g e x p o s u r e d a t a i s t h e 1 9 7 6 K O N T I V a p p r o a c h d e v e l o p e d b y Brog i n t h e F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c o f Germany ( S e e B r o g & K u f f n e r 1 9 8 2 ) . T h i s d a t a ( t a b l e s 4 3 a n d 4 4 ) r e l i e s on s e l f - r e p o r t e d s u r v e y q u e s t i o n n a i r e s . S i n c e o n e o f t h e b a s i c p r e m i s e s o f t h e t e c h n i q u e i s s e l f r e p o r t i n g o f o n e ' s own b e h a v i o u r , t h e t e c h n i q u e i s n o t a b l e t o p r o v i d e e x p o s u r e d a t a f o r c h i l d r e n . I n t e r e s t i n g , R o u t l e d g e , e t . a l . ( 1 9 7 4 ( a ) ) c a r r i e d o u t i n t e r v i e w s w i t h c h i l d r e n aged 5-1 1 y e a r s r e g a r d i n g e v e r y j o u r n e y

--

Page 72: Children and road accidents: An analysis of the problems ... · - more children 0-4 are involved in road accidents than children aged 5-7 and males outnumber females. Vehicle Passenqers

TABLE 44 DATA FROM KONTIV 1976 SURVl

.. . .. 18-24 1 1 . 1 1 1 . 1 34.1

Sex 140.5 Male 47 I 47. I NS 61.1 NS 132.8 NS

Female 5 2 9 S29 NS 38.3 NS 69.0 NS 64.2 NS 61.8 139.7 NS

Per Inhahitant Per Number of Trip Pcr Distance Tramled Per Time Spent Travelhi

Characarirlir A B C A B C A B C A B C

64.1 153.8 222.1 66.0 133.9 68.9 103.4 131.7 92.0 71.4 132.0 84.5 247.3 114.5 450.2 225.0 10S.9 134.5 331.5 90.1 115.5 122.8 90.1 132.4

%I4 I S 1 7 l b 2 4 248.5 85.1 89.7 220.3 112.4 89.7 2303 102.3 75.4 213.4 1 0 3 1 85.0 25-64 80.4 73.0 63.0 74.S 75.0 85.3 67.6 77.3 91.3 75.0 78.8 91.8 6 4 m d ddcr 42.8 161.0 54.1 67.3 148.8 124.4 10S.l 156.8 112.0 62.6 136.2 111.3

UdC 140.1 ' 103.9 NS 128.1 130.4 NS 105.6 111.0 NS 121.3 120.0 *IS FemSh 64.3 96.5 NS 70.4 81.2 NS 92.5 88.3 NS 75.5 86.0 NS

sri

rrrlcd Per Time Spent Tr.rcling

E A D E

64.1 15.7 14.8 66.0 54.0 82.1 103.4 13! 15.17 241.3 886.1 94.3 221.0 172.1 332.0 331.5 11'1.53 2SV.Y LJd.8 I . l l . J LYD.0

248.1, 313.1 3M.I 220.3 99.3 140.0 230.5 67.2 2S7.3 213.4 85.8 249.7 80.4 26.9 95.1 74.2 4L.I 74.1 61.6 53.4 14.1 75.0 48.4 74.0

18-14

31.3 81 .2 25.44 64 md ddrr 41.8 10.2 25.9 67.3 2 % V2.6 1 O S . l 46.8 93.5 62.6

93.6 sex

M.k 140.8 NS 130.b 12h.l SS 'Jh.2 105.6 NS 93.1 121.3 NS Fcrndr 64.3 NS 72.5 7b4 SS. 105.1 92.5 NS 117.3 7S.5 NS I 1 2 . Y

Scurce: Brcg & Kuffner (1982)

Page 73: Children and road accidents: An analysis of the problems ... · - more children 0-4 are involved in road accidents than children aged 5-7 and males outnumber females. Vehicle Passenqers

5 0

made d u r i n g t h e p r e v i o u s 2 4 h o u r s . R o u t l e d g e , e t . a l . ( 1 9 7 6 ( a ) ) c o n c l u d e d t h a t c h i l d r e n ' s s e l f r e p o r t s w e r e more a c c u r a t e t h a n m o t h e r s r e p o r t s s u p p o r t i n g B r o g ' s i n s i s t e n c e on s e l f r e p o r t i n g .

B r o g and K u f f n e r ( 1 9 8 2 ) p r e s e n t a c c i d e n t r a t e s b a s e d on t h e K O N T I V 1 9 7 6 d a t a . T h e i r d a t a s e r v e s t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t c o n c l u s i o n s o f a c c i d e n t d a t a w i l l e m e r g e f r o m a n a l y s i s o f r i s k / e x p o s u r e d a t a t o t h a t o b t a i n e d by r a w a c c i d e n t d a t a . I n t h e t a b l e s s u p p l i e d by Brog and K u f f n e r t h e d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n a c c i d e n t s t a t i s t i c s and b e h a v i o u r a l d a t a i s v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t : e . g . , 6 2 % o f a l l c a r p a s s e n g e r s i n j u r e d o r k i l l e d a r e men b u t when a c c i d e n t r a t e s a r e b a s e d o n t o t a l t r a v e l e x p o s u r e i n c a r s , t h e a c c i d e n t r a t e i s l o w e r f o r men t h a n f o r women.

S i n c e i t i s t h e o n l y d a t a o f i t s k i n d , t h e B r o g L K u f f n e r t a b l e s h a v e b e e n i n c l u d e d i n f u l l i n t a b l e s 4 3 a n d 44. Some of t h e more s a l i e n t o b s e r v a t i o n s f r o m t h e d a t a a p p e a r t o b e :

* Younger ( a n d o l d e r ) p e d e s t r i a n s r u n a n a v e r a g e r i s k o f h a v i n g a n a c c i d e n t ( y o u n g e r 1 5 3 . 8 i n d e x ) b u t t h i s r i s k i s r e l a t i v i s e d when t h e number o f young p e o p l e w a l k i n g i s t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n . The 1 8 - 2 4 a g e g r o u p , who a r e l e a s t l i k e l y t o w a l k , h a v e a n a b o v e - a v e r a g e r i s k o f h a v i n g a n a c c i d e n t w h i l s t w a l k i n g . ( T a b l e 4 4 / 7 ) .

* C h i l d r e n 1 0 - 1 4 y e a r s who u s e b i c y c l e s a r e more t h a n tw ice as l i k e l y a s m o s t o t h e r a g e g r o u p s t o h a v e a n a c c i d e n t b u t t h e y u s e t h e i r b i k e s more t h a n m o s t o t h e r a g e g r o u p s . ( T a b l e 4 4 / 7 ).

* C h i l d r e n 15-17 who u s e b i c y c l e s a r e t w i c e a s l i k e l y a s t h e 1 0 - 1 4 y e a r o l d s t o h a v e a n a c c i d e n t and o v e r 4 t i m e s more l i k e l y t h a n o t h e r a g e g r o u p s , b u t t h e y a r e t h e h e a v i e s t u s e r s o f b i c y c l e s . The 15-17 y e a r o l d s d o h a v e t h e g r e a t e s t r i s k o f a n a c c i d e n t . ( T a b l e 4 4 / 7 ) .

* The s e c o n d m o s t a t r i s k b i c y c l e g r o u p i s t h e o v e r 6 4 a g e g r o u p who a p p e a r t o h a v e a low a c c i d e n t r a t e . However , b e c a u s e t h e y u s e b i c y c l e s so r a r e l y t h e i r r i s k f a c t o r i s s e c o n d o n l y t o t h e 15-17 a g e g r o u p . ( T a b l e 44 /71 .

* The 1 5 - 2 4 a g e g r o u p h a v e a h i g h r i s k o f m o t o r c y c l e a c c i d e n t s b u t t h e y a l s o u s e t h e s e modes t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y . Thus t h e a c t u a l r i s k f o r t h e 15-24 a g e g r o u p i s n o t a s g r e a t a s i t a p p e a r s . ( T a b l e 4 4 / 8 ) .

F o r p e r s o n s u s i n g c a r s i t i s n o t t h e 18 -24 y e a r o l d s who a r e more a t r i s k i t i s t h e 15 -17 y e a r o l d s . ( T a b l e 4 4 / 8 ) .

J o n a h & E n g e l ( 1 9 8 3 1 , r e p o r t a n e x p o s u r e s t u d y f o r t h e a u t u m n o f 1979-80 i n t h e r e g i o n a l m u n i c i p a l i t y o f O t t a w a - C a r l e t o n ( C a n a d a ) .

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T h e i r e x p o s u r e d a t a r e v e a l s t h a t a d o l e s c e n t s and a d u l t s e n g a g e i n more p e d e s t r i a n a c t i v i t y t h a n c h i l d r e n and t h e e l d e r l y . The r e l a t i v e r i s k d a t a , u s i n g p o p u l a t i o n a s t h e e x p o s u r e i n d e x , i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e r i s k i s h i g h e s t f o r a d u l t s 1 8 - 2 4 . However , i f a c c i d e n t r i s k r a t e s a r e computed i t is t h e c h i l d r e n ( 3 - 1 2 ) and t h e e l d e r l y who h a v e t h e h i g h e s t a c c i d e n t r i s k r a t e s and who a r e more c l e a r l y a t r i s k .

J o n a h & E n g e l c a l c u l a t e d r e l a t i v e r i s k a c c i d e n t r a t i o s u s i n g p o p u l a t i o n , number of t r i p s , d i s t a n c e , d u r a t i o n , and number o f s t r e e t s c r o s s e d a s t h e i r m e a s u r e s of e x p o s u r e . They f o u n d a d u l t s 1 8 - 2 4 had t h e h i g h e s t r i s k r a t i o u s i n g ' p o p u l a t i o n ' a s a n e x p o s u r e i n d e x and t h e 2 5 - 4 4 a g e g r o u p t h e l o w e s t . U s i n g ' t r i p s ' a s t h e e x p o s u r e i n d e x , t h e e l d e r l y had had t h e h i g h e s t r i s k r a t i o f o l l o w e d b y c h i l d r e n 3 - 1 2 . U s i n g t h o s e e x p o s u r e i n d i c e s w h i c h r e f l e c t a c t u a l e x p o s u r e t o r i s k ( ' d i s t a n c e ' , ' d u r a t i o n ' , ' c r o s s i n g s ' ) t h e c h i l d r e n a g e d 8 - 1 2 had t h e h i g h e s t r i s k r a t i o f o l l o w e d b y c h i l d r e n 3-7 a n d t h e e l d e r l y .

H o w a r t h & L i g h t b u r n ( 1 9 8 0 ) r e p o r t a s t u d y o f e x p o s u r e and r i s k o n j o u r n e y s home f rom s c h o o l . They f o u n d t h a t r i s k e s t i m a t e s b a s e d o n i n t e r a c t i o n s d o n o t show t h e s e x d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t a r e s o a p p a r e n t i n t h e r i s k e s t i m a t e s b a s e d o n a c c i d e n t s . They c o n c l u d e :

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" T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e g r e a t e r r i s k of a n a c c i d e n t t o b o y s c o m p a r e d w i t h g i r l s i s n o t d u e t o g r e a t e r c a u t i o n on t h e p a r t of g i r l s . On t h e c o n t r a r y i t s u g g e s t s t h a t b o y s and g i r l s a r e i n v o l v e d i n a s i m i l a r number o f d i f f i c u l t s i t u a t i o n s , b u t t h a t t h e g i r l s a r e somehow more c o m p e t e n t i n e x t r i c a t i n g t h e m s e l v e s f r o m t h e s i t u a t i o n . S i m i l a r l y , o l d e r c h i l d r e n may d e a l w i t h i n t e r a c t i o n s more c o m p e t e n t l y t h a n y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n . ( H o w a r t h & L i g h t b u r n 1 9 8 0 , p .365) .

2 . 6 N a t u r e of I n j u r i e s

A u s t r a l i a n r o a d a c c i d e n t d a t a i s u s u a l l y a v a i l a b l e i n terms o f d e a t h s , h o s p i t a l i s e d , and t r e a t e d i n j u r e d . I n t h e t a b l e s i n s e c t i o n 2 . 1 and 2 . 2 , it was e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t s i m i l a r p a t t e r n s e x i s t w h e t h e r t h e d a t a b e i n g a n a l y s e d i s r o a d " d e a t h " s t a t i s t i c s o r r o a d " i n j u r y " s t a t i s t i c s . A c c o r d i n g l y , i n t h e r e s e a r c h

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A s h t o n , Hayes , & M a c k a y ( 1 9 7 4 ) f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f B i rmingham, i n t h e i r r e p o r t on c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n i n j u r i e s , s t a t e d t h a t :

" C h i l d r e n seem t o s u s t a i n l e s s s e v e r e i n j u r i e s t h a n a d u l t s o f c o m p a r a b l e i m p a c t s p e e d , when c o n s i d e r i n g i n j u r i e s f rom t h e f r o n t o f t h e v e h i c l e , b u t t h e r e a p p e a r s t o b e no d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e s e v e r i t y o f i n j u r i e s s u s t a i n e d f r o m c o n t a c t w i t h t h e r o a d . " ( A s h t o n , e t . a l . , 1 9 7 4 , p .161 ).

They f o u n d t h a t head and f a c e i n j u r i e s o c c u r r e d i n 29% o f c a s e s f o r c h i l d r e n , and 38% f o r a d u l t s , w h i l e 3 2 % o f b o t h c h i l d r e n and a d u l t s r e c e i v e d l e g i n j u r i e s . When c o n s i d e r i n g s e r i o u s i n j u r i e s , 6 0 % of c h i l d r e n s u f f e r e d s e r i o u s h e a d and f a c e i n j u r i e s , c o m p a r e d w i t h 36% for a d u l t s . S e r i o u s l e g i n j u r i e s , f o r c h i l d r e n o c c u r r e d i n 1 7 % o f c a s e s , and f o r a d u l t s i n 3 1 % of c a s e s .

A s h t o n ( 1 9 8 2 ) c o n c l u d e d t h a t a b o u t 9 5 % of a l l pedes- a c c i d e n t s o c c u r r e d a t less t h a n 50 km/hr , and a b o u t h a l f a t 20-25 km/hr . A t t h e l o w e r s p e e d , i n j u r i e s a r e l e s s s e r i o u s b u t , a t s p e e d s i n e x c e s s o f 5 5 km/hr d e a t h u s u a l l y o c c u r s , a n d a t a r o u z 30-35 km/hr i n j u r i e s become ' s e r i o u s ' . B l a i r ( 1 9 6 9 ) had e a r l i e r i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f y o u n g c h i l d r e n a r e k i l l e d o r i n j u r e d c l o s e t o - t h e i r home on r e l a t i v e l y l o w s p e e d - s t r e e t s .

F a c t o r s , o t h e r t h a n s p e e d o f t h e v e h i c l e , w i l l a f f e c t t h e s e v e r i t y o f t h e i n j u r y . O n e m a j o r f a c t o r i s t h e p o i n t o f impact . Younger c h i l d r e n a r e more l i k e l y t o s u s t a i n s e r i o u s and f a t a l i n j u r i e s when s t r u c k by t h e f r o n t o f t h e c a r , e s p e c i a l l y t h e s i d e - f r o n t , w h i c h i s r e i n f o r c e d t o r e d u c e damage f r o m m o t o r v e h i c l e t o m o t o r v e h i c l e c o l l i s i o n s .

A t l o w e r s p e e d s , t h e p e d e s t r i a n would b e h i t b y t h e l e a d i n g e d g e o f t h e bumper b a r and t h e f r o n t e d g e o f t h e b o n n e t , b e f o r e impact w i t h t h e g r o u n d . A t h i g h e r s p e e d s , t h e . p e d e s t r i a n i s o f t e n t h r o w n o n t o t h e b o n n e t , and c a n h a v e i m p a c t w i t h t h e w i n d s c r e e n , b e f o r e b e i n g t h r o w n t o t h e g r o u n d . T h i s u s u a l l y r e s u l t s i n m u l t i p l e i n j u r i e s c a u s e d by t h e i m p a c t w i t h t h e m o t o r v e h i c l e a n d t h e r o a d s u r f a c e , and t h i s i s more l i k e l y t o l e a d t o d e a t h .

A t t h e h i g h e r s p e e d s , y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n a r e more l i k e l y t o b e ' r u n o v e r ' b y t h e m o t o r v e h i c l e , a s t h e c e n t r e o f impact is l o c a t e d i n t h e h e a d and c h e s t r e g i o n . A s h t o n ( 1 9 8 2 ) p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e i d e a l bumper b a r h e i g h t would b e 3 5 c m f r o m t h e g r o u n d , w h i c h l o w e r s t h e c e n t r e of g r a v i t y i n a c h i l d t o h i p h e i g h t .

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Most p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s w i t h c h i l d r e n o c c u r i n r e s i d e n t i a l s t r e e t s , w h e r e t h e s p e e d l i m i t i s l o w e r b u t , a c c o r d i n g t o J a r v i s ( 1 9 8 3 ) , t h e A u s t r a l i a n a c c i d e n t s e v e r i t y r a t e ( k i l l e d a s

- _l_-__l____ll_l__-

p r o p o r t i o n of a l l c a s u a l t i e s , i n 7976 f o r p e d e s t r i a n s was 7 . 0 i n t h e 0-6 a g e g r o u p , and 2 . 8 i n t h e 7-16 a g e group. J a r v i s s u g g e s t s t h i s c o u l d b e a f u n c t i o n o f t h e a l e r t n e s s and a g i l i t y of t h i s o l d e r age g r o u p , w h i c h would b e a f u n c t i o n o f t h e i n c r e a s e d p s y c h o - m o t o r d e v e l o p m e n t o c c u r r l n q d u r i n g t h e s e y e a r s .

L e e ( 1 9 8 1 ) p o i n t e d o u t t h a t c y c l e a c c i d e n t s t o c h i l d r e n m a i n l y c o n s t i t u t e d c u t s / a b r a s i o n s / g r a z e s ( 4 6 . 3 % ) , w i t h f r a c t u r e s ( 2 4 . 1 % ) a n d c o n c u s s i o n s ( 1 0 . 4 % ) o c c u r r i n g n e x t . Head i n j u r i e s ( 1 9 . 5 % ) a n d f a c i a l i n j u r i e s ( 1 3 . 7 % ) c o m p r i s e d a t o t a l o f 33 .2% of i n j u r i e s , w h i l e i n j u r i e s t o u p p e r l i m b s (a rms) was 25 .4%, and l o w e r l i m b s ( l e g s ) 2 1 . 2 % .

B l i c a v e s & S a v a g e ( 1 9 7 3 ) f o u n d t h a t , i n a c y c l e / m o t o r v e h i c l e c o l l i s i o n , t h e l e a s t i n j u r e d p a r t s o f t h e body were t h e u p p e r l i m b s , head and n e c k l a c e r a t i o n s , w h i l e i n a c y c l e a c c i d e n t ( i . e . , c y c l i s t a l o n e ) u p p e r l i m b s w e r e t h e m o s t s e r i o u s l y i n j u r e d . They c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e f o r c e o f t h e m o t o r v e h i c l e c o l l i s i o n t h r o w s t h e c y c l i s t t o t h e g r o u n d , r e s u l t i n g i n u p p e r b o d y i n j u r i e s and l e g i n j u r i e s , w h e r e t h e l i m b was c a u g h t b y t h e impac t o f t h e c a r . The c y c l i s t a l o n e d a t a d i s p l a y s a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n o f f a l l i n g t y p e s o f a c c i d e n t s , w h e r e t h e c y c l i s t h a s t i m e t o u s e h i s arm t o b r e a k t h e f a l l .

The a c c i d e n t s e v e r i t y r a t e f o r c y c l i s t s ( J a r v i s 1 9 8 3 ) shows a r a t e o f 2 .9 f o r b o t h t h e 0-6 a n d 7-16 a g e groups, w h i c h i s v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h e p a s s e n g e r r a t e s ( 2 . 6 a n d 2 . 8 f o r t h e r e s p e c t i v e age g r o u p s ) .

B l i c a v e s & S a v a g e ' s ( 1 9 7 3 ) s t u d y a l s o showed t h a t t h e m o s t common i n j u r i e s , t o c h i l d p a s s e n g e r s were c o n c u s s i o n , h e a d a n d n e c k l a c e r a t i o n s , f r a c t u r e d f a c i a l b o n e s , w i t h t h e l e a s t i n j u r i e s t o l e g s a n d arms. Most o f t h e i n j u r i e s r e s u l t e d i n t h e h e a d s t r i k i n g o b j e c t s i n t h e c a r , a s t h e c h i l d w a s n o t r e s t r a i n e d .

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B e i n g a n u n r e s t r a i n e d p a s s e n g e r i n t h e f r o n t s e a t p r o d u c e s more s e r i o u s r e s t r a i n e d i n t h e b a c k s e a t . ___ B i c y c l e " H e l m e t s " h a v e r e c e n t l y b e e n p r o m o t e d i n some A u s t r a l i a n s t a t e s i n t h e b e l i e f t h a t m o s t p e d a l c y c l i s t d e a t h s a r e d u e t o h e a d i n j u r i e s . The i m p o r t a n c e o f h e a d i n j u r i e s w a s r e f e r r e d t o b y McDermot t and K l u q i n t h e M e d i c a l J o u r n a l o f A u s t r a l i a ( 1 9 8 2 ) .

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The i m p o r t a n c e o f w e a r i n g s a f e t y h e l m e t s h a s most r e c e n t l y b e e n e m p h a s i s e d b y McDermot t ( 1 9 8 4 ) . The v a l u e and i m p o r t a n c e of p e d a l c y c l i s t s w e a r i n g s a f e t y h e l m e t s h a s n o t a l w a y s b e e n b e y o n d q u e s t i o n . D o r s c h , Woodward & S o m e r s ( 1 9 8 4 ) r e c e n t l y c a r r i e d o u t a f i e l d a n a l y s i s , a s d i s t i n c t f r o m p r e v i o u s l y r e p o r t e d l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s . T h e i r s t u d y r e v e a l e d a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n h e l m e t u s a g e a n d r e d u c e d s e v e r i t y o f h e a d i n j u r y . They e s t i m a t e d t h e r i s k o f d e a t h f r o m h e a d i n j u r y t o b e f r o m 4 t o 1 9 t i m e s g r e a t e r f o r u n h e l m e t e d r e l a t i v e t o h e l m e t e d p e d a l c y c l i s t s , d e p e n d i n g on h e l m e t t y p e .

Lugg ( 1 9 8 2 ) f o u n d t h a t 5 0 % o f b i c y c l e a c c i d e n t c a s e s a d m i t t e d t o h o s p i t a l i n P e r t h ( W . A . ) i n v o l v e d h e a d i n j u r i e s . T r i n c a , ( 1 9 8 3 & 1 9 8 4 ) c i t e s a l m o s t 7 0 % o f p e d a l c y c l i s t s adm. i t t ed t o two communi ty h o s p i t a l s i n M e l b o u r n e ( V i c . ) a s h a v i n g h e a d / n e c k i n j u r i e s .

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3 . 0 E X I S T I N G KNOWLEDGE I N R E L A T I O N TO - ---__-I______

A C C I D E N T E N V I R O N M E N T __--

3 .1 Time F a c t o r s 3.2 L o c a t i o n F a c t o r s 3.3 D r i v e r F a c t o r s 3 . 4 Summary o f E n v i r o n m e n t a l F a c t o r s

C h a p t e r t h r e e a t t e m p t s t o e x a m i n e t h e p u b l i s h e d l i t e r a t u r e w i t h r e s p e c t t o m a j o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l i n f l u e n c e s on r o a d c r a s h e s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n . The l i t e r a t u r e s e a r c h c o v e r s t h e l o c a l s c e n e , i n d e t a i l , and i s s u p p o r t e d b y r e l e v a n t o v e r s e a s m a t e r i a l . The f a c t o r s of ' t i m e ' and ' p l a c e ' a r e c o v e r e d i n some d e t a i l w i t h

I____-__ ~ ___I--

_I--

p a r t i c u l a r e m p h a s i s on ____l_l____l__ ' l o c a t i o n ' f a c t o r s . S i n c e a h i g h p r o p o r t i o n of r o a d a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n s c h i l d r e n a s c a s u a l t i e s - ~~

i n v o l v e c r a s h e s w i t h v e h i c l e s , t h i s c h a p t e r e x a m i n e s d r i v e r - r e l a t e d f a c t o r s . A b r i e f summary o f key e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s c o n c l u d e s t h e c h a p t e r .

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3.1 T i m e F a c t o r s

T i m e f a c t o r s v a r y t o some d e g r e e b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s , p o s s i b l y d u e t o d i f f e r e n t c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s . E k s t r o m , G a s t r e n & Q u i r s t (1966) found t h a t , b e t w e e n 1953 and 1962 i n Sweden, 47% o f t r a f f i c a c c i d e n t s t o c h i l d r e n o c c u r r e d b e t w e e n 2-6 p . m . The S k a n d i a R e p o r t I , 1971, ( S w e d i s h ) a l s o f o u n d t h a t h a l f o f t h e a c c i d e n t s o c c u r r e d b e t w e e n 2-5 p.m., b e t w e e n Monday a n d F r i d a y , p e a k i n g o n F r i d a y , w i t h t h e f e w e s t on S u n d a y , f o l l o w e d b y S a t u r d a y . P e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s w e r e d i s t r i b u t e d a c r o s s t h e y e a r , w i t h a n i n c r e a s e b e t w e e n May a n d O c t o b e r (Summer) a n d p e a k i n g i n May and A u g u s t , w i t h t h e l o w e s t i n J a n u a r y . C y c l e a c c i d e n t s m a i n l y o c c u r r e d b e t w e e n May and S e p t e m b e r , p e a k i n g i n A u g u s t .

I n t h e U n i t e d Kingdom, t h e t i m e p e a k s a r e 8 a .m. /noon /4 -6 p . m . f o r weekdays ( s l i g h t i n c r e a s e F r i d a y ) . Weekends show a more e v e n d i s t r i b u t i o n , w i t h a s l i g h t p e a k i n t h e a f t e r n o o n , a n d a n i n c r e a s e i n November a n d a d e c r e a s e i n J u l y (Wade, F o o t e Ci Chapman, 1982).

B e n n e t t & M a r l a n d (1978) f o u n d t h a t , g e n e r a l l y , more t h a n o n e - f i f t h of a c c i d e n t s i n t h e U n i t e d Kingdom o c c u r r e d b e t w e e n 4-5 p.m. and t h a t o n l y h a l f w e r e c o m i n g home f r o m s c h o o l . O v e r a l l , o n l y 35% o f c h i l d r e n i n a c c i d e n t s were g o i n g home. C h i l d r e n u n d e r 10 were more a t r i s k d u r i n g Summer t h a n W i n t e r .

J a r v i s (1978) showed a s i m i l a r p a t t e r n i l l A u s t r a l i a . B o t h p e d e s t r i a n s a n d c y c l i s t s a r e more a t r i s k a f t e r s c h o o l , w i t h t h e o l d e r c h i l d b e i n g a t r i s k d u r i n g l a t e r t i m e s . D u r i n g t h e w e e r t h e h o u r s a f t e r s c h o o l u n t i l 5 p .n . a r e t h e w o r s t t i m e s , w i t h a p e a k on F r i d a y s . S a t u r d a y h a s a m i n o r peak b e t w e e n 9-10 a.m., and a m a j o r p e a k a r o u n d 6 p.m. S u n d a y s h a v e a m i n o r p e a k a t 8 a.m. and 1 1 a.m., and major p e a k a t 3-4 p.m.

L e e (1981), f r o m t h e R o y a l A l e x a n d r a H o s p i t a l f o r C h i l d r e n , i n a n a n a l y s i s of 290 h o s p i t a l c a s e s ( c o u n t r y and u r b a n ) , f o u n d t h a t w e e k e n d s a c c o u n t e d f o r 56% of c y c l e a c c i d e n t s . Of t h e s e weekend a c c i d e n t s , 64% o c c u r r e d b e t w e e n 1-6 p.m. a n d 22% b e t w e e n 4-5 p . m . B i c y c l e a c c i d e n t s o c c u r r i n g b e t w e e n 7-8 p . m . m a i n l y i n v o l v e d c h i l d r e n i n t h e 10-13 a g e g r o u p . More r e c e n t l y , The C h i l d S a f e t y C e n t r e (1984) a t t h e R o y a l A l e x a n d r a H o s p i t a l . f o r C h i l d r e n f o u n d t h a t o f t h e 259 c h i l d r e n t r e a t e d f o r b i c y c l e a c c i d e n t s i n c a l e n d a r 1983, Sunday w a s t h e most p o p u l a r d a y f o r a c c i d e n t s (25%) w h i l s t t h e weekend a c c o u n t e d f o r 47% of a c c i d e n t s . C o n s i d e r a b l y more a c c i d e n t s (29%) o c c u r r e d b e t w e e n 4 a n d 6 p . m .

I ----I_-

I__ l__l____i

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Cameron ( 1 9 8 4 1 , i n a n a l y s i n g 1981 p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s f o r t h e M e l b o u r n e S t a t i s t i c a l D i s t r i c t , found t h a t mos t c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s o c c u r d u r i n g d a y l i q h t - 0-4 ( 9 1 % ) ; 5-11 9 3 % ; 12-16 7 3 % compared w i t h t h e 17 -60 a g e g r o u p w h i c h a v e r a g e d u n d e r 6 0 % i n d a y l i g h t . The o v e r 6 0 a g e g r o u p had 6 8 % o f a c c i d e n t s i n d a y l i q h t .

3 .2 L o c a t i o n F a c t o r s

An e x p o s u r e s t u d y a imed a t m e a s u r i n g t h e r e l a t i v e r i s k o f p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s w a s c a r r i e d o u t i n Canada by J o n a h & E n g e l ( 1 9 8 3 ) . They r e i t e r a t e d t h e p r e v i o u s l y we l l -known f a c t t h a t d a r t - o u t a c c i d e n t s were t h e m o s t common f o r m o f a c c i d e n t t o p e d e s t r i a n s , f o l l o w e d b y i n t e r s e c t i o n and m i d - b l o c k d a s h e s . Most v i c t i m s w e r e male, b e t w e e n 3-12 y e a r s o f age , and t h e y o c c u r r e d i n u r b a n a r e a s b e t w e e n 3.00 p . m . and 6 . 0 0 p.m.

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f e a c h a g e g r o u p were as f o l l o w s : 3-7 y e a r s , b e t w e e n 3-6 p.m., o n t h e i r way home f r o m s c h o o l , t h e y were a c c o m p a n i e d b y someone ( n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a n a d u l t ) . The a c c i d e n t s o c c u r r e d a t a n u n c o n t r o l l e d i n t e r s e c t i o n ; t w o - t h i r d s i n r e s i d e n t i a l s t r e e t s . The 8-1 2 a g e g r o u p a c c i d e n t s o c c u r r e d b e t w e e n 3-6 p.m., e i t h e r f r o m s c h o o l , a t a t r a n s p o r t c e n t r e , o r s o c i a l a r e a ; 50% were a c c o m p a n i e d , more t h a n 80% o c c u r r e d a t u n c o n t r o l l e d m i d - b l o c k o r i n t e r s e c t i o n , and 8 0 % i n r e s i d e n t i a l s t r e e t s . The 13-17 a g e g r o u p were s i m i l a r t o t h e 8 -12 g r o u p , b u t t h e o l d e r c h i l d r e n made more t r i p s downtown, on ma in r o a d s , and made more c r o s s i n g s a t i n t e r s e c t i o n s , w i t h o r w i t h o u t t r a f f i c l i g h t s .

The S k a n d i a R e p o r t ( S a n d e l s , 1 9 7 1 ) f o u n d t h a t , i n m o s t c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s , t h e c h i l d was a c c o m p a n i e d m a i n l y by peers a n d t h a t a l m o s t h a l f o f t h e t i m e t h e f r i e n d r e m a i n e d on t h e p a v e m e n t , w h i l e t h e v i c t i m w e n t o u t o n t o t h e r o a d . I n 1 5 o f t h e 3 5 c a s e s , t h e same p a t t e r n s e x i s t e d a l t h o u g h t h e c h i l d w a s a c c o m p a n i e d b y a n a d u l t , who u s u a l l y had no p h y s i c a l c o n t r o l o v e r t h e c h i l d .

B e n n e t t ( 1 9 7 9 ) p o i n t e d o u t t h a t , i n t h e U n i t e d Kingdom, t h e more l o c a l t h e r o a d , t h e more l i k e l y a n i n j u r y t o a c h i l d w i l l o c c u r o n i t . H e r e p o r t e d t h a t 8 4 % o f i n j u r i e s t o u n d e r 1 0 y e a r o l d s h a p p e n e d w i t h i n 8 0 0 m o f home, and 4 4 % i n t h e i r own s t r e e t . T h i s s u b s t a n t i a t e d w h a t P r e s t o n ( 1 9 7 2 ) had f o u n d , t h a t f o r u n d e r 5 y e a r o l d s , most a c c i d e n t s ( 5 9 % ) o c c u r r e d w i t h i n 1 0 0 y a r d s of home, o f t e n o u t s i d e t h e f r o n t d o o r . F o r t h e 5-10 a g e g r o u p , 5 2 % o f a c c i d e n t s o c c u r r e d w i t h i n a q u a r t e r o f a m i l e f rom home. Most a c c i d e n t s t o t h e 0-10 a g e g r o u p o c c u r r e d on m i n o r r e s i d e n t i a l r o a d s a n d , i n most i n s t a n c e s , t h e c h i l d w a s u n a c c o m p a n i e d b y a n a d u l t ( 9 2 % f o r t h e 0-5 a g e g r o u p ) .

-

--I_

-___-- -~

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The " T a s m a n i a T r a n s p o r t " S t u d y ( 1 9 8 3 ) f o u n d t h a t , i n 1 9 8 1 , of t h e 5 8 a c c i d e n t s t o t h e 6-16 a g e g r o u p , 35 o c c u r r e d g o i n g t o a n d f r o m s c h o o l ; 1 0 o c c u r r e d i n t h e same s t r e e t a s t h e c h i l d l i v e d , 1 4 i n t h e same s u b u r b , a n d 24 on p r i o r i t y t y p e r o a d s . All f a t a l i t i e s ( 9 ) o c c u r r e d on b u s y r o a d s , 5 o u t s i d e s c h o o l h o u r s , 4 f a t a l i t i e s w e r e ' d a r t o u t s ' , and 2 w e r e b e h i n d a s c h o o l b u s . I n t h e case O f

i n j u r i e s , 1 3 r a n o u t o n t o t h e r o a d , a n d 6 r a n o u t f rom b e h i n d a s t a t i o n a r y b u s . The same s t u d y w h i c h c o v e r e d 1 9 7 7 - 1 9 8 1 , showed t h a t :

- t h e u n d e r 1 2 a g e g r o u p a c c o u n t e d f o r 1 2 . 4 % o f f a t a l i t i e s ; - t h e 12 -20 a g e g r o u p a c c o u n t e d f o r 12 .5% o f f a t a l i t i e s ; - t h e u n d e r 1 6 a g e g r o u p a c c o u n t e d f o r 4 3 % o f a c c i d e n t s .

A d e t a i l e d b r e a k d o w n o f S o u t h A u s t r a l i a n p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t d a t a f o r 1 9 7 4 - 7 6 shows t h a t t h e m o s t d a n g e r o u s b e h a v i o u r is c r o s s i n g a r o a d w h i c h i s n o t c o n t r o l l e d , i n e i t h e r a n a c t i v e or p a s s i v e manner .

T A B L E 4 5 - P e d e s t r i a n K i l l e d & I n j u r e d W h i l e U n d e r t a k i n g

A c t i v i t y Shown, S o u t h A u s t r a l i a 1974-76 ____________________I_______

% I n j u r e d I

% K i l l e d -- A c t i v i t y

W a l k i n g a l o n g f o o t p a t h On p e d e s t r i a n c r o s s i n g W i t h i n 3 0 m o f c r o s s i n g A l i g h t i n g f r o m p a r k e d v e h i c l e W a l k i n g f rom b e h i n d v e h i c l e W a l k i n g a l o n g roadway P u s h i n g o r w a l k i n g a v e h i c l e P l a y i n g on roadway C r o s s i n g w i t h o u t c o n t r o l C r o s s i n g w i t h s i g n a l c o n t r o l O t h e r

2 .6 0 . 6 2.9 1 .7 4.1 2.9 1 . 7 1 .8

71 . 3 9 .9 0.0

4.2 5.4 1 . 8 1 . 2

1 2 . 2 4 .9 1 . 6 2.4

56.9 7.6 1 . 8

S o u r c e : J a r v i s ( 1 9 8 3 1, p. 31 t a b l e 2 .8

Ryan ( 1 9 6 8 ) , u s i n g c y c l e a c c i d e n t d a t a f r o m S o u t h A u s t r a l i a f o r 1 9 6 3 - 6 5 , showed t h a t , i n 9 0 % o f c y c l e a c c i d e n t s t o u n d e r 1 5 y e a r o l d s , t h e c y c l i s t c h a n g e d d i r e c t i o n . T h i s r e d u c e d t o l e s s t h a n o n e - t h i r d for t h e o v e r 1 5 age g r o u p .

The G e e l o n g B i k e P l a n ( 1 9 8 0 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t 4 1 % of c y c l e a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v e d r i g h t a n g l e c o l l i s i o n s , u s u a l l y a t a n i n t e r s e c t i o n , 24% w e r e s t r u c k f r o m b e h i n d w h i l s t e n g a g i n g i n u n p r e d i c t a b l e b e h a v i o u r , 60% a t a n i n t e r s e c t i o n ; a n d 5 3 % on r e s i d e n t i a l s t r e e t i n t e r s e c t i o n s .

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T a b l e 4 6 a n a l y s e s b i c y c l e c a s u a l t i e s / a c c i d e n t s b y l o c a t i o n and a g e , f o r 1 9 7 5 , w a s d e r i v e d b y J a r v i s f r o m T h e G e e l o n g B i k e P l a n D a t a . J a r v i s found t h a t e i g h t y p e r c e n t of b i c y c l e a c c i d e n t s t o c h i l d r e n u n d e r 6 y e a r s o f a g e o c c u r on r e s i d e n t i a l r o a d s ; 47% o f t h e 7-11 a g e g r o u p , a n d 4 3 % o f t h e 12-17 a g e g r o u p a l s o o c c u r on r e s i d e n t i a l r o a d s . M a i n r o a d i n t e r s e c t i o n s a r e s i x t i m e s more d a n g e r o u s t h a n r e s i d e n t i a l i n t e r s e c t i o n s , and main r o a d m i d - b l o c k s a r e o n l y 2 1 / 2 t i m e s a s d a n g e r o u s as t h e i r r e s i d e n t i a l c o u n t e r p a r t .

TABLE 4 6

B I C Y C L E CASUALTY A C C I D E N T S BY LOCATIONS A N D A G E MELBOURNE STATISTICAL D I V I S I O N 1 9 7 5 -I_ 1--

I I

Type of Road

R e s i d e n t i a 1 --l_-l

A r t e r i a l S u b - A r t e r i a l

u n d e r 6 7-1 1 12 -17 o v e r 1 7

1 1 8 5 1 50

- I n t e r s e c t i o n

0 1 4 32 1 5

1 23 2 8 6

u n d e r 6 7-1 1 12-17 o v e r 17

1 1 2 2 2 20

Mid-Block 0 6

2 8 6

6 2 2 1 5

3

S o u r c e : J a r v i s ( 1 9 8 3 ) p.33 T a b l e 2 .9

B r i n d l e & A n d r e a s s e n d ( 1 9 8 4 ) a n a l y s e d 1981 r e p o r t e d b i c y c l e a c c i d e n t s i n M e l b o u r n e i n terms o f r o a d h i e r a r c h y i n order t o a s s e s s t h e impor t ance of r o a d t y p e s o n b i c y c l e a c c i d e n t s . They f o u n d t h a t , u p t o t h e a g e o f 1 2 , c h i l d r e n were i n v o l v e d i n r e p o r t e d a c c i d e n t s more f r e q u e n t l y w i t h i n r e s i d e n t i a l l o c a l i t i e s t h a n o n m a i n r o a d s w h i c h s u r r o u n d t h e s e l o c a l i t i e s . F u r t h e r , t h e y s u g g e s t , b e c a u s e o v e r h a l f o f t h e c y c l i s t s i n v o l v e d i n a c c i d e n t s o n c o l l e c t o r and l o c a l s t r e e t s a r e u n d e r 1 3 v e a r s o f - a g e , t h a t t h e t r a f f i c e n v i r o n m e n t on t h o s e s t r e e t s is n o t s a f e f o r y o u n g p e d a l c y c l i s t s . T h e r e i s a l s o a s u g g e s t i o n i n t h e B r i n d l e & A n d r e a s s e n d s t u d y t h a t a n a l y s i s o f c o m p u t e r mass d a t a a c c i d e n t r e c o r d s may u n d e r s t a t e t h e i m p o r t a n c e of l o c a l s t r e e t s b e c a u s e t h e a c c i d e n t may b e a s s i g n e d i n c o r r e c t l y t o p r i o r i t y r o a d s and t h u s a c t u a l a c c i d e n t r e c o r d s n e e d t o b e s t u d i e d . A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e y a r g u e f o r b e t t e r r e p o r t i n g o n s t r e e t ' t y p e ' .

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B a r s o n ( 1 9 7 7 ) i n d i c a t e s t h a t V i c t o r i a n and A m e r i c a n s t a t i s t i c s show t h a t m i d - b l o c k c y c l e a c c i d e n t s a c c o u n t f o r 60% o f c y c l i s t i n j u r i e s and d e a t h s ; and 6 0 % o f m i d - b l o c k a c c i d e n t s o c c u r o n m a j o r r o a d s . Many m i d - b l o c k a c c i d e n t s r e s u l t f r o m c y c l i s t s p o s i t i o n i n g t h e m s e l v e s upon t h e r o a d t o make a t u r n a t a n i n t e r s e c t i o n t h a t t h e y a r e a p p r o a c h i n g . A c c o r d i n g t o B a r s o n ( 1 9 7 7 ) , who c i t e s a s t u d y b y R o b e r t s o n e t . a l . ( 1 9 6 6 ) , t h e ~~-

~

m a n o e u v r e s w h i c h c y c l i s t s f i n d d i f f i c u l t o r d a n g e r o u s a r e u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n t e r s e c t i o n s e i t h e r t u r n i n g r i g h t f r o m l e f t t o c e n t r e l a n e o r t r a v e l l i n g a c r o s s a n i n t e r s e c t i o n i n t h e l e f t ha=

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i_-_l-____~I_-_-

l a n e ,

T r a v e l t o and from s c h o o l i s b e l i e v e d b y some; e . g . , B a r s o n ( 1 9 7 7 ) t o b e s i g n i f i c a n t i n c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t , a n d d e a t h s a s p e d e s t r i a n s o r c y c l i s t s . B a r s o n c i t e s t h e number o f a c c i d e n t s o c c u r r i n g f o r 5-16 y e a r o l d s b e t w e e n 7-9 a . m . , 12 .30 - 1.30 and 3-5 pm on d a y s of y e a r s c h o o l was i n s e s s i o n o v e r 1 9 7 1 - 7 3 f o r S o u t h A u s t r a l i a b u t s u c h d a t a i s h a r d l y c o n v i n c i n g . B a r s o n a l s o c i t e s a 1961 s t u d y b y Hawley f o r V i c t o r i a w h i c h p u r p o r t s t o s u p p o r t t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f s c h o o l . C e r t a i n l y , a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e number o f a c c i d e n t s t o 7-12 y e a r o l d s o c c u r r e d b e t w e e n 8 a n d 9 a.m. and b e t w e e n 4 a n d 5 pm b u t i t i s c o n c e i v a b l e t h e 4 - 5 p m a c c i d e n t s o c c u r a f t e r a j o u r n e y home f r o m s c h o o l ; i .e . a f t e r g o i n g home or t o someone e l s e ' s home or some o t h e r v e n u e .

The m o s t r e c e n t and e x t e n s i v e r e v i e w o f p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s (Wade , F o o t e & Chapman, 1 9 8 2 ) i n d i c a t e s t h a t a n a l y s i s o f 1 9 7 8 B r i t i s h p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s f o r w e e k d a y s shows t h r e e p e a k s f o r c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n s - 8 a.m., 1 2 n o o n , 4 p.m.; a n d f o r a d u l t s - 8 a . m . , 1 2 n o o n , 4 p . m . on F r i d a y s and 5 p . m . on Mondays. They c i t e a s t u d y b y G r a y s o n ( 1 9 7 5 a ) i n H a m p s h i r e w h i c h s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e a l l e g e d h a z a r d s o f t h e e v e n i n g s c h o o l - t o - h o m e j o u r n e y were n o t a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r . G r a y s o n f o u n d t h a t j o u r n e y t o and f r o m s c h o o l a c c o u n t e d f o r s i m i l a r p r o p o r t i o n s of a c c i d e n t s ; a l s o , o n l y 35% of s c h o o l - a g e d c h i l d r e n i n j u r e d b e t w e e n 4 - 5 p . m . were c o m i n g home f r o m s c h o o l , and o n l y h a l f t h e c h i l d r e n i n j u r e d were g o i n g home b e t w e e n 4-5 p.m. They c o n c l u d e :

--

" T h u s , i t seems t h a t a s u b s t a n t i a l p r o p o r t i o n o f c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s d u r i n g t h e l a t e a f t e r n o o n o f w e e k d a y s o c c u r a s a r e s u l t o f j o u r n e y s o t h e r t h a n t h o s e u n d e r t a k e n f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f g o i n g t o and f r o m s c h o o l : t h a t i s , t h o s e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p l a y i n g , r u n n i n g e r r a n d s and v i s i t i n g . " (Wade , e t . a l . , 1 9 8 2 , p.239).

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P e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s for a l l a g e s a p p e a r t o b e p r e d o m i n a n t l y a metro po 1 i t a n p rob lem. I n 1 9 8 1 , 8 3 % of p e d e s t r i a n c a s u a l t y a c c i d e n t s ( a l l a g e s ) i n V i c t o r i a o c c u r r e d i n t h e M e l b o u r n e S t a t i s t i c a l D i v i s i o n . A s i m i l a r p a t t e r n e x i s t e d i n 1 9 7 7 , i n V i c t o r i a , a s shown i n t a b l e 4 7 .

TABLE 4 7

V I C T O R I A P E D E S T R I A N ACCIDENTS 1 9 7 7 1~1-111 -I-_I_--

T o t a l -- A g e o f P e d e s t r i a n M e l b o u r n e R e s t o f - I

V i c t o r i a V i c t o r i a ___I__

0 - 4 1 6 3 6 3 2 2 6 5 - 1 1 3 7 2 1 1 5 4 8 7

2 3 8 1 2 - 1 6 1 8 1 5 7 0 - 1 6 71 6 2 3 5 9 5 1

S o u r c e : Wood ( 1 9 7 9 ) D E R I V E D FROM T A B L E S .

-----

Smeed ( 1 9 7 6 ) p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e r i s k o f a p e d e s t r i a n hecoming a p e d e s t r i a n c a s u a l t y i n c r e a s e s w i t h p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y , t h e r a t e of i n c r e a s e b e i n g g r e a t e r f o r s e r i o u s t h a n f o r f a t a l c a s u a l t i e s and g r e a t e r f o r s l i g h t t h a n s e r i o u s o n e s .

Cameron ( 1 9 8 4 ) p o i n t s o u t t h a t , w h i l s t c h i l d r e n u n d e r 1 7 a r e i n v o l v e d o n a l l r o a d t y p e s i n c l u d i n g m i n o r r o a d s and a c c o u n t f o r 3 0 % of a c c i d e n t s o n a r t e r i a l r o a d s , it i s t h e a d u l t s and t h e e l d e r l y who a r e more i n v o l v e d o n a r t e r i a l r o a d s and a c c o u n t for 7 0 % o f t h e a c c i d e n t s .

The f o l l o w i n g t a b l e , d e r i v e d f r o m Cameron ( 1 9 8 4 1 , r e v e a l s t h a t a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s d o I_ n o t o c c u r on m a j o r r o a d s .

TABLE 4 8

V I C T O R I A N PEDESTRIAN ACCIDENTS 1 9 7 7 - - ~ I _

MELBOURNE STATISTICAL D I S T R I C T - 0-4 5 -1 1 12 -1 6 I_ II

% % % A r t e r i a l 3 2 4 8 80 1 9 7 5 S t a t c o m 1 8 2 2 1 1 1 9 7 7 S t a t c o m 1 0 1 1 3 O t h e r T o t a l

6 --_ 20 - 4 0 I

1 0 0 % 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 %

s o u r c e : Cameron ( 1 9 8 4 ) (P.20)

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C a m e r o n ' s ( 1 9 8 4 ) a n a l y s i s of 1982 p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t d a t a f o r t h e M e l b o u r n e S t a t i s t i c a l D i s t r i c t r e v e a l s t h a t , w h i l s t 70% o f a l l p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s o c c u r m i d - b l o c k w i t h n o t r a f f i c c o n t r o l , f b r t h e 5-11 a g e g r o u p and f o r t h e 0-16 a g e g r o u p i t was 77%.

A n d r e a s s e n d , Hoque L Young ( 1 9 8 4 ) a n a l y s e d 1981 m e t r o M e l b o u r n e p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s and f o u n d 4 7 % o f t h e p e d e s t r i a n s i n v o l v e d i n l o c a l s t r e e t s w e r e u n d e r 9 y e a r s of a g e w h e r e a s a d u l t s p r e d o m i n a t e d on a r t e r i a l r o a d s .

J a m i e s o n , e t . a l . ( 1 9 8 1 ) a l s o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e p r o b l e m o f p e d e s t r i a n c r a s h e s _--- i s p r e d o m i n a n t l y a n u r b a n o n e , w i t h a b o u t t h r e e q u a r t e r s of N . S . W . p e d e s t r i a n c r a s h e s o c c u r r i n g i n t h e S y d n e y M e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a . U s i n g e x p o s u r e d a t a t h e y d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e r e l a t i v e p e d e s t r i a n r i s k w a s c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r o n l o c a l s t r e e t s t h a n on c o l l e c t o r r o a d s o r a r t e r i a l r o u t e s .

p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s w h e r e 72% o c c u r r e d i n r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s and t h e y g e n e r a l l y d i d n o t i n v o l v e h i g h s p e e d s .

B a r s o n ( 1 9 7 7 ) s t a t e s t h a t 60% o f f a t a l p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s i n t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a i n v o l v e v e h i c l e s t r a v e l l i n g a t s p e e d s w i t h i n l e g a l l i m i t s . A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e r e may b e a n e e d to f u r t h e r i n h i b i t o r c o n t r o l s p e e d i n r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s . E a r l i e r , Vaughan ( 1 9 7 2 ) r e l a t e d p e d e s t r i a n f a t a l i t i e s t o impact s p e e d ( e s t i m a t e d ) and found t h a t

- 3 0 % o c c u r r e d a t u n d e r 25 m.p.h. ( 4 0 k p h )

- 27% " 31-35 m.p.h. ( 4 9 - 5 6 k p h ) - 1 0 % " 3 6 m.p.h. o r e x c e s s . ( 5 7 k p h ) .

- 3 3 % I " 26-30 m.p.h. ( 4 1 - 4 5 k p h )

B r i n d l e ( 1 9 7 8 ) a r g u e d t h a t m i n o r s t r e e t s w e r e i m p o r t a n t s i n c e a t h i r d o f a l l p e d e s t r i a n c a s u a l t i e s o c c u r t h e r e . Camkin ( 1 9 7 8 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t 5 5 % of N . S . W . p e d e s t r i a n c a s u a l t i e s o c c u r r e d on ' l o c a l r o a d s ' and h a l f o f t h e s e were r e s i d e n t i a l s t r e e t s . - B e n n e t t ( 1 9 7 9 ) c l a i m e d t h a t t r a f f i c e n g i n e e r s h a v e t r a d i t i o n a l l y t r i v i a l i s e d r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s t r e e t s . B r i n d l e ( 1 9 8 2 ) a r g u e s t h a t t h e key t o c r e a t i n g s a f e r s t r e e t s i n new and o l d u r b a n a r e a s l i e s i n r e d u c i n g v e h i c l e s p e e d s . B r i n d l e s u g g e s t s t h a t w h a t i s n e e d e d i s t h e c r e a t i o n o f a n e n v i r o n m e n t o f ca re i n r e s i d e n t i a l s t r e e t s . The m e a s u r e s t o a c h i e v e t h i s e n v i r o n m e n t a r e w i d e l y known t o t h e e n g i n e e r s . I n a d d i t i o n t o c r e a t i n g s c a l e d - d o w n or r e s t r a i n e d r o a d w a y s t o r e d u c e s p e e d B r i n d l e ( 1 9 8 2 ) a r g u e s f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e "Wooner f " w h e r e p e d e s t r i a n s a r e f r e e t o move a t w i l l and c h i l d r e n may p l a y i n s a f e t y , w h i l s t t h o s e v e h i c l e s h a v i n g a g e n u i n e need o f access may e n t e r p r o v i d e d t h e y r e s p e c t t h e

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f r e e d o m o f t h o s e on f o o t . B r i n d l e a r g u e s t h a t c u l - d e - s a c s h a v e good s a f e t y r e c o r d s b e c a u s e t h e i r l e n g t h g e n e r a l l y means t h a t c a r s a r e c o n s t r a i n e d b y p r o x i m i t y t o s t o p o r t u r n c o n d i t i o n s , a n d b y a n y n e i g h b o u r h o o d c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h a t may a p p l y . I t i s t h e s e same c o n d i t i o n s t h a t s t r e e t s w i t h i n a w o o n e r v e n t a k e o n . B r i n d l e c l a i m s , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t p h y s i c a l d e s i g n i n e x i s t i n g s t r e e t s c a n p l a y a n i n f l u e n t i a l r o l e i n i n c r e a s i n g s a f e t y . A v i e w s u p p o r t e d b y S t a p l e t o n ' s ( 1 9 8 3 ) s t u d i e s f o r t h e N . S . W . Land Commiss ion .

I n t h e o r y , n e i g h b o u r h o o d s t r e e t s o u g h t t o b e r e l a t i v e l y l o w s p e e d r o a d s . B r i n d l e ( 1 9 8 2 ) p o i n t s o u t t h a t A u s t r a l i a n Road R e s e a r c h Board ( A R R B ) i s c u r r e n t l y i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e r o a d and t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of s p e e d s o n i t . He a l s o i n d i c a t e s t h a t more o u g h t t o b e known a b o u t t h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s and a c c i d e n t r a t e s :

I - ~ - I _

"The w r i t e r m a i n t a i n s t h a t o v e r s e a s e v i d e n c e and p r a c t i c e on t h i s s u b j e c t c a n n o t b e i g n o r e d . The e v i d e n c e p o i n t s o v e r w h e l m i n g l y t o o n e common theme ( O E C D , 1 9 7 9 ) :

' T h e r e i s g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t t h a t s p e e d s h o u l d b e l i m i t e d t o r e s i d e n t i a l s t r e e t s and t h a t s p e e d r e d u c t i o n s h o u l d b e o b t a i n e d b y p h y s i c a l m e a s u r e s b u i l t i n t o t h e s t r e e t s r a t h e r t h a n by r e g u l a t i o n s ' . " B r i n d l e ( 1 9 8 2 ) p. 50.

The e v i d e n c e i s s t r o n o t h a t m o s t c h i l d a c c i d e n t s o c c u r i n ~ ~~~ > ~~

l_l--_--_

r e s i d e n t i a l s t r e e t s w i t h a 6 0 kph s p e e d l i m i t . F u r t h e r , many a c c i d e n t s may o c c u r o v e r t h i s l i m i t s i n c e t h e i n c i d e n c e o f

--I_

d r i v i n g o v e r t h i s l i m i t c o u l d b e q u i t e h i g h . I f t h e a c t u a l s p e e d s were r e d u c e d t h e i n c i d e n c e a n d s e v e r i t y of c h i l d c r a s h e s c o u l d a l s o b e r e d u c e d . The way t o r e d u c e a c t u a l s p e e d s i s n o t b y l e g i s l a t i o n o r r e g u l a t i o n ( s p e e d s i g n s ) b u t b y p h y s i c a l m e a s u r e s .

I t seems a r e a s o n a b l e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t m o t o r i s t s , i n g e n e r a l , a r e more " r e a d y " o r " a t t u n e = t o b e on t h e w a t c h a t i n t e r s e c t i o n s f o r ca rs , b i k e s , p e d e s t r i a n s . B i s h o p a n d Harwood ( 1 9 7 8 ) f o u n d t h a t 68% o f s c h o o l - a g e d - p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s w h i c h o c c u r r e d on non-ma in r o a d s o c c u r r e d away f rom. a n i n t e r s e c t i o n . The G e e l o n g B i k e P l a n ( 1 9 7 8 ) s i m i l a r l y reports t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f m i d - b l o c k a s o p p o s e d t o i n t e r s e c t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h e y o u n q e r c h i l d . Thus

~

s l o w i n g down v e h i c l e s mid b l o c k a p p e a r s t o b e a w o r t h w h i l e c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n r e s i d e n t i a l s t r e e t s .

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B r i n d l e ( 1 9 7 8 ) p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e d a t a on v e h i c l e s p e e d and a c c i d e n t r a t e i s s p a r s e . L i k e t h e c u r r e n t a u t h o r h e f e e l s t h a t :

" I t seems r e a s o n a b l e t o a s s u m e t h a t , a l l o t h e r t h i n g s b e i n g e q u a l , a s t r e e t c a r r y i n g f a s t e r v e h i c l e s w i l l t e n d t o b e more d a n g e r o u s t o p e d e s t r i a n s . " ( B r i n d l e 1 9 7 8 , p . 1 1 - 1 2 ) .

B r i n d l e ( 1 9 7 8 ) c i t e s a s t u d y b y S u m n e r 6 BagUley ( 1 9 7 8 ) w h e r e a marked d r o p i n s p e e d s , d u e t o s p e e d c o n t r o l bumps , on a s t r e e t i n O x f o r d ( U K ) c o r r e s p o n d e d t o a d r a m a t i c d r o p i n c a s u a l t i e s . Of c o u r s e , c o r r e l a t i o n i s n o t c a u s a t i o n .

3 . 3 D r i v e r F a c t o r s

D r i v e r s r e p r e s e n t a v i t a l p a r t o f t h e a c c i d e n t e n v i r o n m e n t . Most f a t a l i t i e s and s e r i o u s b i c y c l e and p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g v e h i c l e o c c u p a n t s , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h t e e n a g e r s , w a r r a n t s some a t t e n t i o n b e i n g d r a w n t o d r i v e r f a c t o r s .

S a n d e l s , i n t h e S k a n d i a R e p o r t ( 1 9 7 1 ) p o i n t s o u t t h a t , i n n e a r l y 5 0 % of p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t c a s e s , d r i v e r s w i t h f r e e v i s i o n , i n v o l v e d i n c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n c r o s s i n g a c c i d e n t s , s a w t h e c h i l d when h e / s h e was on t h e r o a d . Most d r i v e r s who saw t h e c h i l d s t o p p e d , d i d n o t c o m p u t e t h e b e h a v i o u r , o r t h o u g h t t h e c h i l d would s t a y w h e r e h e / s h e was. S a n d e l s d e s c r i b e d t h e b e h a v i o u r o f t h e d r i v e r s a t marked p e d e s t r i a n c r o s s i n g s i n a l a r g e number o f c a s e s a s " a s t o u n d i n g l y r u t h l e s s " , w i t h l i t t l e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e c h i l d ' s r i g h t s .

I n t h e s e c o n d S k a n d i a R e p o r t , S a n d e l s ( 1 9 7 4 ) , p o i n t s o u t t h a t d r i v e r s o v e r - e s t i m a t e d t h e c h i l d ' s a b i l i t i e s and d r o v e i n a manner w h i c h f r i g h t e n e d t h e c h i l d ; i . e . , c h a n g i n g l a n e s , no s i g n a l l i n g o r l a t e s i g n a l l i n g , o r n o t s l o w i n g down. The same b e h a v i o u r i s e x h i b i t e d by d r i v e r s t o w a r d s c y c l i s t s , w h e r e t h e y d o n o t c o n s i d e r t h e r i g h t s and a b i l i t i e s o f t h e c y c l i s t . F o r b o t h

I

- I__- - -

-

g r o u p s , d r i v e r s d o n o t seem t o c o n s i d e r t h e f a c t t h a t c h i l d r e n -

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W i t h r e g a r d t o p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s , i n p a r t i c u l a r , d r i v e r s a r e u s u a l l y n o t s e e n t o b e a t f a u l t . S n y d e r and K n o b l a u c h ' s (1971) p o s t h o c a n a l y s i s o f o v e r 2 , 0 0 0 p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s i n 1 3 U . S . c i t i e s i n 1969-1970 l e a d Brown ( 1 9 8 0 ) t o c o n c l u d e :

" 1 . I t i s s e l d o m t h a t a n y p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t h a s a s i n g l e c a u s e . . . .

2. The more f r e q u e n t l y i d e n t i f i e d f a c t o r s a r e t h o s e w h i c h a s c r i b e c a u s a t i o n t o t h e p e d e s t r i a n ' s b e h a v i o u r .

3. M a r g i n a l l y t h e most f r e q u e n t f a c t o r i n c a u s a t i o n was t h e p e d e s t r i a n ' s p o o r c h o i c e o f a p l a c e o r t ime t o c r o s s t h e r o a d .

4. Of a l m o s t e q u a l i m p o r t a n c e ..... w a s t h e p e d e s t r i a n s f a i l u r e t o s e a r c h and d e t e c t t h e on c o m i n g v e h i c l e .

5. The d r i v e r ' s f a i l u r e t o s e a r c h and d e t e c t t h e c r o s s i n g p e d e s t r i a n w a s a prime f a c t o r i n h i s a c c i d e n t i n v o l v e m e n t . " Brown ( 1 9 8 0 , p.1 3 8 ) .

I

Humphreys & Sobey ( -1978) a l s o t e n d t o a s c r i b e much o f t h e c a u s a t i o n t o t h e p e d e s t r i a n a s a r e s u l t o f t h e o n - s c e n e s t u d i e s c a r r i e d o u t i n S y d n e y N.S.W. They t o o e n d o r s e t h e m u l t i p l e c a u s a t i o n t h e o r y and s u g g e s t a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n ( a ) m a i n c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c . t o r s , ( b ) a g g r a v a t i n g f a c t o r s and ( c ) u n c e r t a i n c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r s . W i t h r e s p e c t t o main c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r s t h e y f o u n d

"The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t n e a r l y all t h e ( a ) f a c t o r s were b e h a v i o u r a l l y o r i e n t e d and t h a t more o f t h e s e f a c t o r s wer'e a t t r i b u t ed t o p e d e s t r i a n s t h e m s e l v e s t h a n t o t h e d r i v e r s / r i d e r s who c o l l i d e d w i t h them." (Humphreys & S o b e y 1 9 7 8 , Summary) .

McLean ( 1 9 7 8 ) i n t h e A d e l a i d e i n - d e p t h a c c i d e n t s t u d y a l s o p o i n t s o u t , i n h i s a n a l y s i s of m i d - b l o c k a c c i d e n t s f o r t h e 9 o f t h e 3 5 i n v o l v e d c h i l d r e n who r a n o u t o n t o t h e r o a d , t h a t :

" I n m o s t o f t h e s e a c c i d e n t s t h e r e w a s v e r y l i t t l e t h a t t h e d r i v e r c o u l d h a v e d o n e t o h a v e a v o i d e d h i t t i n g t h e c h i l d , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h o s e c a s e s i n w h i c h a c h i l d r a n f r o m b e h i n d a p a r k e d v e h i c l e . " (McLean 1978 , p . 4 ) .

McLean s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t a m o t o r i s t s h o u l d k e e p t o t h e l e f t o n a m u l t i - l a n e r o a d may i n c r e a s e t h e r i s k of a c o l l i s i o n w i t h a c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n . The r e c e n t move i n N.S.W. t o c o n s i d e r m a n d a t i n g t h a t m o t o r i s t s m u s t k e e p l e f t or e l s e b e s e r v e d a t r a f f i c i n f r i n g e m e n t n o t i c e c o u l d w e l l p r o v e t o b e c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e a8 f a r as c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s a r e c o n c e r n e d .

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K e n c h i n g t o n , A l d e r s o n & W h i t i n g ( 1 9 7 7 ) , i n t h e i r a n a l y s i s o f 276 c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s r e s u l t i n g i n s l i g h t i n j u r i e s i n W a k e f i e l d and L e e d s i n 1 9 7 2 , f o u n d t h a t 60% o f a c c i d e n t s were c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n a t t e n t i o n on t h e v i c t i m ' s p a r t ; a n d , t h a t i n 70% of a c c i d e n t s t h e c h i l d was h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e a c c i d e n t .

B a r s o n ' s ( 1 9 7 7 ) r e v i e w o n t h e s a f e t y o f c h i l d r e n on A u s t r a l i a n r o a d s , c o n c l u d e s t h a t d r i v e r s d o i n g 6 0 km/hr , or g r e a t e r , w i l l n o t g e n e r a l l y s t o p t o l e t a p e d e s t r i a n a c r o s s t h e r o a d . S h e e h y ( 1 9 8 2 ) r e v e a l s t h a t numerous f a c t o r s i n f l u , e n c e a d r i v e r ' s s t o p p i n g b e h a v i o u r i n c l u d e t i m e o f d a y , w i d t h o f r o a d , t r a f f i c and s p e e d s i g n s , and t h e i r t o l e r a n c e t o p e d e s t r i a n s , i n c l u d i n g t h e p e d e s t r i a n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( s u c h a s model e f f e c t s , s e x and a t t r a c t i v e n e s s , and l e n g t h o f d e l a y ) . Z u e r c h e r ' s ( 1 9 7 6 ) r e s e a r c h s u g g e s t s t h a t d r i v e r s a r e v e r y r e l u c t a n t t o g i v e way t o p e d e s t r i a n s who seem l i k e l y t o c a u s e them a b o v e a v e r a g e d e l a y s . B o t h B a r s o n ' s and Z u e r c h e r ' s r e s e a r c h l e n d a d d e d w e i g h t t o B r i n d l e ' s a r g u m e n t t h a t s a f e r s t r e e t s w i l l r e q u i r e a r e d u c t i o n i n v e h i c l e s p e e d s .

C h i l d p e d e s t r i a n s a r e more l i k e l y t h a n t h e d r i v e r t o t a k e e v a s i v e a c t i o n t o a v o i d a c o l l i s i o n ( H o w a r t h & L i g h t b u r n , 1 9 8 0 ) . Abou t 3 3 % o f d r i v e r s b r a k e b u t o n l y 2 % a l t e r c o u r s e . I f t h e p e d e s t r i a n i s c r o s s i n g t h e r o a d , t h e d r i v e r may s l o w down o n l y i f h e c a n n o t make some o t h e r manoeuvre or t h e g a p i s t o o s m a l l . The a u t h o r s c o n c l u d e d t h a t d r i v e r s d o n o t seem t o t h i n k a h e a d t o a l l o w e n o u g h t i m e t o s t o p .

Howard & R e p e t t o - W r i g h t ( 1 9 7 8 ) a r g u e t h a t t h e p l e a , ' T h e C h i l d r a n h e e d l e s s l y i n t o t h e r o a d a n d t h e r e w a s n o t h i n g I c o u l d d o t o p r e v e n t t h e a c c i d e n t ' is a c u l t u r a l s t e r e o t y p e r a t h e r t h a n a g e n u i n e d e s c r i p t i o n o f w h a t a c t u a l l y h a p p e n s . H o w a r t h & L i g h t b u r n ( 1 9 8 0 ) c l a i m t h a t t h e i r s t u d i e s :

I____

' I . . . . p r o v i d e t h e f i r s t c o n c r e t e e v i d e n c e o f w h a t a c t u a l l y h a p p e n s when v e h i c l e s and p e d e s t r i a n s i n t e r a c t . They c o n f i r m o u r e x p e c t a t i o n s t o a d i s t u r b i n g d e g r e e . The most i m p o r t a n t o b s e r v a t i o n i s t h a t no d r i v e r h a s b e e n s e e n t o a n t i c i p a t e a n a c c i d e n t w i t h a c h i l d u n t i l it is a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y t o o l a t e f o r him t o p r e v e n t i t ." ( H o w a r t h & L i g h t b u r n , 1 9 8 0 , p. 3 7 0 ) .

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Howard & L i g h t b u r n s t u d i e s i n v o l v e d 1 , 1 0 0 i n t e r a c t i o n s i n t h e C i t y and N o t t i n g h a m . T h e i r e v i d e n c e shows t h a t o n c e t h e i n t e r a c t i o n h a s d e v e l o p e d :

'I.... it i s t h e p e d e s t r i a n who i s t h e more l i k e l y t o t a k e some f o r m o f a v o i d i n g a c t i o n s u c h a s s t o p p i n g o r a c c e l e r a t i n g o u t of t h e v e h i c l e ' s p a t h . B u t b e f o r e t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o c c u r s , t h e d i f f e r e n c e i s e v e n more marked . C l e a r l y , d i s t a n t a n t i c i p a t i o n o f p o t e n t i a l a c c i d e n t s i s b e i n g shown b y p e d e s t r i a n s r a t h e r t h a n d r i v e r s . I t i s of c o u r s e t r u e t h a t p e d e s t r i a n s c a n s t o p i n a s h o r t e r d i s t a n c e

I_-__

--- .

t h a n i s r e q u i r e d b y t h e f a s t e r moving c a r . One may s p e c u l a t e t h a t d r i v e r s u s e t h i s a s a n e x c u s e f o r p u t t i n g a l m o s t a l l t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r d i s t a n t a n t i c i p a t i o n o n t o t h e p e d e s t r i a n . L o g i c a l l y ( a n d h u m a n e l y ) i t s h o u l d b e t h e o t h e r way r o u n d . The c a r ' s l o n q e r s t o p p i n g d i s t a n c e s h o u l d c a u s e t h e d r i v e r t o t a k e r e l a t l v e l y more r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for d i s t a n t a n t i c i p a t i o n . D r i v e r s a r e f r e q u e n t l y e x h o r t e d t o t h i n k a h e a d b y a t l e a s t t h e d i s t a n c e i t t a k e s t o s t o p t h e v e h i c l e a t t h e s p e e d t h e y a r e t r a v e l l i n g . W e c a n f i n d n o e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e y d o so.

"In t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i t i s i r o n i c t h a t it i s u s u a l l y t h e c h i l d who i s c o n s i d e r e d h e e d l e s s and i r r e s p o n s i b l e w h e n e v e r a n a c c i d e n t o c c u r s . O u r e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t i t is more l i k e l y t h a t t h e d r i v e r i s t h e i r r e s p o n s i b l e o n e , s i n c e i t i s e x t r e m e l y u n l i k e l y t h a t a c c i d e n t s o c c u r o n l y t o t h e v e r y smal l p r o p o r t i o n o f d r i v e r s who a n t i c i p a t e them." ( H o w a r t h & L i g h t b u r n , 1 9 8 0 , p . 3 6 7 ) .

The G e e l o n g B i k e P l a n S t u d y (1978) f o u n d t h a t c y c l i s t s b e l o w t h e a g e of 17 " i n i t i a t e d " 7 5 % o f t h e a c c i d e n t s t h e y were i n v o l v e d i n .

S h i n a r ( 1 9 7 8 ) , b y a d a p t i n g o f t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h e s t u d y b y S n y d e r & K n o b l a u c h ( 1 9 7 1 ) , s u g g e s t t h a t t h e d r i v e r ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o a c c i d e n t s t a t i s t i c s i s c l e a r l y o n e o f v i s u a l s e a r c h a n d d e t e c t i o n o f c r o s s i n g p e d e s t r i a n s , r a t h e r t h a n f a u l t y d r i v e r a c t i o n s o r e v a l u a t i o n s . A c c o r d i n g t o Brown ( 1 9 8 2 )

". . . t h e t y p i c a l b e h a v i o u r a l m i s m a t c h o c c u r s when a p e d e s t r i a n c r o s s e s i n t h e ' w r o n g ' p l a c e , o r a t t h e ' w r o n g t i m e ' , w i t h o u t l o o k i n g o u t f o r on coming t r a f f i c and t h e n c o l l i d e s w i t h a d r i v e r who sees t h e p e d e s t r i a n t o o l a t e t o t a k e e f f e c t i v e a v o i d i n g a c t i o n . " (Brown 1982 , p .138-139) .

The q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r or n o t d r i v e r s see t h e p e d e s t r i a n i s a d i f f i c u l t o n e . L i t t l e d a t a seems t o e x i s t o t h e r t h a n S a n d e l s ( 1 9 7 1 ) s t u d y of p e d e s t r i a n c r o s s i n g s . The S h i n a r ( 1 9 7 8 ) s t u d y s u g g e s t s t h a t d r i v e r s d o s ee p e d e s t r i a n s b u t too l a t e t o t a k e a c t i o n . B u t a r e most p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s u n a v o i d a b l e d a r t - o u t s ?

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Brown a r g u e s t h a t t h e r e a l q u e s t i o n i s 'why ' d o t h e d r i v e r ' s s e a r c h and d e t e c t i o n p r o c e s s e s s o commonly f a i l t o p r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t a d v a n c e i n f o r m a t i o n . A c c o r d i n g t o B r o w n

". . . . t h e p o t e n t i a l h a z a r d p r e s e n t e d by p e d e s t r i a n s i s w e l l - k n o w n by m o s t d r i v e r s and t r a f f i c r u l e s and c o n v e n t i o n s o b l i g e them t o t r a v e l a t a s p e e d w h i c h a l l o w s them t o s t o p s a f e l y ' w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f v i s i b i l i t y ' . C l e a r l y many d r i v e r s a r e n o t c o m p l y i n g w i t h t h i s b a s i c r e q u i r e m e n t of r o a d s a f e t y . " (Brown 1 9 8 2 , p . 1 3 9 ) .

E a r l i e r , Brown ( 1 9 8 0 ) s u g g e s t e d t h a t d r i v e r s a d j u s t t h e i r s p e e d s a c c o r d i n g t o b o t h t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n s of h a z a r d s and t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s of h a z a r d s . D r i v e r s e x p e c t h a z a r d s a t i n t e r s e c t i o n s and t h i s may h e l p e x p l a i n t h e f i n d i n g t h a t c h i l d r e n a r e more a t r i s k c r o s s i n g away f rom i n t e r s e c t i o n s t h a n a t i n t e r s e c t i o n s ( R o u t l e d g e e t . a l . ( 1 9 7 4 ) ; S a n d e l s S k a n d i a R e p o r t I1 ( 1 9 7 4 1 , p . 1 2 ; SWOV ( 1 9 7 7 ) , p .12 . D r i v e r s e x p e c t c h i l d r e n t o c ros s a t i n t e r s e c t i o n s and may b e h a v e more c a u t i o u s l y a t i n t e r s e c t i o n s t h a n t h e y d o m i d - b l o c k .

The i m p o r t a n c e o f d r i v e r e x p e c t a t i o n may a l s o h e l p t o e x p l a i n why c o n t r a r y t o B a r s o n ( 1 9 7 7 ) c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s seem t o p e a k a t 5-6 p.m. r a t h e r t h a n d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d s when c h i l d r e n a r e q o i n q t o and f r o m s c h o o l ( K r u s e and N i e l s o n ( 1 9 8 0 ) ; S.W.O.V. ( 1 9 7 7 ) . Is t h i s a f u n c t i o n of e x p o s u r e or i s i t d u e t o d r i v e r ' s g r e a t e r e x p e c t a n c y of young p e d e s t r i a n s c r o s s i n g t h e r o a d j u s t b e f o r e o r a f t e r s c h o o l ?

Brown ( 1 9 8 0 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t much more r e s e a r c h i s n e e d e d i n t o t h e d r i v e r ' s d i f f i c u l t y i n p e r c e i v i n g and i n t e r p r e t i n g c h i l d ped e s t r i a n s ' e s pe c i a 11 y w i t h young d r i v e r s . O l d e r and G r a y s o n ( 1 9 7 4 ) i d e n t i f i e d t h i s a s a major a r e a t e n y e a r s a g o , b u t l i t t l e seems t o h a v e emerged t o d a t e .

I_

pr e -c r o s s i n q b e h a v i o u r

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C h i l d r e n a r e n o d o u b t a p r o b l e m , b u t young d r i v e r s a r e a n e v e n g r e a t e r p rob lem. A d u l t s t o o a r e a p rob lem. C a m i l l e r ( 1 9 8 3 ) , i n d e f e n s e of t h e E s s e n d o n T r a f f i c S c h o o l , p o i n t e d o u t :

" I n my own e v a l u a t i o n of a d u l t p e r f o r m a n c e on V i c t o r i a n r o a d s and a t t h e t r a f f i c s c h o o l , my o b s e r v a t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t i s t i c s :

Over 90% o f d r i v e r s d o n o t s t o p a t STOP s i q n s if t h e r e i s no need t o g i v e way. A l m o s t 90% of d r i v e r s c o n t i n u e o v e r s t o p l i n e s a t t r a f f i c l i g h t s . A l m o s t 8 0 % o f a d u l t s d i s o b e y amber t r a f f i c l i g h t s a s d r i v e r s and p e d e s t r i a n s . A l m o s t 9 5 % o f a d u l t s f a i l t o l o o k p r o p e r l y b e f o r e c r o s s i n g a t t r a f f i c l i g h t s . The m a j o r i t y o f a d u l t s ' t a k e ' r i g h t - o f - w a y r a t h e r t h a n ' a c c e p t ' i t . A l m o s t a l l a d u l t s f a i l t o t e a c h t h e i r c h i l d r e n s a f e r o a d u s e c o r r e c t l y .

Our p r o b l e m s t h e r e f o r e a r e enormous . The p r o b l e m s a r e a d u l t s . A d u l t s a r e a p a t h e t i c . A d u l t s a r e u n a w a r e o f t h e i r i g n o r a n c e s . A d u l t s p e r p e t r a t e t h e d a n g e r s , s e t t h e s t a n d a r d s and b l a m e o t h e r s . They t e a c h o u r c h i l d r e n . A d u l t s a r e t h e c a u s e o f r o a d t r a u m a ! Y e t a d u l t s i n g e n e r a l a r e l o v i n g , c a r i n g w e l l i n t e n t i o n e d p a r e n t s and t e a c h e r s . The p r o b l e m i s n o t i n s u r m o u n t a b l e i f w e see i t i n p e r s p e c t i v e and a r e w i l l i n g t o a c c e p t t h e c h a l l e n g e . " ( C a m i l l e r , 1 9 8 3 ) .

C a m i l l e r a r g u e s t h a t t r y i n g t o e d u c a t e t h e young 1 7 y e a r o l d d r i v e r i s a l l too l a t e , s i n c e f rom c h i l d h o o d h e o r s h e h a s b e e n e x p o s e d t o a d u l t s m o d e l l i n g t h e v e r y b e h a v i o u r a u t h o r i t i e s a r e s e e k i n g t o e r a d i c a t e .

H e n d e r s o n ( 1 9 7 1 ) , p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e t e e n a g e d r i v e r i s n o t o n l y l e a r n i n g t o manage h i s c a r h e i s a l s o l e a r n i n g t o manage h i s r a p i d l y i n c r e a s i n g s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s , h i s d r i n k i n g h a b i t s , and v a r i o u s peer g r o u p p r e s s u r e s .

F o l d v a r y and L a n e ( 1 9 6 9 ) o b s e r v e d t h a t f o r a l l g r o u p s b a r o n e , t h e r i s k of c r a s h i n g i s g r e a t e s t when t h e d r i v e r i s a l o n e , b u t f o r t e e n a g e r s , t h e a c c i d e n t r i s k i s h i g h e s t when t h e r e a r e t w o p a s s e n g e r s r i d i n g i n t h e c a r . A c c o r d i n g t o H e n d e r s o n ( 1 9 7 1 ) , a m a l g a m a t i o n o f a l l F o l d v a r y ' s f i n d i n g s i n d i c a t e t h a t young d r i v e r s d o n o t compare so b a d l y w i t h t h e r e s t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n when t h e y a r e d r i v i n g a l o n e , d u r i n g d a y l i g h t h o u r s , o n a week d a y . However , t h e r e is l i t t l e d a t a t o b a c k u p t h i s h y p o t h e s i s and some d a t a t o r e f u t e it; e.g. , A n d r e a s s o n ( 1 9 6 6 ) .

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Is t h e p r o b l e m o n e of a g e or e x p e r i e n c e ? The a n s w e r i s p r o b a b l y b o t h . McFar l and ( 1 9 7 8 ) c i t e d a G e r m a n s t u d y i n w h i c h i t w a s found t h a t a c c i d e n t s w e r e more f r e q u e n t d u r i n q t h e f i r s t 3 or 4 y e a r s o f d r i v i n g , r e g a r d l e s s of t h e a g e a t w h i c h d r i v i n g w a s f i r s t u n d e r t a k e n . The r e a l i t y , i n A u s t r a l i a , is t h a t a s i z e a b l e p r o p o r t i o n of " n o v i c e " d r i v e r s a r e t e e n a g e r s and v i c e - v e r s a . I t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t h a t males a r e more l i k e l y t h a n f e m a l e s t o b e n o v i c e d r i v e r s w h i l s t s t i l l a t e e n a g e r .

A r e young d r i v e r s more e x p o s e d ? The a n s w e r c l e a r l y d e p e n d s o n t h e c r i t e r i a u s e d . F o l d v a r y ( 1 9681 , u n e q u i v o c a l l y r e v e a l e d , f o r Q u e e n s l a n d i n 1 9 6 1 , t h a t young d r i v e r s ( u n d e r 2 0 ) on a v e r a g e h a v e much l o w e r w e e k l y m i l e a g e s t h a n a l l o t h e r age g r o u p s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e i n c i d e n c e o f d r i v e r s u n d e r 2 0 w a s v e r y s m a l l i n c o m p a r i s o n t o t h e n e x t a g e g r o u p ( 2 0 - 2 9 ) a s i t u a t i o n w h i c h may w e l l h a v e c h a n g e d i n t h e l a s t 2 3 y e a r s .

I t i s n o t u n r e a s o n a b l e t o p r e d i c t t h a t n o v i c e d r i v e r s a r e more l i k e l y t o b e i n v o l v e d i n p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s . They a r e l i k e l y t o h a v e c e r t a i n i n a p p r o p r i a t e e x p e c t a n c i e s (Brown , 1 9 8 2 ) s i n c e e x p e r i e n c e i s , b y d e f i n i t i o n , t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of p e r c e p t u a l a n t i c i pa t i o n .

P e l z & Schuman ( 1 9 6 9 ) c a r r i e d o u t a n a n a l y s i s of young U.S.A. ma le d r i v e r s i n a n a t t e m p t t o e s t a b l i s h why t h e y a r e i n v o l v e d i n more a c c i d e n t s and v i o l a t i o n s t h a n men i n t h e i r 4 0 ' s . The b a s i c q u e s t i o n i s w h e t h e r t h e p r o b l e m is o n e of i n e x p e r i e n c e or r e c k l e s s n e s s v e r s u s g r e a t e r m i l e a g e and more e x p o s u r e . I n s u p p o r t o f F o l d v a r y ' s d a t a , t h e y f o u n d t h a t young m a l e d r i v e r s d o h a v e s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r a n n u a l m i l e a g e d r i v e n . However , t h e r e s u l t s d o d i f f e r f rom F o l d v a r y i n d e g r e e . F o r F o l d v a r y , t h e u n d e r 2 0 had a low m i l e a g e b u t for P e l z & Schuman t h e mi leage r a t e per annum i n c r e a s e s s u b s t a n t i a l l y f o r e a c h y e a r o f a g e u p t o a g e 20 w h e r e i t p l a t e a u x . T h u s , a t a g e 1 6 it w a s 4 , 0 0 0 miles , b y a g e s 2 0 i t w a s 1 4 , 0 0 0 m i l e s . A c c o r d i n g l y , P e l z & Schuman took a c c o u n t of t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e 1 6 - 2 0 a g e g r o u p . A s a r e s u l t , t h e y c o n c l u d e d t h a t w h i l s t m o s t o f t h e sample b e g a n d r i v i n g a t a g e 1 6 , d u r i n g t h e f i r s t y e a r or t w o a f t e r r e c e i v i n g a l i c e n c e t h e y were d r i v i n g more c a u t i o u s l y and were n o t as r e c k l e s s a s m a l e s 16-20 who had b e e n d r i v i n g f o r 2 o r more y e a r s .

I n a l a t e r s t u d y , P e l z & Schuman ( 1 9 7 1 ) f o u n d t h a t , f o r young men and young women, t h o s e w i t h r e l a t i v e l y h i g h e r mi leages had more c r a s h e s t h a n a v e r a g e , and r e c e i v e d more t i c k e t s and w a r n i n g s . Men and women who d r o v e a f t e r m i d n i g h t had more v i o l a t i o n s t h a n a v e r a g e , and women who d r o v e a t n i g h t a l s o had more a c c i d e n t s .

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I t appears t h a t y o u n g e r d r i v e r s a r e i n v o l v e d i n many p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s . S a n d e l s ( S k a n d i a R e p o r t XI, 1 9 7 4 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t 18 -22 y e a r o l d d r i v e r s were i n v o l v e d i n more a c c i d e n t s c o n c e r n i n g c h i l d r e n u n d e r 1 0 y e a r s o f a g e . Younger d r i v e r s were i n v o l v e d i n p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y more s p e e d i n g , showed more f a u l t y m a n o e u v r i n g , and p a n i c r e a c t i o n s . S h e f e l t t h a t t h i s was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i r l a c k o f m a t u r i t y , s e l f - c e n t r e d n e s s and u n r e a l i s t i c e x p e c t a t i o n s o f c h i l d r e n . A more r e c e n t SWOV S w e d i s h r e p o r t ( 1 9 7 7 ) c o n f i r m s S a n d e l s e a r l i e r f i n d i n g s .

K a r p f and W i l l i a m s ( 1 9 8 2 ) p o i n t o u t t h a t , i n t h e U . 5 . A . i n 1 9 7 8 , t h e r e were a l m o s t e q u a l numbers o f t e e n a g e ( 1 6 - 1 9 ) p a s s e n g e r and d r i v e r d e a t h s i n p a s s e n g e r v e h i c l e s .

I n a more r e c e n t U . S . A . s t u d y , W i l l i a m s & K a r p f ( 1 9 8 3 ) f o u n d t h a t male d r i v e r s , b e t w e e n 16 -19 , had t h e h i g h e s t p e r c a p i t a d e a t h r a t e ; t h i s w a s f o l l o w e d b y m a l e p a s s e n g e r s , f e m a l e p a s s e n g e r s , t h e n f e m a l e d r i v e r s . The r a t e s d e c l i n e d a f t e r 1 9 y e a r s o f a g e f o r males, and 1 8 f o r f e m a l e s . F o r 1 3 - y e a r o l d s , h a l f o f t h e f a t a l i t i e s were p a s s e n g e r s o f a t e e n a g e d r i v e r . T e e n a g e d r i v e r s a c c o u n t e d f o r 6 3 % o f f a t a l i t i e s f o r t h e 13 -19 a g e g r o u p ( 6 7 % f o r m a l e s ; 58% f o r f e m a l e s ) ; a n d t h e m o s t l e t h a l c o m b i n a t i o n b e i n g m a l e d r i v e r a n d male p a s s e n g e r . T h i s p a t t e r n a l s o h e l d f o r i n j u r i e s . D e a t h f o r t h i s g r o u p m a i n l y o c c u r r e d b e t w e e n 9 .00 p.m. and 6 . 0 0 a.m., e s p e c i a l l y o n F r i d a y and S a t u r d a y n i g h t s , when v e h i c l e s wou ld b e u s e d f o r r e c r e a t i o n a l p u r p o s e s , and t h e f a t a l i t i e s show a h i g h e r i n c i d e n c e o f males o v e r f e m a l e s .

K a r p f and W i l l i a m s ( 1 9 8 2 ) had e a r l i e r s u g g e s t e d t h a t o n e o f t h e ways of r e d u c i n g t e e n a g e d e a t h s i s t o r e d u c e e x p o s u r e b y :

- r a i s i n g t h e minimum a g e o f l i c e n s i n g t o 1 7 o r 18; - e l i m i n a t i n g h i g h s c h o o l d r i v e r e d u c a t i o n w h i c h r e s u l t ' s i n more t e e n a g e d r i v e r s b u t n o t i n f e w e r c r a s h e s ; - p r o h i b i t 1 6 a n d 1 7 y e a r o l d s f r o m d r i v i n g d u r i n g l a t e e v e n i n g / e a r l y m o r n i n g h o u r s .

K a r p f ' s and W i l l i a m ' s s u g g e s t i o n s a r e i n n e e d o f c a r e f u l e v a l u a t i o n . The e s s e n t i a l p o i n t i s , t h a t a r e d u c t i o n i n t e e n a g e r d r i v e r a c c i d e n t s w i l l h a v e a s i z e a b l e e f f e c t o n t e e n a g e o c c u p a n t d e a t h s a n d i n j u r i e s . T h e s a m e f i n d i n g h o l d s __I f o r A u s t r a l i a ( s e e s e c t i o n 8 . 4 4 f o r a s i m i l a r a n a l y s i s t o K a r p f 6 W i l l i a m s f o r A u s t r a l i a ) .

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W i l l i a m s and K a r p f ( 1 9 8 3 ) s u g g e s t t h a t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s h o u l d b e g i v e n t o p r o h i b i t i n g t e e n a g e d r i v e r s f r o m t r a n s p o r t i n g t e e n a g e p a s s e n g e r s , who a c c o u n t f o r a b o u t t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f t h e p a s s e n g e r s f a t a l l y i n j u r e d i n t h e i r v e h i c l e s . They p o i n t o u t t h a t t e e n a g e d r i v e r s a r e a m a j o r s o u r c e of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f o r t e e n a g e p a s s e n g e r s . A n a l y s i s o f a c c i d e n t s b y F o l d v a r y and L a n e ( 1 9 6 9 ) s u g g e s t t h a t t h e p r e s e n c e of t e e n a g e p a s s e n g e r s , e s p e c i a l l y i n l a r g e n u m b e r s , i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n c r e a s e d c r a s h r i s k f o r t e e n a g e d r i v e r s . W i l l i a m s and Karp f ( 1 9 8 3 ) a l s o a r g u e t h a t t e e n a g e r s s h o u l d n o t b e a l l o w e d t o t r a n s p o r t o t h e r t e e n s a t n i g h t - t i m e . P r o p o n e n t s o f g r a d u a t e d l i c e n s i n g s c h e m e s c o u l d w e l l heed t h e a d v i c e o f W i l l i a m s and K a r p f and some s u g g e s t i o n s f r o m t e n y e a r s e a r l i e r b y G o l d s t e i n , K l e i n & S c h u s t e r ( 1 9 7 1 ) :

" S i n c e a few y e a r s beyond f o r m a l i n s t r u c t i o n a p p e a r t o b e n e c e s s a r y f o r d e v e l o p m e n t o f d e p e n d a b l e c o m p e t e n c e , a n e x t e n d e d p e r i o d of s u p e r v i s i o n a f t e r l i c e n s i n g seems e m i n e n t l y d e s i r a b l e " ( G o l d s t e i n e t . al., 1 9 7 1 , p . 9 3 ) .

Ruch , S t o c k h o u s e and A l b r i g h t ( 1 9 7 0 ) f o u n d , i n 25% o f t h e r e p o r t e d a c c i d e n t c a s e s i n t h e i r ma le c o l l e g e s t u d e n t q u e s t i o n n a i r e , t h a t ' d i s t r a c t i o n s ' ( i n c l u d i n g c o n v e r s a t i o n ) were c i t e d a s t h e c a u s a t i v e f a c t o r ( a c a u s e s e l d o m m e n t i o n e d a t t h e s c e n e o f a n a c c i d e n t ) .

D r i v e r f a u l t i s c l e a r l y a s i g n i f i c a n t c a u s e o f d e a t h s and i n j u r i e s f o r c h i l d o c c u p a n t a c c i d e n t s . However , i t would a p p e a r t h a t f o r c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n and p e d a l c y c l e a c c i d e n t s t h e i n c i d e n c e o f d r i v e r f a u l t i s much lower . J a r v i s ( 1 9 7 8 ) i n a n a n a l y s i s of S o u t h A u s t r a l i a d a t a b e t w e e n 1975-76 f o r p e d e s t r i a n ( a l l a g e s ) movement s u g g e s t s t h a t :

--____II-~

- --I--_

" P e d e s t r i a n s i n v o l v e d i n t h e a b o v e a c c i d e n t s w e r e i n some way r e s p o n s i b l e f o r 7 5 % o f cases . T h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y v a r i e d , o f c o u r s e , f r o m a p p r o x i m a t e l y 90% w h i l e c r o s s i n g a t u n c o n t r o l l e d s i t e s t o o n l y 1 5 % o n D e d e s t r i a n c r o s s i n a s and - >

no r e s w n s i b i l i t y f o r t h o s e s t r u c k o n t h e f o o t p a t h . " ( J a r v i s , 1 9 7 8 , p . 7 . )

J a r v i s ' c o n c l u s i o n i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t a r r i v e d a t i n t h e UK s t u d i e s b y B l a i r ( 1 9 6 9 ) . W i t h r e g a r d t o r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r c h i l d i n v o l v e d a c c i d e n t s , J a r v i s ( 1 9 8 3 ) u s i n g t h e same d a t a , c o n c l u d e s t h a t c h i l d r e n u n d e r 7 a r e r e s p o n s i h l e f o r o v e r 90% o f a c c i d e n t s a s p e d e s t r i a n s o r c y c l i s t s . S c h o o l a g e d c h i l d r e n a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l m o s t 8 0 % of t h e p e d e s t r i a n c a s u a l t y a c c i d e n t s t h e y a r e i n v o l v e d i n and 6 6 % of c y c l e a c c i d e n t s .

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Brown (1982) i n a r e v i e w o f D r i v e r B e h a v i o u r f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d i n p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s c o n c l u d e d

" T h i s r e v i e w and o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s h a v e i d e n t i f i e d t h e y o u n g e r n o v i c e d r i v e r a s a p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m , e s p e c i a l l y i n i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n s " (Brown , 1982, p . 1 6 4 ) .

The same r e v i e w b y Brown, l e a d s t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t d r i v e r t r a i n i n g s h o u l d n ' t i n v o l v e j u s t r o a d r u l e s and s k i l l s b u t t h e n e e d f o r " r o a d c r a f t " s k i l l s :

" .... ' r o a d c r a f t ' n e e d s t o b e t a u g h t i n a s t r u c t u r e d f a s h i o n , so t h a t n o v i c e d r i v e r s d o n o t d e v e l o p a m i s p l a c e d c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e i r v e h i c l e c o n t r o l s k i l l s and t h u s p l a c e i n a p p r o p r i a t e demands o n t h e i r l i m i t e d d e c i s i o n making a b i l i t i e s i n t r a f f i c . T h i s i s l a r g e l y a q u e s t i o n o f i n t e r l e a v i n g ' r o a d c r a f t ' e d u c a t i o n w i t h t h e t e a c h i n g of c o n t r o l s k i l l s . . E f f e c t i v e l y , i t w i l l i n v o l v e t r a i n i n g i n h a z a r d p e r c e p t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n of r o a d u s e r b e h a v i o u r i n t o t h e i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s e d b y t h e d r i v e r . I n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e l i m i t e d p a y - o f f s l i k e l y t o a c c r u e f r o m e x c e s s i v e s p e e d and t h e c o s t s o f s u c h b e h a v i o u r i n t h e t r a f f i c s y s t e m , a r e a l s o l i k e l y t o b e i n f o r m a t i v e and e f f e c t i v e i n i m p r o v i n g t h e n o v i c e d r i v e r ' s d e c i s i o n s k i l l s . " (Brown , 1982, p.164)

H e n d e r s o n (1971 & 1972) had e a r l i e r s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e r e i s no h a r d e v i d e n c e t h a t t e a c h i n g d r i v i n g s k i l l s l o w e r s c r a s h r a t e s . T h e r e appears t o b e a l a c k o f e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h t o r e f u t e

-- _ _ H e n d e r s o n ' s t h e s i s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e c a l l f o r d r i v e r t r a i n i n g i s e v e r p r e s e n t ; e . g . , O . E . C . D . (1983).

" D r i v e r s and e s p e c i a l l y new d r i v e r s s h o u l d b e made aware o f t h e c h i l d ' s c a p a b i l i t i e s and l i m i t a t i o n s i n t h e c o u r s e o f d r i v e r i n s t r u c t i o n , e d u c a t i o n and l i c e n s i n g p r o g r a m s and t h r o u g h o t h e r a p p r o p r i a t e means o f i n f o r m a t i o n . I n p a r t i c u l a r , a v e h i c l e d r i v e r m u s t f u l l y u n d e r s t a n d t h a t o n e c a n n o t e x p e c t a c h i l d t o b e h a v e i n a s a f e manner . T h e r e f o r e t h e d r i v e r s h o u l d a n t i c i p a t e t h e c h i l d ' s r e a c t i o n by r e d u c i n g h i s s p e e d and b e i n g p r e p a r e d t o b r a k e . " ( O E C D , 1983, p.85).

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3.4 Summary o f E n v i r o n m e n t a l F a c t o r s

C h i l d r e n a r e more l i k e l y t o b e i n v o l v e d i n r o a d a c c i d e n t s d u r i n g d a y l i g h t h o u r s and m o s t l y i n t h e a f t e r n o o n . T h e r e i s s u b s t a n t i a l e v i d e n c e i n A u s t r a l i a , and o v e r s e a s , t h a t p e d e s t r i a n s a n d p e d a l c y c l i s t s a r e m o s t a t r i s k mid t o l a t e a f t e r n o o n a f t e r s c h o o l . The r i s k i n c r e a s e s a s t h e a f t e r n o o n e n t e r s e a r l y e v e n i n g f o r o l d e r c h i l d r e n . D u r i n g t h e w e e k d a y s , t h e two h o u r s i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g s c h o o l a r e t h e m o s t d a n g e r o u s . Of a w e e k e n d , t h e p e a k i s s t i l l e a r l y a f t e r n o o n b u t i t i s n o t so marked . A c c o r d i n g t o h o s p i t a l r e c o r d s , b i c y c l e a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g h o s p i t a l t r e a t m e n t a r e more l i k e l y t o o c c u r o f a weekend ( a f t e r n o o n ) t h a n on w e e kda y s . W h i l s t s c h o o l i s c l e a r l y r e l a t e d t o p e d e s t r i a n and p e d a l c y c l e a c c i d e n t s , i t m u s t b e n o t e d t h a t many c h i l d r e n i n v o l v e d a s p e d e s t r i a n c a s u a l t i e s i n t h e a f t e r n o o n p e a k had b e e n home or t o a f r i e n d ' s p l a c e b e f o r e t h e a c c i d e n t . F r e q u e n t l y , o t h e r c h i l d r e n a r e p r e s e n t w h e n t h e a c c i d e n t o c c u r s .

W i t h r e s p e c t t o p e d a l c y c l e a c c i d e n t s , c h a n g i n g d i r e c t i o n i s t h e m a j o r p r o b l e m . A c c i d e n t s i n v o l v e r i g h t a n g l e c o l l i s i o n s a t i n t e r s e c t i o n s a n d u n p r e d i c t a b l e b e h a v i o u r . The most d a n g e r o u s m a n o e u v r e s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n t e r s e c t i o n s , e i t h e r t u r n i n g r i g h t f r o m l e f t to c e n t r e l a n e or t r a v e l l i n g a c r o s s a n i n t e r s e c t i o n i n t h e l e f t hand l a n e .

L o c a l r e s i d e n t i a l or n e i g h b o r h o o d s t r e e t s a c c o u n t f o r a l a r , g e number o f c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t s . T h e s e a c c i d e n t s d o n o t o n l y i n v o l v e i n t e r s e c t i o n s b u t a l s o o c c u r m i d - b l o c k .

I n many i n s t a n c e s d r i v e r s see p e d e s t r i a n s and p e d a l c y c l i s t s w e l l b e f o r e t h e a c c i d e n t . The e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t more b l a m e f o r c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t s s h o u l d b e a t t r i b u t e d t o d r i v e r s t h a n i s c u r r e n t l y t h e c a s e s i n c e p e d e s t r i a n s , i n p a r t i c u l a r , a r e more l i k e l y t o t a k e e v a s i v e a c t i o n t h a n d r i v e r s . D r i v e r s a r e r e t i c e n t t o s l o w down, o r s t o p , e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e y a r e d r i v i n g a t 60 kph or g r e a t e r s p e e d s .

Young or n o v i c e d r i v e r s a p p e a r t o b e o v e r - i n v o l v e d i n a c c i d e n t s i n wh ich c h i l d r e n a r e c a s u a l t i e s . T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e f o r v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s , and a l s o t o a l e s s e r d e g r e e , f o r p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s .

-_II __I

~- ___

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4.0 IU-DEPTH ANALYSIS OF ACCIDENT RECORDS -_ ACROSS THREE STATES

4.1 The M e t h o d o l o g y 4.11 The I d i o g r a p h i c A p p r o a c h 4.12 T h e D a t a B a s e 4.13 I n t e r r o g a t i o n of Mass D a t a Bases 4.14 The P r a c t i c a l P r o b l e m s i n P o s t Hoc I n - D e p t h S t u d y .

4.2 A n a l y s i s of 342 I n d i v i d u a l C a s e R e c o r d s (N=350 C h i l d r e n ) 4.21 A C a v e a t 4.22 M e t h o d o l o g y 4.23 A n a l y s i s b y Road U s e r C a t e g o r y - Main C o n t r i b u t i n g

F a c t o r 4.24 A n a l y s i s b y Age and Road U s e r C a t e g o r y - M a i n

C o n t r i b u t i n g F a c t o r 4.25 A n a l y s i s of A c c i d e n t R e c o r d s - M u l t i p l e C a u s a t i o n 4.26 Summary of S c e n a r i o A n a l y s e s

4.31 ' A l l C h i l d A c c i d e n t s - A l l Road Users 4.32 V e h i c l e P a s s e n g e r s 4.33 P e d e s t r i a n s 4.34 P e d a l C y c l i s t s 4.35 Motor C y c l e and P i l l i o n P a s s e n g e r s 4.36 Summary of Mass D a t a A n a l y s i s

4.3 A n a l y s i s of Mass D a t a B a s e s

T h i s s e c t i o n of t h e r e p o r t b e g i n s w i t h a n o u t l i n e of t h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h employed i n o b t a i n i n g and a n a l y s i n g d a t a p e r t a i n i n g t o r o a d c r a s h e s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n f o r t h e y e a r s o f 1981 and 1982 i n N.S.W., V i c t o r i a and Q u e e n s l a n d . 342 a c c i d e n t r e c o r d s were examined i n - d e p t h , i n v o l v i n g 350 c h i l d c a s u a l t i e s . The a n a l y s i s of t h e r e c o r d s l e a d t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a c c i d e n t s c e n a r i o s u s i n g p r i m a r i l y t h e m a i n c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r . M u l t i p l e c a u s a t i o n w a s a l s o e x a m i n e d . The s c e n a r i o s v a r i e d b y r o a d u s e r t y p e and b y age o f t h e c h i l d . The r e m a i n d e r of t h e c h a p t e r i s d e v o t e d t o a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e mass d a t a s y s t e m s f o r c h i l d c a s u a l t i e s i n N.S.W. and V i c t o r i a f o r 1981 and 1982. The d a t a u s e d i n t h e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s e s i n v o l v e d g e n e r a l r o a d u s e r a n a l y s e s a s w e l l a s some of t h e s p e c i f i c s c e n a r i o g r o u p s . A d d i t i o n a l l y w h e r e a p p l i c a b l e , t h e 1981 DOT F a t a l F i l e p r o v i d e d N a t i o n a l d a t a o n c h i l d r o a d d e a t h s .

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4 . 1 The M e t h o d o l o g y

4 . 1 1 T h e I d i o g r a p h i c A p p r o a c h

A s a g e n e r a l r u l e , m o s t p u b l i s h e d s t u d i e s d e a l i n g w i t h t h e a n a l y s i s of r o a d c r a s h e s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n r e l y on t h e a n a l y s i s o f s t a t i s t i c s ; i . e . t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n o f d a t a b a s e s . The a p p r o a c h i s n o r m a l l y n o m o t h e t i c . The d a t a i s n u m e r i c a l w i t h t h e a n a l y s i s i n v o l v i n g c r o s s - t a b u l a t i o n s ( c o r r e l a t i o n a l ) .

A k e y a s p e c t of t h e s t u d y r e p o r t e d i n t h i s vo lume i s i t ' s i d i o g r a p h i c n a t u r e w h e r e t h e d a t a b a s e i s i n d i v i d u a l c a s e r e c o r d s . W h i l s t t h e s e a r c h p r o c e s s i s s i m i l a r t o t h e n o r m a l n o m o t h e t i c s t u d i e s , t h e u n i t o f s t u d y i s t h e i n d i v i d u a l r e c o r d , n o t a g g r e g a t e d d a t a o r n u m e r i c a l c o u n t s . N u m e r i c a l c o u n t s a r e i m p o r t a n t t o t h e i d i o g r a p h i c p r o c e s s b u t a r e n o t t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t .

The d i c t u m ' c o r r e l a t i o n i s n o t c a u s a t i o n ' i s e v e r so r e l e v a n t i n t h e s e a r c h f o r c a u s a t i v e f a c t o r s i n c h i l d r o a d d e a t h s or i n j u r i e s . Most r e s e a r c h e r s r e c o g n i s e t h a t t h e i d e a l way t o s e e k o u t c a u s a l f a c t o r s i s t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e a c c i d e n t . I n r e a l i t y , t h i s i s r a r e l y e v e r p o s s i b l e . The j u d i c i a l and e n f o r c e m e n t s y s t e m a t t e m p t t o p i e c e t o g e t h e r t h e e v e n t s as a c c u r a t e l y as human ly p o s s i b l e , f r e q u e n t l y w i t h a m o t i v e o f a t t r i b u t i n g f a u l t o r b l a m e . A c c o r d i n g l y , o n e means o f a t t e m p t i n g t o g a i n a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h o s e f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o c h i l d r o a d c r a s h e s i s t o u t i l i s e t h e e x i s t i n g d e t a i l e d r e c o r d e d r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e e v e n t s wh ich t o o k p l a c e . Where a c h i l d r o a d d e a t h o c c u r s t h e r e i s u s u a l l y c o n s i d e r a b l y more d e t a i l a v a i l a b l e r e l a t i n g t o t h e ' e v e n t s ' u p t o and i n c l u d i n g t h e t i m e o f t h e a c c i d e n t . T h u s , t h e s t u d y of c a u s a l f a c t o r s i s b e s t c o n c e n t r a t e d on a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g a d e a t h r a t h e r t h a n a n i n j u r y .

4 . 1 2 The D a t a Base

The d a t a p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n o f t h e r e p o r t s u m m a r i s e s a n a n a l y s i s of 3 4 2 a c c i d e n t r e c o r d s i n v o l v i n g 3 5 0 c h i l d r e n u n d e r 1 7 y e a r s of age i n 1 9 8 1 and 1 9 8 2 i n N . S . W . , V i c t o r i a and Q u e e n s l a n d . Most ( 2 9 7 ) o f t h e 3 4 2 r e c o r d s i n v o l v e d a c h i l d f a t a l i t y . The e m p h a s i s o n ' f a t a l s ' o c c u r r e d b e c a u s e t h e d a t a b a s e was much r i c h e r i n t h e s e c a s e s t h a n i n t h e ca se o f t h e i n j u r e d c h i l d r e n .

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EXAMINE N.S.W. NON METRO RECORDS 1 9 0 2 NON FATALS (HOSPITALISZD & INJURED NON PASSENGERS AS CHECK AGAINST METRO FATALS NON PASSENGER a ) L I S T E D 6 8 6 b ) GENERATE S T R A T I F I E D

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F i g u r e C d e t a i l s t h e p r o c e d u r e s employed i n g a i n i n g and a n a l y s i n g t h e d a t a u s e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r . I n i t i a l l y a c o m p u t e r r u n o f N.S.W. M e t r o c h i l d r o a d d e a t h a c c i d e n t r e c o r d numbers w a s g e n e r a t e d . I n N.S.W. and V i c t o r i a i t was a l l m e t r o c h i l d d e a t h s , and i n Q u e e n s l a n d a l l c h i l d r o a d d e a t h s . An a t t e m p t was made t o r e a d e v e r y case f i l e r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e . A p a r t f r o m Q u e e n s l a n d , n o n - m e t r o f i l e s w e r e n o t r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e . The P o l i c e A c c i d e n t r e p o r t s were s o u r c e d and c a r e f u l l y s c r u t i n i s e d . The C o r o n i a 1 R e c o r d s were t h e n r e a d i n d e t a i l i n c l u d i n g , w h e r e a v a i l a b l e , o r i g i n a l r epo r t of w i t n e s s e s , w i t n e s s e s ' d e p o s i t i o n s , t r a n s c r i p t s o f C o r o n e r s ' C o u r t , p a t h o l o g y r e p o r t s , summary o f h o s p i t a l r e c o r d s , and t h e o r i g i n a l p o l i c e a c c i d e n t r e p o r t .

I n t h e o r y , a random sample would h a v e b e e n d e s i r a b l e , o r b e t t e r s t i l l , a c e n s u s . However , i t i s n o t a l w a y s p r a c t i c a l t o e a s i l y g a i n a c c e s s t o t h e r e c o r d s b e c a u s e some a r e l o s t , o r f i l e d i n t h e c o u n t r y , o r u n a v a i l a b l e b e c a u s e l e g a l a c t i o n i s p e n d i n g .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e r e c o r d s o f f a t a l a c c i d e n t s , a l i s t i n g was made f o r n o n - m e t r o 1982 N.S.W. non f a t a l s . 686 a c c i d e n t r e c o r d numbers w e r e g e n e r a t e d . T h i s e x c l u d e d v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s s i n c e some of t h e f a t a l r e c o r d s p r o v i d e d d a t a on o t h e r c h i l d r e n i n j u r e d . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e r e c o r d s p e r t a i n i n g t o v e h i c l e o c c u p a n t s p r o v i d e s l i t t l e u s a b l e c a u s a l d a t a . From t h e 686 numbers a s t r a t i f i e d p r o p o r t i o n a l s a m p l e was g e n e r a t e d ; i . e . 21 p e d e s t r i a n s ( p o p . 2961, 1 0 m o t o r c y c l e ( p o p . 1 3 1 ) and 1 9 p e d a l c y c l e (pop. 2 5 9 ) . Thus a s a m p l e of 5 0 numbers w e r e g e n e r a t e d r e p r e s e n t i n g n o n - m e t r o n o n - f a t a l o t h e r t h a n v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s . The P o l i c e A c c i d e n t R e p o r t f o r m s f o r e a c h o f t h e s e 5 0 a c c i d e n t v i c t i m s were c a r e f u l l y s c r u t i n i s e d so a s t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e f a t a l s a l r e a d y examined were n o t a u n i q u e l y d i f f e r e n t s a m p l e f r o m t h e much l a r g e r b a s e of i n j u r e d . T h i s p r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e a n t e c e d e n t s of f a t a l i t i e s a r e n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t t o t h a t o f s e r i o u s l y i n j u r e d c a s u a l t i e s . However , t h i s a s s e r t i o n c a n n o t b e d e m o n s t r a t e d w i t h a n y d e g r e e of c e r t a i n t y f rom t h i s d a t a b e c a u s e o f t h e g e n e r a l l a c k o f r e c o r d e d i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e P o l i c e A c c i d e n t R e p o r t f o r m r e l a t i n g t o t h e a n t e c e d e n t f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d i n n o n - f a t a l a c c i d e n t s . I n d e e d , t h e 5 0 a c c i d e n t r e c o r d s f o r n o n - f a t a l s g e n e r a t e d o n l y 4 5 ca ses w o r t h y o f d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t h e s u b s e q u e n t a n a l y s i s . The o t h e r 5 r e c o r d s p r o v i d e l i t t l e o r no c a u s a l t y p e d a t a , ( i . e . o n e i n e v e r y t e n were n o t u s a b l e ) .

T h u s , t h e s a m p l e of r e c o r d s a n a l y s e d is h e a v i l y b i a s s e d i n f a v o u r o f r e c o r d s o f b o t h f a t a l a c c i d e n t s and m e t r o p o l i t a n crashes. The d e t a i l s o f t h e s a m p l e r e c o r d s f o l l o w s . The 342 a c c i d e n t r e c o r d s i n v o l v e d 3 5 0 c h i l d c a s u a l t i e s u n d e r 1 7 y e a r s o f a g e .

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78

TABLE 4 9

N U M -- ER O F A C C I D E N T RECORDS STUDIED ( 1 9 8 1 / 8 2 ) - - ~ V i c . * * Q ' I d . * * I- - N.S.W.*

C i t y C o u n t r y C i t y C o u n t r y C i t y C o u n t r y T o t a l - -- - I_-

F a t a l s 121 - 1 0 4 - 2 3 4 9 297 - - 2 4 Has p i t a l i s ed - 24 - -

~ - 21 - - - T r e a t e d I n j u r e d - 21 T o t a l 121 4 5 + 1 0 4 - 2 3 49 342

* 2 a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v e d t w o c h i l d d e a t h s * * 2 a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v e d two c h i l d d e a t h s * * * 4 a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v e d two c h i l d d e a t h s . + 5 o t h e r a c c i d e n t s w e r e n o t u s a b l e .

The f i n a l o u t p u t f o r e a c h a c c i d e n t e x a m i n e d w a s a summary o f t h e a c c i d e n t from t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f t h e p r i n c i p l e c a u s e s o r a n t e c e d e n t f a c t o r s . I n o r d e r t o c o p e w i t h t h e mass o f -I_ q u a l i t a t i v e d a t a g e n e r a t e d , i t w a s d e c i d e d t o a d o p t t h e Herbert: Humphreys ( 1 9 7 8 ) a p p r o a c h d e v e l o p e d f o r t h e " F a i r f i e l d o n - S c e n e S t u d y of C o l l i s i o n s " w h e r e f a c t o r s were c l a s s i f i e d a s :

"(a) The ma in c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r s : The e v e n t s w h i c h p r e c i p i t a t e d a n d w i t h o u t w h i c h t h e c r a s h would m o s t l i k e l y n o t h a v e o c c u r r e d .

( b ) S e c o n d a r y c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r s : The e v e n t s w h i c h a g g r a v a t e d t h e p r e - c r a s h s i t u a t i o n , m a k i n g t h e c r a s h more l i k e l y .

( c ) U n c e r t a i n c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r s : T h o s e e v e n t s w h e r e t h e r e was c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n a l u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t e i t h e r t h e e x i s t e n c e o r e x t e n t o f t h e i r i n f l u e n c e i n t h e p r e - c r a s h p h a s e . " ( H e r b e r t & Humphreys , 1 9 7 8 , p . 6 - 7 ) .

U n l i k e t h e F a i r f i e l d S t u d y , w h i c h c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f d e t a i l e d a c c i d e n t c a s e h i s t o r y r e c o r d s , t h e c u r r e n t s t u d y s e t o u t t o d e v e l o p s c e n a r i o s w h i c h would ( a ) r e f l e c t r e g u l a r l y o c c u r r i n g p a t t e r n s , a n d (b) i n c o r p o r a t e m o s t o f t h e a c c i d e n t r e c o r d s , i . e . b e e x h a u s t i v e .

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4 .13 I n t e r r o g a t i o n o f Mass D a t a Bases

The c a s e s t u d y method i s p o t e n t i a l l y t h e m o s t h e u r i s t i c b u t e x p e n s i v e way t o d i a g n o s e t h e c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r s if c a r r i e d o u t a s a n on t h e s p o t i n - d e p t h c r a s h s t u d y s u c h a s t h e F a i r f i e l d S t u d y ( H e r b e r t a n d Humphreys , 1 9 7 8 ) . t h e A d e l a i d e S t u d y (McLean, 1 9 7 9 ) t h e M e l b o u r n e S t u d y ( H e a l t h Commiss ion o f V i c t o r i a , 1 9 7 8 ) . I n t h e c u r r e n t i n s t a n c e , t h e s t u d y had t o b e p o s t h o c .

As n o t e d , t h e case s t u d y d a t a b a s e w a s b i a s s e d i n f a v o u r of u r b a n and f a t a l a c c i d e n t s b e c a u s e o f ease o f a c c e s s o f r e c o r d s . To o v e r c o m e t h e s e w e a k n e s s e s a d d i t i o n a l a n a l y s e s were a l s o u n d e r t a k e n so a s t o e n s u r e t h a t a b r o a d e r f r a m e w o r k took a c c o u n t o f :

I_- --

- g e o g r a p h i c d i f f e r e n c e s b y s t a t e and b y r e g i o n ( m e t r o v e r s u s n o n - m e t r o ) ; - d e g r e e o f i n j u r y ( f a t a l , h o s p i t a l i s e d , t r e a t e d i n j u r e d ) ;

- sample s i z e d e f i c i e n c i e s .

The a n a l y s e s u n d e r t a k e n i n v o l v e d t h e i n t e r r o g a t i o n o f t h r e e s e p a r a t e mass d a t a b a s e s :

( 1 ) The " F a t a l F i l e " D O T , F e d e r a l O f f i c e o f Road S a f e t y - a l l f a t a l s , A u s t r a l i a , f o r 1981 .

( 2 ) The T r a f f i c A c c i d e n t R e s e a r c h U n i t (TARU) (NSW) f i l e o f a l l r o a d a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g i n j u r y o r d e a t h f o r 1981 a n d 1 9 8 2 .

( 3 ) The Road T r a f f i c A u t h o r i t y ( R T A ) ( V i c . ) f i l e o f a l l r o a d a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g i n j u r y or d e a t h f o r 1981 a n d 1982 .

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The f i r s t s t e p , i n a l l i n s t a n c e s , r e q u i r e d t h e c r e a t i o n o f f i l e s o f a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n 0 > 1 7 , i n c l u d i n g t h e f o u r a g e s p l i t s a s i n d i c a t e d i n s e c t i o n 1 . 9 . F o r t h e ' F a t a l F i l e ' , and t h e T A R U f i l e , i n i t i a l t a b u l a t i o n s w e r e r u n , r e l a t i n g a g e c a t e g o r i e s t o m e t r o v e r s u s n o n - m e t r o and c a t e g o r y o f r o a d u s e r , b y va r i a b 1 e s

s u g g e s t e d a s l i k e l y t o b e r e l e v a n t f r o m a r e v i e w of a v a i l a b l e l i t e r a t u r e i n c l u d i n g :

d a y o f week mon th o f y e a r t i m e o f d a y t y p e of l o c a t i o n m a n o e u v r e s s o b r i e t y s e a t b e l t u s a g e p o s i t i o n i n v e h i c l e s t a t u s o f r e g i s t r a t i o n s t a t u s o f l i c e n c e y e a r s of d r i v i n g e x p e r i e n c e y e a r o f m a n u f a c t u r e o f v e h i c l e s e x o f d r i v e r age o f d r i v e r .

t h e f o 1 1 o w i n g a c c i d e n t / i n j u r y pr e c i p i t a t i n g

Once t h e key s c e n a r i o s were d e v e l o p e d , n i n e were s e l e c t e d f o r f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s u s i n g t h e T A R U mass d a t a b a s e . The same c r o s s t a b u l a t i o n s , w h e r e r e l e v a n t , were c a r r i e d o u t f o r e a c h o f t h e n i n e s c e n a r i o s , so a s t o d e r i v e more d e f i n i t i v e d a t a t o s u p p o r t t h e s c e n a r i o d e s c r i p t i o n s o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e o r i g i n a l 3 4 2 s a m p l e case a c c i d e n t h i s t o r y r e c o r d s ( 2 9 7 o f w h i c h i n v o l v e d f a t a l s ) .

T h i s u s e of n i n e s p e c i f i c s c e n a r i o s r e s u l t e d i n s m a l l s a m p l e b a s e s . a n d c r e a t e d p r o b l e m s i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . , A c c o r d i n g l y , i n i n t e r r o g a t i n g t h e V i c t o r i a n ( R T A ) Mass D a t a b a s e some o f t h e s c e n a r i o s were a g g r e g a t e d .

4 . 1 4 The P r a c t i c a l P r o b l e m s i n P o s t H o c I n - D e p t h S t u d i e s

The c u r r e n t s t u d y h i g h l i g h t s t h e n e e d f o r a N a t i o n a l Body t o b e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r d a t a c o l l e c t i o n , s t o r a g e and a n a l y s i s . C u r r e n t l y , e a c h S t a t e a c t s i n d e p e n d e n t l y so t h a t e v e n b a s i c a g e g r o u p s a r e n o t s i m i l a r . A c c i d e n t r e p o r t i n g f o r m s v a r y d r a m a t i c a l l y , and so t o o d o e s t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f d a t a . I t i s t e m p t i n g t o s u g g e s t t h a t w h a t i s n e e d e d most o f a l l i s a more t h o r o u g h P o l i c e A c c i d e n t R e p o r t Form a imed a t p r o v i d i n g t h e t y p e o f d a t a n e e d e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e p r e c i p i t a t i n g p r e - c r a s h f a c t o r s so a s t o o b v i a t e t h e n e e d f o r e x p e n s i v e i n - d e p t h s t u d i e s s u c h a s t h o s e m e n t i o n e d i n s e c t i o n 4 . 1 3 . However , two a s p e c t s n e e d a l s o t o b e c o n s i d e r e d . F i r s t , a t t h e t i m e o f a n a c c i d e n t i n w h i c h a c h i l d i s i n v o l v e d ( e s p e c i a l l y i f k i l l e d ) , t h o s e i n v o l v e d a c t i v e l y o r a s w i t n e s s e s may b e ove rwhe lmed . S e c o n d , w h e r e a c t i o n is t o

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b e t a k e n t h e l e v e l o f r e p o r t i n g i s g e n e r a l l y r e a s o n a b l y s a t i s f a c t o r y b u t m o s t of t h e c r i t i c a l d a t a a p p e a r s n o t i n t h e P o l i c e r e c o r d b u t i n w i t n e s s e s ' d e p o s i t i o n s , C o r o n e r ' s a n d H o s p i t a l r e p o r t s . W h i l s t t h e P o l i c e r e p o r t i n g f o r m c o u l d b e improved somewha t , t h e r e i s a more u r g e n t n e e d t o c e n t r a l i s e a l l p a r t s o f t h e ca se r e c o r d a s o c c u r s now i n Q u e e n s l a n d . A d d i t i o n a l l y , w h e r e no f u r t h e r l e g a l a c t i o n i s t o b e t a k e n more t h o r o u g h r e p o r t i n g i s s t i l l r e q u i r e d .

I n g e n e r a l , p o s t h o c a n a l y s i s o f P o l i c e A c c i d e n t R e c o r d s u s i n g e i t h e r a n i d i o g r a p h i c o r n o m o t h e t i c a p p r o a c h i s p l a g u e d b y a l a c k o f d e t a i l e d r e p o r t i n g of ' c a u s a l ' o r p r e c i p i t a t i n g f a c t o r s .

A d d i . t i o n a l l y , t h e a l m o s t t o t a l a b s e n c e o f e x p o s u r e d a t a f r o m w h i c h a n y r i s k e s t i m a t e s c a n b e g e n e r a t e d p o s e s s e r i o u s p r o b l e m s i n i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e a c c i d e n t d a t a o b t a i n e d . The d a t a t h a t d o e s e x i s t i s i n s u f f i c i e n t t o e n a b l e m e a n i n g f u l e s t i m a t e s o f r i s k t o e v e n b e a t t e m p t e d .

- _-

4.2 A n a l y s i s o f 3 4 2 I n d i v i d u a l A c c i d e n t C a s e R e c o r d s - __I

(N=350 c h i l d r e n )

4.21 A C a v e a t --- The d a t a p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n o f t h e r e p o r t o u g h t t o b e r e g a r d e d a s ' h y p o t h e s e s ' . The p r o c e d u r e s employed w e r e more r e l a t e d t o t h e m e t h o d o l o g y o f a ' s e a r c h ' t h a n t h a t o f a ' t e s t ' .

The i d i o g r a p h i c a p p r o a c h i s , o f n e c e s s i t y , q u a l i t a t i v e , e x p l o r a t o r y , a n d e x p l a n a t o r y , r e l y i n g h e a v i l y on t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e s o u r c e d a t a a n d t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e a n a l y s t t o ' d i g ' and h y p o t h e s i s e . F u r t h e r m o r e , i f g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s a r e t o b e made, t h e v a l i d i t y o f s u c h g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s i s l a r g e l y d e p e n d e n t upon t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s a m p l e o f ca ses b e i n g i n v e s t i g a t e d .

The ' s e a r c h ' p r o c e s s i s e n h a n c e d b y t h e r i c h n e s s of t h e d a t a r a t h e r t h a n t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s u b s t a n t i a l numbers o f c a ses . F i f t y e x t r e m e l y c o m p l e t e a c c o u n t s i s f a r more h e u r i s t i c t h a n h u n d r e d s of m o s t l y i n c o m p l e t e a c c o u n t s . R e g r e t t a b l y , t h e s t a t e o f t h e d a t a , a s i t c u r r e n t l y e x i s t s i n A u s t r a l i a , m e a n t t h a t t h e ' s e a r c h ' p r o c e s s had t o r e l y on a w i d e n e t r a t h e r t h a n a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f a s m a l l number o f comple te r e c o r d s o w i n g t o t h e l a c k o f c o m p l e t e d a t a i n s o many o f t h e a c c i d e n t r e c o r d s .

_I

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4.22 M e t h o d o l o g y

T h i s s e c t i o n d e t a i l s t h e o p e r a t i o n s c a r r i e d o u t and summar iaed i n f i g u r e C ( s e e 4.11). A s a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , c h i l d r e n w e r e t o b e d e f i n e d , for t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s s t u d y , a s t h o s e b e t w e e n t h e a g e s of 0 a n d 16 y e a r s i n c l u s i v e . S o n e of t h e s e c h i l d r e n , i . e . , t h o s e aged 16 y e a r s and 9 m o n t h s i n N . S . W . w e r e i n f a c t , d r i v e r s o f v e h i c l e s . I n some o t h e r S t a t e s , c h i l d r e n u n d e r t h e a g e o f 17 y e a r s a r e n o t a l l o w e d t o d r i v e v e h i c l e s . Even i n N.S.W. t h e c h i l d d r i v e r p o p u l a t i o n h a s t o h e a c c o m p a n i e d b y a n o t h e r p e r s o n h o l d i n g a f u l l ( ' b l a c k ' ) l i c e n s e . A s i n d i c a t e d i n s e c t i o n 2.42, d r i v e r s o f v e h i c l e s were e x c l u d e d i n a l l t h e c r o s s - t a b u l a t i o n s . The same r e s t r i c t i o n a p p l i e d t o s c e n a r i o a n a l y s e s . The d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e t y p e s o f a c c i d e n t s : was l i m i t e d to v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s ; c y c l i s t s ; m o t o r - c y c l i s t s and p i l l i o n p a s s e n g e r s ; and p e d e s t r i a n s .

A s a s t a r t , t h e T r a f f i c A c c i d e n t R e s e a r c h U n i t ( T A R U ) i n N . S . W . w a s a s k e d t o l i s t a l l t h o s e c h i l d r e n i n v o l v e d i n f a t a l a c c i d e n t s d u r i n g t h e y e a r s 1981 a n d 1982 i n d i c a t i n g t h e i r c a t e g o r y o f r o a d u s e r .

T h i s l i s t p r o d u c e d t h e a c c i d e n t r e c o r d number w h i c h a c t e d a s a s o u r c e t o t h e o r i g i n a l N . S . W . P o l i c e R e p o r t s (Form P4). T h e s e r e p o r t s were r e a d i n d e t a i l , e s p e c i a l l y t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s and d a t a s u r r o u n d i n g t h e a c c i d e n t . From t h e s e r e p o r t s , t h e d a t e and t i m e of d e a t h , a s w e l l a s t h e h o s p i t a l and t h e name o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r c h i l d i n v o l v e d were n o t e d . The n e x t s t e p i n v o l v e d t h e C o r o n e r ' s C o u r t w h e r e t h e r e c o r d s r e g a r d i n g t h e d e a t h of t h e c h i l d w e r e s o u r c e d .

Prior to t h e r e a d i n g of t h e o r i g i n a l a c c i d e n t r e p o r t f o r m s , a d a t a c o l l e c t i o n f o r m w a s d e s i g n e d , i n o r d e r t o r e c o r d a l l t h e i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e f a c t o r s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e c h i l d ' s d e a t h ( s e e A p p e n d i x ) . A t t h e same t i m e a s t h e N . S . W . case r e c o r d s w e r e b e i n g a n a l y s e d , a s i m i l a r p r o c e d u r e t o o k p l a c e i n V i c t o r i a i n c l u d i n g t h e s o u r c i n g o f t h e o r i g i n a l T r a f f i c A c c i d e n t R e p o r t ( F o r m s 513-1 and 513-2).

Access was g a i n e d t o o r i g i n a l P o l i c e R e p o r t s o f w i t n e s s e s , w i t n e s s e s ' s t a t e m e n t s and d e p o s i t i o n s , t r a n s c r i p t s o f C o r o n e r ' s C o u r t r e c o r d s , p a t h o l o g y r e p o r t s , summary o f h o s p i t a l r e p o r t s , and o r i g i n a l t e s t i n g l a b o r a t o r y a c c o u n t s . The o r i g i n a l o b j e c t i v e w a s t o b u i l d s a m p l e s c e n a r i o s o f t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u r r o u n d i n g e a c h c h i l d ' s a c c i d e n t b y a n a l y s i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n s h e e t s . A g e n e r a l d e s c r i p t i o n w a s fo rmed o f e a c h a c c i d e n t r e g a r d i n g t h e f a c t o r s , c i r c u m s t a n c e s , b e h a v i o u r p r i o r t o t h e a c c i d e n t , o t h e r people i n v o l v e d , r e a s o n f o r j o u r n e y , e m o t i o n a l s t a t e of t h e c h i l d , e n v i r o n m e n t , s u p e r v i s i o n , c a r e l e s s n e s s , i n e x p e r i e n c e , and f a t i g u e , e t c . , e t c . S p e c i f i c f a c t o r s w e r e a l s o e x a m i n e d w i t h r espec t t o sex , a g e , r o a d t y p e , a l c o h o l i n v o l v e d , t r a f f i c

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c o n d i t i o n s , t i m e o f d a y / m o n t h , r e g i s t r a t i o n a n d y e a r of m a n u f a c t u r e of v e h i c l e , l i c e n c e , t y p e of l i c e n c e o f d r i v e r i n v o l v e d , t r a f f i c m a n o e u v r e s , e t c .

B a s e d o n t h e p r e l i m i n a r y f i n d i n g s of a n e x t e n s i v e l i t e r a t u r e s u r v e y , c h i l d r e n were b r a c k e t e d i n t o t h e f o l l o w i n g age g r o u p s :

0 - 4 y e a r s ( p r e - s c h o o l e r s ) 5 - 7 y e a r s ( i n f a n t s c h o o l e r s ) 8 - 12 y e a r s ( p r i m a r y s c h o o l e r s )

1 3 - 16 y e a r s ( s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l e r s )

T h e s e were f u r t h e r d i v i d e d i n t o males a n d f e m a l e s . T h e s e age b r e a k - u p s f o l l o w e d s u g g e s t i o n s f r o m a p r e l i m i n a r y l i t e r a t u r e s e a r c h , whereby t h o s e i n t h e 0 - 7 y e a r o l d g r o u p a r e deemed n o t t o b e a b l e t o c o p e w i t h t r a f f i c , a n d b e l i e v e t h a t r u n n i n g f a s t i s t h e s a f e s t way t o d e a l ' w i t h a n u n f a m i l i a r s i t u a t i o n ; t h e 8 - 1 2 y e a r o l d a n d 1 3 - 1 6 y e a r o l d g r o u p s a r e t h e h e a v y b i k e u s e r g r o u p , a n d t h e 1 3 - 1 6 y e a r g r o u p g e t i n v o l v e d a s v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s , a n d d r i v e r s of v e h i c l e s i l l e g a l l y , w i t h t h e i r p e e r g r o u p .

The p r o c e s s of c o l l e c t i n g e a c h i n d i v i d u a l c a se r e c o r d i s v e r y t i m e c o n s u m i n g . A d d i n g a d d i t i o n a l c a ses i s of v a l u e o n l y i n so f a r a s i t g e n e r a t e s new h y p o t h e s e s o r m o d i f i e s e x i s t i n g o n e s . I n i t i a l l y , t h e ' s e a r c h ' p r o c e s s w h i c h b e g a n w i t h N.S.W. a c c i d e n t r e c o r d s , c o n c e n t r a t e d o n f a t a l s w h i c h t o o k p l a c e i n t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a . T h i s r a i s e d two q u e s t i o n s :

(a) D o r o a d a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g a c h i l d f a t a l i t y h a v e a d i f f e r e n t s e t of c a u s a l o r p r e c i p i t a t i n g f a c t o r s f r o m n o n - f a t a l a c c i d e n t s ? ; a n d

( b ) A r e a c c i d e n t s i n n o n - m e t r o a r eas d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o s e i n m e t r o a r e a s ?

I n f o r m a l d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h t r a f f i c a c c i d e n t e x p e r t s l e a d t o t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e r e i s n o d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u r r o u n d i n g a n a c c i d e n t i n v o l v i n g a f a t a l i t y a n d a n a c c i d e n t r e s u l t i n g i n a h o s p i t a l i s e d or t r e a t e d i n j u r y . The d i f f e r e n c e i s b e l i e v e d t o f r e q u e n t l y l i e l a r g e l y i n t h e s p e e d of t h e v e h i c l e . I n o r d e r t o s u b s t a n t i a t e t h e ' n o d i f f e r e n c e ' h y p o t h e s i s a random sample of 5 0 h o s p i t a l i s e d a n d i n j u r e d c h i l d r e n ' s a c c i d e n t s i n n o n - m e t r o N.S.W. were e x a m i n e d by r e a d i n g t h e P o l i c e A c c i d e n t R e p o r t s (Form P4). T h i s a n a l y s i s w a s u n a b l e t o j u s t i f y t h e n e e d t o s p e n d h u n d r e d s of a d d i t i o n a l h o u r s c o l l e c t i n g c o u n t r y r e c o r d s , s i n c e i t a p p e a r e d t h a t n o n - m e t r o a c c i d e n t s were s i m i l a r i n n a t u r e ( b u t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n c i d e n c e ) t o m e t r o p o l i t a n a c c i d e n t s .

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F u r t h e r , t h e r e a p p e a r e d t o b e n o a p p a r e n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n f a t a l s and n o n - f a t a l a c c i d e n t s e x c e p t w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e a m o u n t and q u a l i t y o f d a t a i n c l u d e d i n d s . I n g e n e r a l , w h e r e a f a t a l i t y o c c u r s , t h e d a t a i s much more c o m p r e h e n s i v e t h a n i f t h e

- ~ I I___ --- - -____I_-- -_ -_-_-_I_

a c c i d e n t d o e s n o t r e s u l t i n a c h i l d d e a t h ,

Once t h e a n a l y s i s of V i c t o r i a ( M e l b o u r n e f a t a l i t i e s o n l y ) and N . S . W . r e c o r d s had b e e n c o m p l e t e d , Q u e e n s l a n d r e c o r d s were a l s o e x a m i n e d u s i n g , a s a s o u r c e , Form 12836 /10181 . Q u e e n s l a n d p r o v i d e d a u n i q u e o p p o r t u n i t y o f g a i n i n g e a s y a c c e s s t o a s i z e a b l e number o f c o u n t r y f a t a l i t i e s b e c a u s e o f a c e n t r a l i s e d s y s t e m of k e e p i n g c o m p l e t e and d e t a i l e d r e c o r d s . I n Q u e e n s l a n d , b o t h m e t r o and n o n - m e t r o ( m o s t l y t h e l a t t e r ) f a t a l i t y r e c o r d s w e r e s c r u t i n i s e d . I n all, 342 a c c i d e n t r e c o r d s were a n a l y s e d and i n v o l v e d 350 c h i l d a c c i d e n t v i c t i m s . The d e t a i l s were p r o v i d e d i n t a b l e 4 9 .

The i s s u e of b a s i c d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n m e t r o v e r s u s n o n - m e t r o and f a t a l v e r s u s n o n - f a t a l i s i n c l u d e d i n t h e a n a l y s e s i n s e c t i o n 4 . 3 u s i n g t h e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e mass d a t a s y s t e m s and i s b a s e d o n a l l c h i l d c a s u a l t y r e c o r d s .

F i n a l l y , w h e r e a c h o i c e i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e s e l e c t i o n o f r e c o r d s w a s a v a i l a b l e a d e l i b e r a t e a t t e m p t was made t o u n d e r - s a m p l e f a t a l i t i e s i n v o l v i n g v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s . V e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s a c c o u n t for a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50% o f c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t s and a l m o s t a s many c h i l d r o a d d e a t h s . However , t h e p r e c i p i t a t i n g c a u s e s a r e beyond t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e c h i l d w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f s e a t b e l t u s a g e . J a r v i s ( 1 9 8 3 ) d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n c h i l d r e n a s " a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t s " i n a c c i d e n t s v e r s u s a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n i n " o t h e r p e o p l e ' s a c c i d e n t s " ( i . e . , a s a c a r p a s s e n g e r ) .

4.23 A n a l y s i s b y Road U s e r C a t e g o r y - M a s C o n' t r i b u t i n 9 Fa c t o r

The f o l l o w i n g a n a l y s i s c a t e g o r i s e s a c c i d e n t s a c c o r d i n g t o ' m a i n ' c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r . I n g e n e r ' a l , o n e c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r h a s b e e n a t t r i b u t e d t o e a c h case. I t i s , o f c o u r s e , r e c o g n i s e d t h a t a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f f a c t o r s a r e i n v o l v e d a t v a r i o u s p h a s e s o f a c r a s h ( H a d d o n , 1 9 7 2 ) . However , a d o p t i n g t h e F a i r f i e l d On-scene S t u d y a p p r o a c h ( H e r b e r t & Humphreys , 1 9 7 8 ) a c c i d e n t s w e r e c a t e g o r i s e d i n terms o f t h e ' m a i n ' c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r .

A n a l y s i s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l a c c i d e n t r e c o r d s h a s r e s u l t e d i n a s e r i e s o f s c e n a r i o s f o r e a c h of t h e f o u r c a t e g o r i e s o f r o a d a c c i d e n t u s e r s .

T a k i n g c h i l d r e n 0-16, a s a g r o u p , t h e f o l l o w i n g s c e n a r i o s s t a n d o u t as i m p o r t a n t , a t l e a s t w i t h r e s p e c t t o f r e q u e n c y and k e e p i n g i n mind t h a t most o f t h e r e c o r d s i n v o l v e d a c h i l d f a t a l i t y .

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V e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s - no s e a t b e l t - j o y r i d i n g / t e e n a g e r s - d r i v e r f a u l t

-_______I __

P e d e s t r i a n s - u n a t t e n d e d c h i l d - r u n n i n g and r u n n i n g f rom b e h i n d

- d r i v e r f a u l t p a r k e d v e h i c l e

P e d a l C y c l i s t s - f a i l u r e t o o b e y r o a d r u l e s Motor c y c l i s t / - i n c o r r e c t m a n o e u v r e s P i l l i o n P a s s e n g e r s - t r a i l b i k e o n r o a d .

Each of t h e s c e n a r i o s w i l l now b e d e s c r i b e d i n more d e t a i l .

-l-l_l

-I

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A . V e h i c l e P a s s e n g e r s " N o S e a t B e l t "

--I

T h i s s c e n a r i o i s t y p i f i e d by a f a m i l y on t h e way home f r o m a n o u t i n g , o c c a s i o n a l l y a l c o h o l i s i n v o l v e d , w i t h a s m a l l c h i l d n o t i n a r e s t r a i n t and s l e e p i n g , and i n some i n s t a n c e s n u r s e d b y t h e m o t h e r . D u r i n g t h e a c c i d e n t t h e c h i l d i s t h r o w n a r o u n d t h e v e h i c l e and i t i s n o t uncommon f o r t h o s e on t h e s c e n e of t h e a c c i d e n t t o see a c h i l d o u t s i d e o f t h e v e h i c l e w h i l s t t h e o t h e r members of t h e f a m i l y a r e s t i l l s e c u r e i n t h e v e h i c l e . T h e r e a r e a l s o s i t u a t i o n s i n w h i c h t h e c h i l d f a l l s o u t o f t h e v e h i c l e or c l i m b s o u t of a v e h i c l e . A d d i t i o n a l l y , a t y p i c a l p a r t o f t h i s s c e n a r i o i s t h e l a t e a f t e r n o o n a t w e e k e n d s w i t h b o t h c h i l d and p a r e n t s l i k e l y t o b e somewhat t i r e d a f t e r a d a y o u t .

I n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h i s s c e n a r i o it m u s t b e n o t e d t h a t no s e a t b e l t i s a l s o a p p l i c a b l e t o some o f t h e o t h e r s c e n a r i o s r e l a t i n g t o v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s . However , w h a t d i f f e r e n t i a t e s t h e ' n o s e a t b e l t ' g r o u p i s t h a t t h e y d o n o t e a s i l y f i t i n t o a n y o n e o f t h e o t h e r s c e n a r i o s .

I n terms o f t h e r e c o r d s examined t h e f o l l o w i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s were n o t e d :

- 0-4 y e a r s of age (38%) - 5-7 y e a r s of age (23%) - of t h e 0-4 a g e g r o u p (73%) w e r e f e m a l e - p e a k d a y s S a t u r d a y and S u n d a y - p e a k t i m e s 4-6 p.m. ( U r b a n ) and 4 - 5 p . m . ( r u r a l ) .

O v e r a l l t h i s s c e n a r i o a c c o u n t e d f o r o v e r 4 0 % of t h e v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r c h i l d a c c i d e n t r e c o r d s s t u d i e d . w h i l s t it m i g h t b e t e m p t i n g t o a n a l y s e s e a t b e l t s i n more d e p t h t h e d a t a d o e s n o t a l l o w e v e n t e n t a t i v e a n s w e r s t o q u e s t i o n s l i k e - " H O W many m i g h t s t i l l b e a l i v e i f t h e y had b e e n w e a r i n g a s e a t b e l t or u s i n q a c h i l d r e s t r a i n t ? " o r "Why d i d t h o s e who d i d w e a r a r e s t r a i n t d i e ? "

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~- " J o y r i d i n g " / T e e n a g e r s

The term " J o y r i d i n g " h a s a v a r i e t y o f m e a n i n g s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e d i c t i o n a r y " j o y - r i d e ' ' i s a p l e a s u r e r i d e i n a m o t o r c a r e s p e c i a l l y when t h e c a r i s d r i v e n r e c k l e s s l y o r u s e d w i t h o u t t h e ow n e r ' s pe rrn i s s i o n . I n m o s t i n s t a n c e s , i n t h i s s c e n a r i o , j o y - r i d e r e f e r s t o r e c k l e s s d r i v i n g i n v o l v i n g t h e p r e s e n c e o f a t e e n a g e d r i v e r a c c o m p a n i e d - by t e e n a g e r pas senge r s . S i n c e j o y r i d i n g a l s o h a s t h e c o n n o t a t i o n o f a s t o l e n v e h i c l e , t h i s s c e n a r i o w i l l a l s o b e c a l l e d " t e e n a g e r s " .

T h i s s c e n a r i o i s t y p i f i e d b y a g r o u p o f t e e n a g e r s w i t h one o r two b o y s 1 7 y e a r s o f a g e , a f t e r t h e pub or p a r t y , c rowded i n t o a n o l d e r model v e h i c l e , u s u a l l y w i t h f ew s e a t b e l t s , some a l c o h o l b u t u s u a l l y n o t a b o v e t h e p r e s c r i b e d l i m i t , and s e v e r a l y o u n g e r g i r l s ( 1 5 - 1 6 y r . ) . The d r i v e r h a s u s u a l l y o n l y h e l d a l i c e n s e f o r a s h o r t p e r i o d or i s s t i l l on a p r o v i s i o n a l l i c e n s e and l o s e s c o n t r o l o f t h e v e h i c l e and may be i n v o l v e d i n a m u l t i p l e f a t a l i t y a c c i d e n t . I t c a n i n v o l v e a n a c c i d e n t w i t h a n o t h e r v e h i c l e , b u t i s j u s t a s l i k e l y t o b e a r u n - o f f - t h e - r o a d w i t h o u t a n o t h e r v e h i c l e i n v o l v e d .

T h i s s c e n a r i o a c c o u n t e d f o r 2 2 % o f t h e c h i l d v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t r e c o r d s r e v i e w e d . Mos t s i g n i f i c a n t l y , 84% of t h e s e 2 2 % i n v o l v e d t e e n a g e p a s s e n g e r s ( 1 3 - 1 6 y e a r s o f a g e ) .

-

" D r i v e r F a u l t "

The a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n i n t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s d i d n o t appear t o i n v o l v e a n y f a u l t o f t h e c h i l d and were c a u s e d b y d r i v e r e r r o r o r m i s j u d g e m e n t . Such f a c t o r s w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e s e t y p e s of a c c i d e n t s w e r e f a l l i n g a s l e e p a t t h e w h e e l ; BAC l e v e l s a b o v e l e g a l l i m i t ; f a i l u r e t o o b e y t h e r u l e s o f t h e r o a d .

T h i s s c e n a r i o a c c o u n t e d f o r 2 4 % o f t h e c h i l d v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t r e c o r d s i n v e s t i g a t e d .

" O t h e r N o n - D r i v e r F a c t o r s "

T h i s s c e n a r i o i s t y p i f i e d by a c c i d e n t s w h i c h s e e m i n g l y a p p e a r n o t t o be c a u s e d b y d r i v e r or c h i l d e r r o r and t h i s a p p e a r s t o h a p p e n b y c h a n c e . I n most i n s t a n c e s , t h e y were , t o a d e g r e e , u n a v o i d a b l e and c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r s were w e a t h e r , v i s i b i l i t y , m e c h a n i c a l f a i l u r e , e t c .

T h i s s c e n a r i o i n v o l v e d o n l y 1 0 % o f t h e c h i l d v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r r e c o r d s .

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B . P e d e s t r i a n s

"Una t t e nd ed c h i I d 'I

T h i s s c e n a r i o i s t y p i f i e d b y a n a d u l t , u s u a l l y t h e i m m e d i a t e p a r e n t a l l o w i n g t h e c h i l d t o w a n d e r away w h i l s t p l a y i n g , w h i l e w a l k i n g a l o n g a s t r e e t o r l e a v i n g t h e c h i l d u n a t t e n d e d f o r w h a t i s u s u a l l y o n l y a s h o r t p e r i o d o f t i m e . T h e s e " t o d d l e r s " t h e n u n k n o w i n g l y e x p o s e t h e m s e l v e s t o s t r e e t t r a f f i c , c o n s t r u c t i o n e a u i p m e n t , o r r e v e r s i n g v e h i c l e s i n d r i v e w a y s . T h i s t y p e of a c c i d e n t c a n t a k e p l a c e i n t h e i m m e d i a t e home e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h p a r e n t s and o r d e l i v e r y v a n s r e v e r s i n g o v e r c h i l d r e n , o r w h i l e a M o t h e r i s a t t e n d i n g t o o n e c h i l d i n t h e v e h i c l e t h e o t h e r c h i l d w a n d e r s , o r w i t h a b r i e f l a p s e o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n o r a t t e n t i o n b y a p a r e n t a l o n g a f o o t p a t h . An u n c o n s c i o u s l a c k o f p a r e n t a l s u p e r v i s i o n i s u s u a l l y t h e c a u s e o f t h i s t y p e o f a c c i d e n t . I n t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s t h e c h i l d i s a l m o s t n e v e r s e e n b y t h e d r i v e r who h a s l i t t l e o r no w a r n i n g p r i o r t o t h e a c c i d e n t . The p a r e n t i s m o s t u s u a l l y u n a w a r e t h a t t h e r e i s a d a n g e r t o t h e c h i l d .

T h i s s c e n a r i o a c c o u n t e d f o r 2 7 % o f t h e c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t r e c o r d s w h i c h had a s l i g h t b i a s t o w a r d s males ( 6 0 % ) and t o c h i l d r e n aged 2 - 3 y e a r s ( 6 3 % ) .

"Run n i n g "

T h i s s c e n a r i o i s t y p i f i e d b y p r i m a r y s c h o o l a g e c h i l d r e n r u n n i n g o r d a r t i n g o n t o t h e r o a d w i t h o u t a n y p r i o r w a r n i n g t o t h e d r i v e r . T h e s e a c c i d e n t s a r e i n v o l v e d w i t h " a t t r a c t i o n s " w h i c h d i s t r a c t t h e c h i l d f rom p a y i n g a t t e n t i o n and i n c l u d e a p a r e n t o r f r i e n d s i g n a l i n g f r o m t h e o p p o s i t e s i d e of t h e r o a d , g o i n g t o or f r o m a s h o p on a n e r r a n d o r f o r p e r s o n a l p u r c h a s e s , icecream v a n s , p l a y i n g o r c h a s i n g f r i e n d s o n t h e f o o t p a t h . Also i n c l u d e d , b u t t o a l e s s e r d e g r e e , a r e a l i g h t i n g f r o m a s c h o o l b u s , a c t i v i t y a f t e r s c h o o l a t s c h o o l c r o s s i n g s and c l o s e t o t h e s c h o o l w i t h l a r g e numbers of c h i l d r e n , u s i n g t h e c e n t e r o f t h e r o a d a s a s a f e z o n e , and f a i l u r e t o o b e y t h e r u l e s o f t h e r o a d s u c h a s c r o s s i n g a g a i n s t a r e d l i g h t o r u s e a c r o s s w a l k . The m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r i n t h i s t y p e of a c c i d e n t is t h e r u n n i n g movements b y t h e c h i l d w h i c h a r e o f t e n s e e n b y t h e d r i v e r i n a d v a n c e a l o n g t h e s i d e of t h e r o a d b u t g i v e l i t t l e t i m e t o a v o i d when t h e c h i l d d a r t s o n t o t h e r o a d u n e x p e c t e d l y . P a r k e d v e h i c l e s a r e i n v o l v e d i n a s i g n i f i c a n t number o f t h e s e s c e n a r i o s .

T h i s s c e n a r i o a c c o u n t e d f o r 32% o f t h e c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t case r e c o r d s . I t had a s u b s t a n t i a l male b i a s ( 7 2 % ) a n d i n v o l v e d m o s t l y p r i m a r y aged c h i l d r e n ( 5 - 1 2 y e a r s ) ( 8 7 % ) . The c a s e r e c o r d s r e v e a l e d a p e a k on T h u r s d a y f o r m e t r o r e c o r d s a n d F r i d a y f o r c o u n t r y cases w i t h 3-4 p . m . t h e p e a k t i m e o f d a y .

I--__---

I

_I__I_-_-

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I n many i n s t a n c e s t h e c h i l d i s s e e n b y t h e d r i v e r w e l l b e f o r e t h e c h i l d e n t e r s t h e r o a d . I n t h e s c e n a r i o s , r o u g h l y 2 i n 8 were n o t s e e n a t a l l , 3 i n 8 were s e e n j u s t b e f o r e , b u t a n o t h e r 3 o u t of 8 were s e e n w e l l b e f o r e .

" D r i ve r Fa u 1 t "

The a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n i n t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s d i d n o t a p p e a r t o r e s u l t f rom a n y n e g l i g e n c e b y t h e c h i l d and were c a u s e d by d r i v e r e r r o r o r m i s j u d g e m e n t o r c h a n c e . Such f a c t o r s wh ich c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e s e t y p e s o f a c c i d e n t s were f a i l u r e t o s t o p a t t r a f f i c l i g h t s o r p e d e s t r i a n c r o s s i n g s , v e h i c l e s l e a v i n g t h e r o a d , s p e e d , e t c . I n m o s t i n s t a n c e s t h e c h i l d w a s n o t i n v o l v e d i n a n y of t h e m a n o e u v r e s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e .

T o b e c l a s s i f i e d as d r i v e r f a u l t some l e g a l a c t i o n was t a k e n c o n c e r n i n g t h e d r i v e r . The s c e n a r i o a c c o u n t e d f o r 1 9 % o f t h e c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t r e c o r d s . Of t h e s e 1 9 % , 4 0 % o f t h e d r i v e r s had a BAC l e v e l a b o v e t h e p r e s c r i b e d l i m i t , 2 7 % were c h a r g e d w i t h c u l p a b l e d r i v i n g and 3 3 % w i t h n e g l i g e n t d r i v i n g .

" O t h e r N o n - D r i v e r F a c t o r s '*

T h i s s c e n a r i o i s t y p i f i e d b y a c c i d e n t s w h i c h were n o t c a u s e d by d r i v e r o r c h i l d e r r o r and h a p p e n b y c h a n c e . I n m o s t i n s t a n c e s , t h e y a p p e a r t o h a v e b e e n l a r g e l y u n a v o i d a b l e and c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r s were w e a t h e r , v i s i b i l i t y , m e c h a n i c a l f a i l u r e , e t c .

C . - P e d a l C y c l i s t s

" F a i l u r e TO Obey Road R u l e s "

T h i s s c e n a r i o i s t y p i f i e d b y two, and s o m e t i m e s more b o y s c y c l i n g t o g e t h e r and n o t p a y i n g a t t e n t i o n t o t r a f f i c r u l e s b y r i d i n g o u t o f s i d e s t r e e t s , d r i v e w a y s , t - i n t e r s e c t i o n s , v e e r i n g o n t o t h e wrong s i d e o f t h e r o a d i n t o oncoming o r f o l l o w i n g t r a f f i c u n e x p e c t e d l y . T h i s t r e a t m e n t of t h e roadway a s a n e x t e n s i o n of t h e p l a y g r o u n d , so t o s p e a k , and t h e d a r t i n g i n t o t r a f f i c a t r i g h t a n g l e s s i m i l a r t o a p e d e s t r i a n c a u s e s e x t r e m e p r o b l e m s f o r m o t o r i s t s a s t h e r e is l i t t l e o r no t i m e t o t a k e e v a s i v e a c t i o n .

A s i n t h e case of p e d e s t r i a n s , d r i v e r s o f t e n see t h e c y c l i s t s b e f o r e h a n d and s l o w down b u t i t i s t h e u n e x p e c t e d b e h a v i o u r on t h e r o a d w h i c h c a u s e s t h i s t y p e of a c c i d e n t . I t mus t b e n o t e d t h a t c h i l d r e n a r e n o r m a l l y b a s i c a l l y p r e d i c t a b l e i n t h e i r r o a d o r r o a d e n t e r i n g b e h a v i o u r a s p e d e s t r i a n s o r c y c l i s t s , b u t somewha t l e s s so t h a n a d u l t s . D r i v e r s n o r m a l l y e x p e c t p e o p l e ( a d u l t s and c h i l d r e n ) n o t t o e n t e r t h e r o a d and so a r e c a u g h t o u t when t h e y d o so u n e x p e c t e d l y .

-

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T h i s s c e n a r i o a c c o u n t e d f o r 6 7 % o f a l l t h e p e d a l c y c l i s t s a c c i d e n t r e c o r d s i n v e s t i g a t e d . Mos t were males (90%) and i n t h e s a m p l e s t u d i e d t h e r e was a c o u n t r y b i a s . The a g e g r o u p s most i n v o l v e d w e r e t h e o l d e r t e e n s ( 1 3 - 1 6 y e a r s ) ( 5 5 % ) and t h e 8 - 1 2 y e a r o l d s ( 3 3 % ) . The p e a k t i m e was 4 - 6 p.m.

A f e a t u r e of t h i s s c e n a r i o i s t h e p r e s e n c e o f o t h e r c h i l d r e n a l s o o n p e d a l c y c l e s . I n 5 0 % o f t h e c a s e s i n t h i s s c e n a r i o t h e r e were 2 c h i l d r e n . Of t h e r e m a i n i n g 5 0 % a number a l s o i n v o l v e d 3 o r more p e d a l c y c l i s t s .

" D r i v e r F a u l t "

The a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n i n t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s d i d n o t a p p e a r t o b e a r e s u l t o f a n y n e g l i g e n c e by t h e c h i l d . They were c a u s e d by d r i v e r e r r o r , s u c h a s c r o s s i n g t o t h e wrong l a n e , b e i n g a b o v e t h e p r e s c r i b e d B . A . C . , b a c k i n g o u t o f a d r i v e w i t h o u t l o o k i n g , r u n n i n g i n t o t h e r e a r o f a c y c l i s t .

A s a s c e n a r i o , t h i s g r o u p o n l y a c c o u n t e d f o r 1 5 % of t h e c h i l d p e d a l c y c l i s t ' s case r e c o r d s e x a m i n e d .

" O t h e r N o n - D r i v e r F a c t o r s "

T h i s s c e n a r i o i s t y p i f i e d b y a c c i d e n t s w h i c h , i t a p p e a r s w e r e n o t c a u s e d b y d r i v e r o r c h i l d e r r o r and seem t o h a p p e n b y c h a n c e . Such i n s t a n c e s a r e m e c h a n i c a l f a i l u r e , i n e x p e r i e n c e d r i d e r s , p o o r v i s i b i l i t y a t n i g h t , b o r r o w i n g a b i k e , o u t o f c o n t r o l down a s t e e p d r i v e . I n m o s t c a s e s , t h e s e a c c i d e n t s a p p e a r t o h a v e l a r g e l y b e e n u n a v o i d a b l e by t h e d r i v e r .

D . M o t o r c y c l i s t s & P i l l i o n P a s s e n g e r s

A s a g r o u p , t h e y a c c o u n t e d f o r o n l y 7% o f t h e t o t a l c h i l d a c c i d e n t r e c o r d s e x a m i n e d . The g r e a t m a j o r i t y were m a l e s and t h e d r i v e r s w e r e o f t e n u n l i c e n s e d . T h i s s c e n a r i o i s t y p i f i e d b y a n u n l i c e n s e d d r i v e r i n some i n s t a n c e s on a n u n r e g i s t e r e d , u n i n s u r e d m o t o r b i k e wh ich h a s b e e n b o r r o w e d . I t u s u a l l y i n v o l v e s l o s i n g c o n t r o l of t h e v e h i c l e and h i t t i n g t h e c u r b , d i t c h o r s i d e o f t h e r o a d , b e i n g u n a b l e t o s t o p , a n d , i n some i n s t a n c e s , w i t h a n i l l e g a l p i l l i o n p a s s e n g e r . The s c e n a r i o i n v o l v e s m o s t l y a f a i l u r e t o o b e y r u l e s of t h e r o a d and i n e x p e r i e n c e . A s i z e a b l e p r o p o r t i o n of t h e s e a c c i d e n t s o c c u r e n r o u t e t o o r r o m the " t r a i l " i e . on t h e r o a d t o o r f r o m w h e r e t h e t r a i l b i k e a c t i v i t y i s l a r g e l y t a k i n g p l a c e .

~__----I__--I___

--__ _il_____i_______

-___-i_lI--_-l_l-_I--_-

-_I

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FIGURE D S C E N A R I O CODES

N - N S - J - DF - N D - U A - B R - R - O R - c - A - I N - TB - I -

number of i n d i v i d u a l s n o s e a t b e l t f i t t e d a n d / o r worn j o y r i d i n g d r i v e r f a u l t o t h e r non d r i v e r f a c t o r s u n a t t e n d e d c h i l d b e h i n d p a r k e d v e h i c l e a n d r u n n i n g r u n n i n g o n t o r o a d u n e x p e c t e d l y f a i l u r e t o o b e y r o a d r u l e s s t o p p e d i n c e n t r e o f r o a d a t t r a c t i o n b o r r o w e d b i k e , i n e x p e r i e n c e d r i d e r t r a i l h i k e , o n r o a d i n c o r r e c t m a n o e u v r e s

ANALYSIS CODES C h i l d r e n ' s - Road A c c i d e n t s ~ - - -

F - H - J - L - I N - 0 -

N S - S B - u - A - E - DC - B A - A C - v - T -

F a m i l y O u t i n g . R - h i t and r u n B -

L o s t c o n t r o l v e h i c l e B / S - I n e x p e r i e n c e d d r i v e r / r i d e r C - O u t s i d e s t r e e t ( c y c l i s t ) I C - No s e a t b e l t f i t t e d * PF - S u s p e c t e d or v e r i f i e d S - f i t t e d b u t n o t worn SP - U n l i c e n s e d d r i v e r HO - a t t r a c t i o n UA - e r r a n d f o r p a r e n t DR -

J o y R i d i n g / T e e n a g e r s A -

d r i v e r c h a r g e d B l o o d a l c o h o l s u s p e c t e d c h a n c e a c c i d e n t , n o f a u l t DOR - v e e r i n q T i n t e r s e c t i o n

r a n o n r o a d o u t f r o m b e h i n d v e h i c l e a c c o m p a n i e d b y b r o t h e r o r s i s t e r c e n t r e ( o f r o a d ) i c e c r e a m van p l a y i n g w i t h f r i e n d s s c h o o l g o i n g t o o r from s h o p s home c l o s e u n a t t e n d e d c h i l d c h i l d f a i l e d t o o b e y r u l e s of r o a d ( p e d e s t r i a n / c y c l i s t ) d r i v e r f a i l e d t o o b e y r u l e s o f r o a d ( V. p a s s e n g e r 1

S o r t C o d e s

N D - O t h e r n o n - d r i v e r f a c t o r s DF - D r i v e r F a u l t c - C e n t r e o f r o a d I - ~ n c o r r e c t Manoeuvres

W h i l s t t h i s f a c t o r i s n o t a n a c c i d e n t p r e c i p i t a t i n g f a c t o r i t i s i n c l u d e d b e c a u s e o f i t s i m p o r t a n c e a s a n i n j u r y p r e c i p i t a t i n g f a c t o r .

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4 . 2 4 A n a l y s i s by Aqe and Road U s e r C a t e g o r y __--_____-_________-_____I________

A n a l y s i s of t h e a c c i d e n t r e c o r d s i n t e r m s of t h e f o u r a g e g r o u p i n g s a s s i s t s i n t h e p r o c e s s o f s e e k i n g o u t t h e m a j o r p r o b l e m s c e n a r i o s . I n t h e c h a r t s w h i c h f o l l o w t h e numbers and p e r c e n t a g e s r e f e r t o t h e c a s e r e c o r d s examined f o r t h a t a g e g r o u p . A g a i n , t h e d a t a i s m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e so t h a t e a c h a c c i d e n t i s a t t r i b u t e d t o m a j o r c o n t r i b u t o r y c a u s e . The c o d e s used f o r a n a l y s i s a p p e a r i n F i g u r e D .

A . C h i l d r e n 0-4 y e a r s of Age

T a b l e 50.A b e l o w r e v e a l s t h a t t h e mos t s i g n i f i c a n t s c e n a r i o s f o r t h i s a g e g r o u p a r e :

* P e d e s t r i a n - u n a t t e n d e d

* V e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r - w i t h o u t c h i l d r e s t r a i n t ,

W i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e u n a t t e n d e d 0 - 4 y e a r o l d s i n v o l v e d i n r o a d a c c i d e n t s b o y s o u t n u m b e r e d g i r l s two t o o n e . The r e v e r s e was t h e s i t u a t i o n f o r t h o s e v e r y young c h i l d r e n i n v o l v e d i n a c c i d e n t s a s v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s - g i r l s o u t n u m b e r e d t h e b o y s two t o o n e .

_____I

I__- __ _---I-

--I_ T A B L E 50A 0-4 y e a r s

N = 70

V e h i c l e P a s s e n g e r s -I

P e d e s t r i a n s - C y c l i s t s

N = 20 N = 48 N = 2

N D DF NS 16 3 1

I - - D - A - C - N D -_ D F __ U A 40 4 2 1 1 OR I

. .. - M F M F F M F M F M F M F N = 2 5 1 1 2 1 1 26 14 2 2 1 1 1 1 F

2

B . C h i l d r e n 5-7 y e a r s o f Age

T a b l e 50.B r e v e a l s t h a t o n l y s m a l l number o f s p e c i f i c s c e n a r i o s a c c o u n t f o r m o s t o f t h e case r e c o r d s f o r t h i s age g r o u p .

V e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s - non u s e o f c h i l d r e s t r a i n t

P e d e s t r i a n s - r u n n i n g ( i n c l u d i n g f rom b e h i n d p a r k e d v e h i c l e )

P e d a l C y c l i s t - f a i l u r e t o o b e y r o a d r u l e s .

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Boys and g i r l s aged 5-7 a r e l i k e l y t o b e i n v o l v e d i n v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t s t h r o u g h t h e n o n u s e of c h i l d r e s t r a i n t s o r a d u l t s e a t b e l t s . A t t h i s a g e l e v e l , b o y s a c c o u n t for m o s t o f t h e p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s i n c l u d i n g t h e " r u n n i n g " a c c i d e n t s and t h e d r i v e r f a u l t a c c i d e n t s . S i m i l a r l y i t i s t h e b o y s i n t h i s a g e g r o u p who a c c o u n t f o r t h e c y c l i s t a c c i d e n t s w h e r e r o a d r u l e s a r e d i s o b e y e d .

TABLE 50.B 5-7 y e a r s N = 7 9

V e h i c l e P a s s e n g e r s C y c l i s t ---I

N = 1 7 N = 1 7 N D

N=10 N=l N=4 N=2 I

D F - J - NS - N D N = l l N=3 N=3

__ DF __ OR - M F M F M F M F M M F 5 5 1 4 1 1 8 3 3 2 1

P e d e s t r i a n ---I__

N = 4 5 U A BR R OR N D C DF - - - I N = 2 NrZ3 N=7 N=6 N = T N=2 Nz3

F M F M F M F M M M F 2 1 7 6 3 4 5 1 2 2 1 2

C . C h i l d r e n 8-12 y e a r s

A s c h i l d r e n g e t o l d e r t h e r a n g e of s c e n a r i o s , n e e d e d t o e x p l a i n m o s t o f t h e a c c i d e n t s , i n c r e a s e s . The ma in s c e n a r i o s a r e :

P e d a l c y c l i s t s - f a i l u r e t o o b e y r o a d r u l e s

P e d e s t r i a n s - r u n n i n g i n c l u d i n g f rom b e h i n d p a r k e d v e h i c l e s

V e h i c l e P a s s e n g e r s - non u s e o f s e a t b e l t .

A t t h i s a g e , b o y s o n p e d a l c y c l e s who d o n ' t o b e y ( o r know?) t h e r u l e s of r o a d a r e a v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t s c e n a r i o and s o t o o a r e t h e b o y s who r u n o n t h e r o a d and f rom b e h i n d p a r k e d c a r s .

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8-12 y e a r s N = 8 2 _---- T A B L E 50.C

V e h i c l e P a s s e n g e r s C y c l i s t s N = 1 3 N = 29

N D I

DF __ OR - N D _ _ DF I

NS __ N = 6 N = 4 N=3 N=2 1 N=3 N=5 M F M F M F M F M M F 2 4 3 1 1 2 1 7 4 3 4 1

P e d e s t r i a n s I-____-___

N = 39 A - C - N D - OR __ R _ D F

I

BR __ U A N=l N = 1 8 N=6 N = 5 N=3 N=l N=3 N=l -

F M F M F M F M F M M M 1 1 4 3 4 2 2 3 2 1 1 3 1

Motor Cyc 1 i s t - N = l

I N = 1 - M 1

D . C h i l d r e n 1 3 - 1 6 y e a r s _______I_-__--

A t t h i s a g e a s i z e a b l e number o f s c e n a r i o s a r e n e e d e d t o a c c o u n t f o r most of t h e a c c i d e n t s . I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t o n o t e t h a t a t t h i s age g r o u p " d r i v e r f a u l t " becomes a r e l a t i v e l y more i m p o r t a n t s c e n a r i o f o r t h e t h r e e m a j o r r o a d u s e r c a t e g o r i e s . T h i s may r e f l e c t t h e a b i l i t y o f o l d e r p e e r s who m i g h t w i t n e s s a n a c c i d e n t t o b e a b l e t o d e f e n d t h e a c t i o n s o f t h e t e e n a g e r i n v o l v e d . A s s u c h , i t r a i s e s t h e q u e s t i o n a s w h e t h e r o r n o t ' d r i v e r f a u l t ' a s a s c e n a r i o i s a l l t o o o f t e n u n d e r s t a t e d i n t h e y o u n g e r a g e g r o u p s .

TABLE 50.D -_I--

V e h i c l e P a s s e n g e r s _I

N = 4 3 N D - NS J DF

N T l Ng18 NZT1 N=3

13-16 y e a r s N = 1 1 9

C y c l i s t s N = 2 6

N D I

OR DF N T 6 N X N=4

M F M F M F M F M M M

7 4 9 9 7 4 2 1 1 6 6 4

P e d e s t r i a n s N = 25-

Motor C y c l i s t & P.P. N = 2 5

N D - I - T B - I N - A - N D __ OR I

DF __ B R I

N = 6 N=13 N=2 N=3 N = l N=3 N = 6 N=l 1 N=5 M F M F M F M M M M M F M F 2 4 7 6 1 1 3 1 3 6 9 2 4 1

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The key s c e n a r i o s a r e :

V e h i c l e P a s s e n g e r s - ( t e e n a g e r s i . e . t e e n d r i v e r s a n d m u l t i p l e t e e n s i n c a r )

P e d e s t r i a n s - d r i v e r f a u l t

P e d a l C y c l i s t s - f a i l u r e t o o b e y r o a d r u l e s

Moto r c y c l i s t / - i n c o r r e c t m a n o e u v r e s P i l l i o n P a s s e n g e r s

To a d e g r e e t h e a b o v e i s a n o v e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n . N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e s e s c e n a r i o s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t . A d d i t i o n a l l y , h o w e v e r , o t h e r s c e n a r i o s s h o u l d n o t b e o v e r l o o k e d i n c l u d i n g :

V e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s - n o t w e a r i n g s e a t h e l t - d r i v e r f a u l t

P e d e s t r i a n s - r u n n i n g and p a r k e d c a r s

P e d a l c y c l i s t - d r i v e r f a u l t

Moto r c y c l i s t - t r a i l b i k e s on r o a d .

4 . 2 5 A n a l y s i s o f A c c i d e n t R e c o r d s - M u l t i p l e C a u s a t i o n I l_ll-l_-lll-l--- 1111

I n a n a l y s i n g t h e a c c i d e n t r e c o r d s t h e a p p r o a c h o f H e r b e r t & Humphreys ( 1 9 7 8 ) w a s a d o p t e d w h e r e b y t h e e m p h a s i s was on i d e n t i f y i n g t h e main c o n t r i b u t i n g p r e - c r a s h f a c t o r s . In t h e a n a l y s i s t h i s f a r I o n e m a i n c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r h a s b e e n a s s i g n e d t o e a c h a c c i d e n t . Road A c c i d e n t s , h o w e v e r , a r e r a r e l y t h e r e s u l t o f a s i n g l e f a c t o r . The F e d e r a l O f f i c e o f Road S a f e t y i n 1 9 8 2 , i n r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e m u l t i p l e c a u s a t i o n i n r o a d a c c i d e n t s , d e v e l o p e d a l e a f l e t e n t i t l e d " T h e Road S a f e t y M a t r i x " , b a s e d upon t h e work of Haddon ( 1 9 7 2 ) .

An a t t e m p t was made t o a p p l y t h e m a t r i x a p p r o a c h t o t h e c a s e s t u d i e s . However , l i t t l e p r o g r e s s w a s made b e c a u s e o f t h e i n a d e q u a t e n a t u r e o f a c c i d e n t r e p o r t i n g , a t l e a s t w i t h r e s p e c t t o c a u s a t i o n . T h e r e s u l t o f t h i s a n a l y s i s l e a d t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n , t h a t o n t h e b a s i s of a c c i d e n t r e p o r t d a t a a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n 0 - 1 6 a p p e a r t o b e p r i m a r i l y ( e v e n e x c l u s i v e l y ) t h e r e s u l t of o n e c o n t r i b u t i n g p r e - c r a s h f a c t o r ( T a b l e 50.E).

T a b l e 5 0 . E r e v e a l s t h a t t h e a n a l y s i s l e a d s t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t m o s t o f t h e r e p o r t e d a c c i d e n t s h a d o n l y o n e ma in c o n t r i b u t i n g c a u s e . However , i n a t l e a s t o n e i n e v e r y f o u r a c c i d e n t s i t was p o s s i b l e t o n o m i n a t e a t l e a s t o n e o t h e r main c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r .

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9 4

T A B L E 5 0 . E __-I__

S c e n a r i o

No s e a t b e l t f i t t e d o r worn U n a t t e nd ed c h il d F a i l u r e t o o b e y r o a d r u l e s D r i v e r f a u l t J o y r i d i n g / t e e n a g e r s O t h e r non-d r i v e r f a c t o r s Beh ind p a r k e d v e h i c l e a n d r u n n i n g I n c o r r e c t m a n o e u v r e s T r a i l - b i k e on r o a d R u n n i n g o u t u n e x p e c t e d l y Borrowed b i k e , i n e x p e r i e n c e d r i d e r A t t r a c t i o n S t o p p e d i n c e n t r e o f r o a d O t h e r All F a c t o r s

Number of C a u s e s One Two T h r e e

27 1 2 3 4 0 6 4 4 1 2 2 4 9 1 2 1

8 6 4 18 8 1 3 4 1 3 -

4 7 1 4 2 1

10 1 1 2 2 6 2

-- -

- - - -

- - - - 2 4 9 8 1 1 2

A n a l y s i s of t h e a c c i d e n t r e c o r d s r e v e a l e d t h a t i n v e r y few i n s t a n c e s , w h e r e m u l t i p l e c a u s e s c o u l d b e i d e n t i f i e d , d i d a n y p a t t e r n o f m u l t i p l e c a u s e s e m e r g e , n o r was a n y p a r t i c u l a r m u l t i p l e c a u s e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a n y s c e n a r i o t y p e . The o n l y e x c e p t i o n was t h e j o y r i d i n g / t e e n a g e r s s c e n a r i o w h e r e t h e i n e x p e r i e n c e of t h e d r i v e r and f a s t e r t h a n n o r m a l s p e e d c o n t r i b u t e d t o loss of c o n t r o l , p a r t i c u l a r l y o n t u r n s , c u r v e s i n t h e r o a d o r when o v e r t a k i n g .

A c r o s s a l l t h e s c e n a r i o s l a c k o f e x p e r i e n c e a n d l a c k of c o n t r o l w e r e f r e q u e n t l y p r e s e n t a s f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o a c c i d e n t

-___------ o c c u r r e n c e w i t h p e d a l c y c l i s t s , m o t o r c y c l i s t s a n d d r i v e r s ( e . 9 . y o u n g e r p e d a l c y c l i s t s h i t k e r b o r bump a n d l o s e c o n t r o l ) .

A n o t h e r common o c c u r r e n c e w i t h i n many s c e n a r i o t y p e s was t h e f a i l u r e t o s t o p o r g i v e way a t T - i n t e r s e c t i o n s r e s u l t i n g i n a c o l l i s i o n . Speed a n d f a i l u r e t o n e g o t i a t e t u r n s a l s o f e a t u r e i n a number o f s c e n a r i o s ( e . g . j o y r i d i n g , d r i v e r f a u l t , f a i l u r e t o o b e y r o a d r u l e s ) .

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4 . 2 6 Summary o f S c e n a r i o A n a l y s i s

The i n - d e p t h a n a l y s i s of c a s e r e c o r d s l e a d s t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t s c o n s i s t o f many d i f f e r e n t a c c i d e n t p a t t e r n s w h i c h v a r y b y age and b y r o a d u s e r t y p e .

The y o u n g e s t ( p r e - s c h o o l ) a g e g r o u p ( 0 - 4 y e a r s ) a r e p r i m a r i l y i n v o l v e d a s p e d e s t r i a n s and v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s . A s p e d e s t r i a n s , t h e l i k e l i h o o d i s t h e y a r e l e f t u n a t t e n d e d u s u a l l y f o r o n l y a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t p e r i o d o f t i m e . Young c h i l d r e n i n v o l v e d a s v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s ( e s p e c i a l l y a s a f a t a l i t y ) a r e l i k e l y n o t t o b e u s i n g a n y fo rm of r e s t r a i n t .

The e a r l y p r i m a r y s c h o o l - a g e d - c h i l d r e n ( 5 - 7 y e a r s ) a r e i n v o l v e d i n r o a d a c c i d e n t s a s p e d e s t r i a n s , v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s and c y c l i s t s . A s v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s r e s t r a i n t s a r e u n l i k e l y t o b e worn . As p e d e s t r i a n s , i t i s l a r g e l y b o y s and many a r e r u n n i n g on t o t h e r o a d o f t e n n e a r a p a r k e d c a r . The p e d a l c y c l i s t c a s u a l t i e s l a c k t h e ' s k i l l s a n d / o r d i s o b e y r o a d r u l e s . The r e c o r d s r a r e l y a t t r i b u t e c a s u a l i t y t o d r i v e r f a u l t .

The u p p e r p r i m a r y s c h o o l - a g e d - c h i l d r e n (8-1 2 y e a r s ) become c a s u a l t i e s t h r o u g h c r a s h e s a s c y c l i s t s and p e d e s t r i a n s o r a s v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s and e x h i b i t s i m i l a r p a t t e r n s t o t h e 5-7 y e a r o l d s . Boys , i n p a r t i c u l a r , a r e a p r o b l e m b e c a u s e o f r u n n i n g f rom b e h i n d p a r k e d c a r s and b o y s w i t h b i c y l e s who d i s o b e y r o a d r u l e s .

W h i l s t t h e h i g h s c h o o l t e e n a g e g r o u p ( 1 3 - 1 6 y e a r s ) a r e l i k e l y t o b e i n v o l v e d m o s t l y a s v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s , t h e y r e q u i r e a much l a r g e r number of s c e n a r i o s t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e i r c a s u a l t y a c c i d e n t s . A s v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s t h e y a r e l i k e l y t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h young d r i v e r s , m u l t i p l e o c c u p a n t s , no s e a t b e l t a n d d r i v e r a t f a u l t - ( j o y - r i d i n g s c e n a r i o ) . T h i s a g e g r o u p a r e i n v o l v e d a s p e d a l c y c l i s t s n o t o b e y i n g t h e r u l e s and a s i n n o c e n t v i c t i m s o f d r i v e r s . A s p e d e s t r i a n s , t h e y a r e l i k e l y t o b e i n n o c e n t v i c t i m s of c a r e l e s s d r i v e r s . I n t h i s a g e g r o u p , m o t o r c y c l e d r i v e r s and p i l l i o n p a s s e n g e r s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t i n c l u d i n g t r a i l b i k e s on r o a d s . W h i l s t s m a l l i n n u m b e r s , i l l e g a l d r i v e r s o f c a r s m u s t a l s o b e i n c l u d e d .

__II__-____-

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4 .3 A n a l y s i s of Mass D a t a BaSeS

The i d i o g r a p h i c a n a l y s i s of i n d i v i d u a l c a s e r e c o r d s i s m o s t u s e f u l f o r g e n e r a t i n g h y p o t h e s e s and d e v e l o p i n g g l o b a l s c e n a r i o s . However , g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s f rom s u c h d a t a a r e q u e s t i o n a b l e b e c a u s e o f t h e s m a l l sample b a s e s and t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e sample t o a c c u r a t e l y r e p r e s e n t t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n of c h i l d a c c i d e n t s . A c c o r d i n g l y , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o a l s o a n a l y s e t h e mass d a t a b a s e s i f v a l i d g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s a r e t o b e made. Of c o u r s e , mass d a t a i n t e r r o g a t i o n s a l s o s u f f e r f rom t h e same p r o b l e m of a l a c k o f c a u s a l d a t a . The p r i m a r y method of i n t e r r o g a t i o n i s c o r r e l a t i o n a l .

I n t h i s s u b - s e c t i o n o f t h e r e p o r t i t i s t h e p r e c i p i t a t i n g v a r i a b l e s w h i c h a r e e x a m i n e d f o r key s c e n a r i o s and v a r i o u s a g e and u s e r g r o u p s . A t t h e same t i m e , e v e r y e f f o r t i s made t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r o r n o t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t b e t w e e n N . S . W . and V i c t o r i a , b e t w e e n m e t r o and n o n - m e t r o , b e t w e e n 1981 and 1 9 8 2 , and b y d e g r e e o f i n j u r y . On ly t h o s e r e s u l t s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e t a b l e s f o r a n y p o s s i b l e p r e c i p i t a t i n g v a r i a b l e . T h e v a r i a b l e s c o v e r e d r e f l e c t t h o s e a v a i l a b l e and b e l i e v e d t o b e i m p o r t a n t f rom t h e p r i o r l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w .

The mass d a t a a n a l y s e d i n v o l v e d

1981 N a t i o n a l F a t a l F i l e 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 2 , and 1 9 8 3 N . S . W . ( T A R U ) A c c i d e n t F i l e s 1981 & 1982 V i c t o r i a ( R T A ) A c c i d e n t F i l e s

The v a r i a b l e s examined v a r y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r r e l e v a n c e t o e a c h of t h e ma in r o a d u s e r g r o u p s . T h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n , w h i c h e x a m i n e s a l l r o a d u s e r s a s a t o t a l , d o e s n o t i n c l u d e v a r i a b l e s s p e c i f i c t o p a r t i c u l a r r o a d u s e r g r o u p s ; e .g . p o s i t i o n i n v e h i c l e , wh ich i s i n c l u d e d i n t h e v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s u b s e c t i o n 4 .32 . F u r t h e r m o r e , s e c t i o n 4.31 i s b a s e d o n d a t a f rom t h e N a t i o n a l F a t a l F i l e and t h e V i c t o r i a n d a t a . The N . S . W . d a t a w a s n o t o b t a i n e d f o r a l l r o a d u s e r s a s a t o t a l .

___---____I

ll-____ll_-l__--l

--I-___--___---_-- __- --l_l_

--

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4.31 A l l C h i l d A c c i d e n t s - A l l Road Users

4.311 Month of Y e a r

~ - - _I-_

1_1- - N a t i o n a l l y , December p r o d u c e s t h e g r e a t e s t l_____ll______-_ number o f f a t a l i t i e s l a r g e l y b e c a u s e c o n s i d e r a b l y more c h i l d r e n a r e k i l l e d a s v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r s i n December .

-I_-

T A B L E 51 I

C H I L D ROAD FATALITIES 1 9 8 1 AUSTRALIA _____I I_

B Y 3 MAI~T"-~~GAD-ER --__- lil_-__ C A T E G O R I E S

B a s e N o .

J a n u a r y F e b r u a r y March A p r i l

J u n e J u l y Augus t S e p t e m b e r O c t o b e r Nove mb e r

--

May

V e h i c l e P e d e s t - B i c y c l e A l l Road P a s s e n g e r s r i a n s Users

3 8 2 -- -I_

-I

66 I

1 3 4 I

1 4 8 I

% % % % 1 1

7 6 7 6 3

1 2 6 9 7 8

7 7

1 1 1 1

3 7 7

1 2 1 0

9 9

9 1 1

9 4 8 9 2 4

1 1 1 4

9

1 0 7 8 8 5 5 9 8

1 0 9 9 -

1 6 6 1 1 1 1 December l-------l-l--l----l______l-

T o t a l 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 %

S o u r c e : D . O . T . , F a t a l F i l e , 1981 . * M o t o r c y c l e / p i l l i o n p a s s e n g e r s and d r i v e r s e x c l u d e d

b e c a u s e b a s e s t o o s m a l l b u t a r e i n c l u d e d i n t o t a l co lumn.

A n a l y s i s of V i c t o r i a n s t a t i s t i c s a c r o s s a l l r o a d a c c i d e n t s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e i s l i t t l e c o n s i s t e n c y b e t w e e n y e a r s , d e g r e e of i n j u r y , g e o g r a p h i c l o c a t i o n . The o n l y n o t a b l e e x c e o t i o n . i r r . , --

~

for a s l i g h t p e a k t o occu r i n December and J a n u a r y i n c o u n t r y a reas i n V i c t o r i a .

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4.312 Day o f Week

A t a n a t i o n a l l e v e l , t h e r e i s a t e n d e n c y f o r c h i l d r o a d f a t a l i t i e s t o p e a k a t w e e k e n d s .

-_

T A B L E 5 2

D a y o f Week B a s e No. -I----__ - ___--

C H I L D R O A D FATALITIES 1 9 8 1 AUSTRALIA I I-_I_

D A Y OF WEEK BY R O A D U S E R C A T E G O R Y -I--__- I_-_

S u n d a y Monday T u e s d a y W e d n e s d a y T h u r s d a y F r i d a y S a t u r d a y

P a s s . 1 4 8

% 21 1 6

4 6 9

1 5

I

P e d . 1 3 4

% 1 6 1 2

8 1 3 22 1 5

__ -- B i c y c l e M ' B i k e

21 * * 6 5 * % % 1 8 1 0 2 0 1 9

9 5 1 1 5

8 5 2 0 19

I - D r i v e r

1 3 * * % 23

8 1 5

2 3 8

-

-

T o t a l 381 *

% 1 8 1 5 7 9

1 4 1 6

-

2 8 1 5 1 4 3 8 2 3 2 2 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 % - - - - ~

S o u r c e : D . O . T . , F a t a l File, 1 9 8 1 .

* B a s e = 382 b u t 7 u n k n o w n d a y o f w e e k f o r a p e d a l

* * C a u t i o n s m a l l b a s e s f o r m o t o r b i k e s 5% = 1 p e r s o n

---

c y c l i s t ( 6 6 n o t 6 5 ) .

f o r d r i v e r 8 % = 1 p e r s o n .

I n V i c t o r i a , i n g e n e r a l , a c r o s s 1 9 8 1 a n d 1 9 8 2 , k i l l e d a n d i n j u r e d , m e t r o a n d n o n - m e t r o t h e w e e k e n d s a c c o u n t e d f o r d i s p r o p o r t i o n a l l y m o r e c h i l d a c c i d e n t s t h a n w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d i f a l l d a y s c o n t r i b u t e d e q u a l l y . F r i d a y s w e r e a l s o l i k e l y t o be m o r e d a n g e r o u s t h a n o t h e r w e e k d a y s .

--I_-

- -I

-lll_ --

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99

4 . 3 1 3 T i m e o f Day I_____

N a t i o n a l l y , c h i l d r o a d d e a t h s a r e most l i k e l y t o o c c u r b e t w e e n 2 p . m . a n d 8 p . m . 5 1 % o c c u r r e d i n t h i s 6 h o u r p e r i o d . 4 p.m. t o 6 p.m. i s t h e p e a k p e r i o d f o r c h i l d r o a d d e a t h s . However 2-4 p.m. and 6 t o 8 p.m. a r e a l s o i m p o r t a n t t imes .

--I--____ ___I_ l_---___l_

__-_

T A B L E 5 3 I

C H I L D R O A D FATALITIES 1 9 8 1 AUSTRALIA --II__--- I_

B Y 3 MAIN R O A D U S E R C A T E G O R I E S -_--_I _I

T i m e o f Day P a s s e n q e z

B a s e No. 1 4 8

1 2 Noon - 2p.m. 6 2 - 4 p.m. 1 4

---- %

4 - 6 p.m. 1 1 6 - 8 p.m. 1 1 8 - 1 0 p.m. 7 1 0 - 1 2 p . m . 1 2 12p.m. - 2 a.m. 5 2 - 4 a.m. 7 4 - 6 a.m. 3 6 - 8 a . m . 5 8 - 1 0 a . m . 7

P e d e s t r i a n s

1 3 4 %

8 2 5 2 3 18

5 4 1 2

1 8

_--

-

B i c y c l e

6 6 % 1 4 1 8 2 9 1 2

3

1

__

- - - 5

1 2

A l l Road U s e r s

3 8 2 %

8 1 8 1 9 1 4

6 7 3 3 1 3 8

-____ __-

1 0 a.m. - 1 2 Noon _I________-______________________ 1 2 7 6 9 T o t a l 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 % 1 0 0 %

S o u r c e : D . O . T . , F a t a l F i l e , 1 9 8 1 .

A n a l y s i s of t h e V i c t o r i a n d a t a , b y e a c h s i n g l e h o u r , r e v e a l s t h a t a c r o s s 1 9 8 1 a n d 1 9 8 2 , m e t r o and n o n - m e t r o , f a t a l a n d non f a t a l , t h e p e a k two h o u r s a r e n o t 4 t o 6 p.m. b u t 3 t o 5 p . m . w h i c h a c c o u n t s f o r o v e r 25%-of c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t s . T h u s , t h e m o s t d a n g e r o u s h o u r s a r e b e t w e e n 3 a n d 6 p.m. a n d e s p e c i a l l y 3 t o 2 p.m. I n t h i s - 3 h o u r s p e r i o d 1 i n e v e r y 3 r o a d a c c i d e n t s

---__I_-__

l___-i_---_--~__ ~ - - - ____-I I_

_- i n v o l v i n g a c h i l d o c c u r .

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T A B L E 54 --

100

R O A D A C C I D E N T S V I C T O R I A 0-1 6 y e a r s P e r c e n t a g e Be tween 3-5 p . m . ____ __l__-l_-l_--

1981 1982

M e t r o C o u n t r y

25.8% 26.6% 25.9% 25.7%

M e t r o C o u n t r y

1981 1982 11.1% 10.8%

i_

9.3% 10.2%

S o u r c e : R T A (Vie.)

4.314 Years o f D r i v i n g , E x p e r i e n c e ___I_-___-

N o v i c e d r i v e r s a r e i n v o l v e d d i s p r o p o r t i o n a l l y i n r o a d a c c i d e n t s -I_

i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n 13-16. T h i s i s t r u e i n __ b o t h t h e n o n - m e t r o and i n t h e m e t r o a x a n d , a s w i l l h e shown i n s e c t i o n (4.328), 1s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e of ma le d r i v e r s i n v o l v e d i n c h i l d p a s s e n g e r

______-l__i___iI_i__l_ I_

__- -I I_____-_ a c c i d e n t s .

T A B L E 5 5 I

ALL ROAD A C C I D E N T S I N V O L V I N G C H I L D R E N -- 0-16 _-___--_I_ - V I C T O R I A N D R I V E R EXPERIENCE IN YEARS 19-

II--i

Numbers

Years of D r i v i n g M e t r o Non-Metro 82 E x pe r i e n c e

Under 1 y e a r 201 179 106 83

2 - 3 y e a r s 124 99 28 30 3 - 4 y e a r s 101 97 23 27

30 T o t a l 0-5 y e a r s 62 5 584 214 225

5-9 y e a r s 382 367 103 125 771 402 386

__ 81 - 82 - 81 -

1 - 2 y e a r s 129 130 38 55

4 - 5 y e a r s 70 79 19 - --

1 0 or more v e a r s 788 236 217 955 953

__- Un known / O t h e r * 335 385 21 30 21 07

-- - -I T o t a l _

S o u r c e : RTA ( V i c . ) . * i . e . n o m o t o r v e h i c l e i n v o l v e d i n t h e c h i l d a c c i d e n t .

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1 0 1

The same p i c t u r e e m e r g e s if t h e d a t a b a s e i s f a t a l a c c i c l e n t s as i n T a b l e 56. The i n c i d e n c e o f " f i r s t I_ y e a r " d r i v e r s I__I b e i n g i n v o l v e d i n c h i l d a c c i d e n t s , and e s p e c i a l l y a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g a c h i l d f a t a l i t y , was d i s p r o p o r t i o n a l l y h i g h , e s p e c i a l l y i n 1 9 8 2 i n non-me t r o V i c t o r i a .

TABLE 5 6

- - ~ - - - - - ~

I____

FATAL ROAD A C C I D E N T S I N V O L V I N G C H I L D R E N 0 - 1 6 ---I_ ________I_____ V I C T O R I A N D R I V E R E X P E R I E N C E I N Y E A R S 1 9 8 1 / 8 2 ~ ---l-ll_l____ I_ I_

Numbers M e t r o Non-Metro

8 2 -_ 81 I

8 2 - 8 1 - Under 1 y e a r 1 - 2 y e a r s 2-3 y e a r s

8 6 4 7 4 2 1 2 5 5 1 - 4 2 3 - 1 3 1 3

2 2 1 8 1 0 1 2 8 7 4 3

1 5 1 2 1 0 7 8 1 3 9

6 4 4 8 39 34

3 - 4 y e a r s 4 - 5 y e a r s T o t a l 0-5 y e a r s

5 - 9 y e a r s 1 0 o r more y e a r s 2 7

Unknown /O t h e r T o t a l

~__l_-________-_-_____I__________

S o u r c e : RTA ( V i c . )

A t t h e t ime o f w r i t i n g t h e i n c i d e n c e o f n o v i c e d r i v e r s i n v o l v e d i n " a n y " r e p o r t e d r o a d a c c i d e n t s was n o t a v a i l a b l e t o t h e a u t h o r s . i r r e s p e c t i v e o f w h e t h e r o r n o t n o v i c e d r i v e r s a r e d i s p r o p o r t i o n a l l y i n v o l v e d i n a c c i d e n t s w h e r e c h i l d r e n a r e n o t p r e s e n t .

The a r g u m e n t s t i l l h o l d s

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1 0 2

4 .315 S t a t u s o f D r i v e r L i c e n c e older

The o v e r - i n v o l v e m e n t of n o v i c e d r i v e r s i s a l s o e v i d e n c e d f r o m a n a l y s i s of l i c e n c e s t a t u s o f d r i v e r s i n v o l v e d i n a c c i d e n t s i n w h i c h c h i l d r e n 0 - 1 6 a r e i n v o l v e d . Two t h i r d s of d r i v e r s i n v o l v e d i n c h i l d a c c i d e n t s i n V i c t o r i a h a v e a s t a n d a r d d r i v e r s l i c e n c e .

-___I __- _I_I

TYPE O F L I C E N C E HELD BY DRIVERS I N V O L V E D I N C H I L D R O A D ACCIDENTS

I N V I C T O R I A 1 9 8 1 - 1 9 8 2 A l l A c c i d e n t s

--li--__

TABLE 5 7 ---I-

-lli__-__-ll____l_-

- l_l-l__

1 9 8 1 __ Non-Metro ----_I

M e t r o F a t . * Acc.** F a t . A C C . -_ __

L e a r n e r 1 1 7 - 1 6 P r o b a t i o n a r y 17 3 9 9 4 1 7 0 S t a nd a r d 4 2 1 4 3 7 3 0 6 3 4

4 D i s q u a l i f i e d - 3 U n l i c e n s e d 2 5 2 1 3 7 Unknown 1 1 6 5 3 4 7

-

O t h e r 1 5 7 1 4 7 6 4 21 3 0 39 9 5 5

_-

1 9 8 2 __ M e t r o Non-Metro

F a t . A C C . F a t . A C C . I__ __ I - -_ I

- 1 3 - 1 0 1 2 3 6 9 5 1 6 6 2 6 1 4 1 8 2 6 6 4 5

2 1 7 - 1 5 6 - 3 0 7 1 6 8 2 4 5 1 7 6 1 5 5

4 8 2 1 0 7 3 4 9 5 3 --_I_ I -

S o u r c e : R T A ( V i c . ) * F a t . r e f e r s t o f a t a l i t i e s * * A C C . r e f e r s t o a l l a c c i d e n t s .

__I-

A c c o r d i n g t o T A R U s u p p l i e d d a t a ( T a b l e 5 8 ) f o r N.S.W., a p p r o x i m a t e l y o n l y 5 % o f m a l e l i c e n c e h o l d e r s h a v e a " p r o v i s i o n a l d r i v e r s l i c e n c e " w h i l s t 7 2 % of m a l e s h o l d a s t a n d a r d c l a s s 1 l i c e n c e . I t c a n b y h y p o t h e s i s e d t h a t p r o b a t i o n a r y d r i v e r s i n V i c t o r i a a r e a l s o d i s p r o p o r t i o n a l l y i n v o l v e d i n a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n . The e x t e n t of such-over i < v o l v e m e n t is g r e a t e s t i n t h e m e t r o a r e a i f t h e a c c i d e n t i n v o l v e s a c h i l d f a t a l i t y .

- I___ i__

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T A B L E I 5 8 NUMBERS OF L I C E N C E H O L D E R S I I N N.S.W,1981-82 - 1 9 8 1 1 9 8 2

F e m a l e --_1

Female Male ---I

Male -I

V e h i c l e d r i v e r s 1 , 2 2 2 , 9 0 4 1 , 1 1 0 , 2 2 5 1 , 1 5 4 , 8 1 1 1 , 1 5 8 , 0 5 3 C l a s s 1 C l a s s e s 2 - 5 4 5 4 , 5 1 1 1 5 , 2 5 5 4 6 7 , 6 2 9 1 6 4 5 7 Motor c y c l i s t 2 2 9 , 9 1 0 -__ 2 1 , 3 6 3 2 4 4 , 4 4 6 22 ,643 P r o v i s i o n a l

l__l__I__________________l___l__________--

5 1 , 9 4 9 -----__ c 5 7 , 0 0 7 4 8 , 8 3 2 5 6 , 9 2 9 -___---I-- ___ d r i v e r s

P r o v i s i o n a l r i d e r s 6 ,122 5 2 5 5 , 0 3 2 3 9 8

_______l____l_l_---______

A l l l i c e n c e s * 1 , 8 9 4 , 2 3 1 1 ,197 ,492 1 , 9 5 1 , 9 5 7 1 , 2 5 0 , 7 6 6 3 ,202 ,723 ___I__ - 3,091 ,723

S o u r c e : T A R U ( N . S . W . ) * i n c l u d e s t a x i s , c l a s s 7; c l a s s 8 & 9. I__I

N.S.W. h a s a s i z e a h l e p r o b l e m of a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d d r i v e r s ( u n d e r 1 7 y e a r s o f a g e ) . Mos t of t h e s e c h i l d r e n , who a r e i n v o l v e d i n a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g t h e m s e l v e s a n d / o r o t h e r c h i l d r e n ( 0 - 1 6 1 , a r e u n l i c e n s e d . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e number o f u n l i c e n s e d d r i v e r s u n d e r 1 7 y e a r s of a g e i n N . S . W . i s s u b s t a n t i a l i f a l l a c c i d e n t s a r e a c c o u n t e d f o r ( t a b l e 5 9 ) .

TABLE 5 9 __ - _____ -~ STATUS O F D R I V E R S U N D E R 1 7 YEARS

--_I

I N V O L V E D I N CRASHES I N N . S . W . 1 9 8 1 - 1 9 8 2 i-l____

A l l A c c i d e n t s * --I_I

_I 1 9 8 1 1 9 8 2 Non-Metro ___I__

M e t r o -- M e t r o Non-Metro C a r s Moto r cars Motor C a r s Motor C a r s Moto r

C y c l e ~ -_ -_

I_-- -- C y c l e C y c l e C y c l e

L e a r n e r 4 7 3 7 3 3 5 2 2 5 39 29 4 9 P r o v i s i o n a l 2 1 4 - 3 3 4 2 S t and a r d 2 - 1 3 E x p i r e d - - - - - - - - U n l i c e n s e d 1 4 6 6 0 5 6 51 1 4 1 55 6 9 6 6

- - - -

- 6 2 1 1 1 4 1 1 __ --_- Unknown T o t a l 2 0 3 1 0 0 1 0 4 1 0 5 1 7 6 9 8 1 0 3 1 1 7

S o u r c e : T A R U (N.S.W.) * E x c l u d e s v e h i c l e s d e f i n e d a s ' o t h e r ' i .e . n o t c a r or c a r d e r i v a t i v e s . --

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4 . 3 1 6 A l c o h o l I n v o l v e m e n t

D a t a r e l a t i n g t o a l c o h o l i n v o l v e m e n t v a r i e s a s t o i t s r e l i a b i l i t y b e t w e e n t h e v a r i o u s s t a t e s . A t a N a t i o n a l l e v e l i n 1 9 8 1 , of t h e 3 8 2 c h i l d d e a t h s on t h e r o a d , a l c o h o l w a s known t o b e p r e s e n t i n o v e r 1 0 % of t h e c h i l d f a t a l i t i e s . I t i s c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t t h e r e a l i n c i d e n c e was h i g h e r .

T a b l e 6 0 r e v e a l s t h a t a l c o h o l h a s i t s g r e a t e s t i m p a c t i n r o a d a c c i d e n t s upon c h i l d r e n a s o c c u p a n t s a n d s e c o n d o n l y on c h i l d r e n a s p e d e s t r i a n s .

T A B L E 60 ALCOHOL I N V O L V E M E N T I N C H I L D ROAD D E A T H S - 1 9 8 1

T o t a l No A l c o h o l Under Over Unknown . 0 5 . 0 5

D e c e a s e d p e d e s t r i a n s 1 3 4 8 7 1 12 34 c y c l i s t s / p i l l i o n p a s s e n g e r s 6 6 5 2 1 2 1 1 mot0 r c y c l i s t /

3 p i l l i o n p a s s e n g e r s 2 1 18 - - d r i v e r / c a r e t c . 13 5 1 1 6 p a s s e n q e rs 1 4 8 6 2 5 2 1 60 T o t a l 3 8 2 2 2 4 8 3 6 1 1 4

S o u r c e : D . O . T . F a t a l F i l e , 1 9 8 1 .

V i c t o r i a n d a t a r e v e a l s t h a t a l c o h o l i s i n v o l v e d i n a s i z e a b l e number of r o a d a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n , a l t h o u g h , i n mos t i n s t a n c e s , t h e l e v e l of a l c o h o l i n v o l v e m e n t i s b e l o w t h e p r e s c r i b e d l i m i t . A l c o h o l i s i n v o l v e d i n o v e r a q u a r t e r of c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t s i n t h e n o n - m e t r o a n d a r o u n d o n e f i f t h of t h e s e o c c u r r i n g i n t h e m e t r o a r e a . M o s t l y , t h e a l c o h o l i n v o l v e m e n t d o e s n o t e x c e e d t h e p r e s c r i b e d l e g a l l i m i t .

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T A B L E 61 I

B L O O D A L C O H O L C O N T E N T O F D R I V E R S I N V O L V E D I N C H I L D ROAD A C C I D E N T S

_lll~--

-_I_ _-_--__I- --__-I

I N V I C T O R I A 1 9 8 1 - 1 9 8 2 -_I_ __--I-

A l l A c c i d e n t s -l_l___

1 9 8 2 -- 1 9 8 1 Metro C o u n t r y M e t K O C o u n t r y -I-- __I- --___ I----

B. . C . un ) r . 0 5 3 4 5 2 2 3 3 7 9 2 0 9 B . A . C . . 0 5 a n d above 3 0 3 3 3 7 51

6 9 3 O t h e r * 1 7 5 5 6 9 9 1 6 9 2 1 3 0 9 5 5 21 07 9 5 3

I _- --

Fa t a l it i e s

B . A . C . u n d e r .05 1 2 1 1 1 1 6

above 0 3 1 0

--I_-

B . A . C . . 0 5 and

O t h e r * 2 8 5 2 6 4 3 9 48 3 4

I 36 I-

2 5 - - S o u r c e : R T A ( V i c . ) * I n c l u d e s a c c i d e n t s w i t h no a l c o h o l a n d n o d r i v e r i n v o 1 vemen t .

4.317 Weather C o n d i t i o n s

A n a l y s i s of t h e f a t a l f i l e f o r c h i l d road d e a t h s n a t i o n a l l y f o r 1 9 8 1 r e v e a l s t h a t bad w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s a r e p r e s e n t f o r some c h i l d road d e a t h s b u t i n l e s s t h a n 1 0 % of c a s e s .

I_

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T A B L E 62 ---- C H I L D R O A D DEATHS, 1 9 8 1 ( 0 - 1 6 Years) ROAD-USER TYPE O F DECEASED A N D WEATHER C O N D I T I O N S AT T I M E O F A C C I D E N T -

WEATHER CONDITIONS - R o w Unknown F i n e R a i n F o g / M i s t T o t a l -I_ -I

Column T o t a l 382 3 3 5 5 21 1 Type of Road User D r i v e r C a r / T r u c k/Van 1 3 - 1 2 1 P e d e s t r i a n 1 3 4 1 1 2 8 5 - P e d a l C y c l e R i d e r / P i l l i o n 6 6 1 61 4 - M o t o r C y c l e R i d e r / P i l l i o n 21 - 21 - - P a s s e n g e r C a r / V a n / T r u c k 1 4 8 1 1 3 3 1 1 1

-

S o u r c e : D . O . T . , F a t a l F i l e , 1 9 8 1 .

4 . 3 1 8 Type o f Road -I-I-_

Data r e l a t i n g t o t y p e o f r o a d i s n o t e a s y t o i n t e r p r e t . An a t t e m p t i s made i n s e c t i o n 4 . 4 t o l o o k a t l o c a t i o n i n more d e t a i l . D a t a f r o m t h e f a t a l f i l e f o r 1 9 8 1 i n d i c a t e s t h a t i n m e t r o a r e a s m o s t c h i l d f a t a l i t i e s o c c u r o n l o c a l s t r e e t s ( c l a s s 8 and c l a s s 9 o f f u n c t i o n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f r o a d s ) .

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107

T A B L E 63 -__ L O C A T I O N O F F A T A L A C C I D E N T S ---l_-l-__-__i_I

AUSTRALIA 1981

( P e r c e n t a g e s )

A l l 0 - 1 6 P a s s e n g e r s O t h e r

Road H i e r a r c h y _- ~

( a ) Non Urban i_--

C l a s s 1 2 3 4

- - > I - 1 1 6 12 2 15 1 3 23 6 22 19 27 14

-__-______l_l________l___lI__________________ 5 7 7 7 7 ( b ) Urban

1 2 2 2 14 1 1 10 12 18 18 14 21

6 A r t e r i a l Roads 7 C o l l e c t o r Roads 8 L o c a l S t r e e t s 9 S p e c i f i c p u r p o s e

r o a d s / s t r e e t s 12 22 5 32 1 0 Unknown > 1 3

100% 100% 100% 15E -- 2

I

> 1 I

S o u r c e : D . O . T . , F a t a l F i l e , 1981.

A n o t h e r road c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s y s t e m l e n d s w e i g h t t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f l o c a l s t r e e t s a s a m a j o r s o u r c e of r o a d f a t a l i t i e s i n u r b a n a r e a s f o r a l l b u t c a r p a s s e n g e r s .

T A B L E 6 3 I--

L O C A T I O N O F FATAL ACCIDENTS I N V O L V I N G C H I L D R E N 0-16 A U S T R A L I A 1981

-I__I-__-

-- -

( P e r c e n t a g e s )

A l l . V e h i c l e Road C l a s s I_ 0-1 6 P a s s e n g e r s

N o t u r b a n r o a d % % 45 70

N a t i o n a l h i g h w a y 5 5 S t a t e h ighway 5 4 F r e e w a y / t o l l w a y > 1 - A r t e r i a l / s u b - a r t e r i a l

r e s i d e n t i a l 28 10

16 1 1 C o m m e r c i a l /

O t h e r > 1 - 100% 100% - -

D r r e r s / c y c = / ped e s t r i a n s / p i l l i o n

% 30

4 6 1 , 9

39 1

100% -_

S o u r c e : D . O . T . , F a t a l F i l e , 1981.

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In a n e f f o r t t o g e t c l o s e r t o t h e c h i l d r o a d a c c i d e n t s w h i c h o c c u r i n m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a s e a c h a c c i d e n t i n v o l v i n g a f a t a l i t y w i t h a c h i l d 0 -16 i n S y d n e y 1981 and 1 9 8 2 w a s p l o t t e d on a map and coded i n t e r m s r o a d s w i t h " t r a f f i c movement" f u n c t i o n s v e r s u s r o a d s w i t h " a c c e s s " f u n c t i o n s i n l i n e w i t h t h e d i s t i n c t i o n made i n t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f T r a n s p o r t A u s t r a l i a p u b l i c a t i o n "Town P l a n n i n g and Road S a f e t y " .

Each f a t a l was p l o t t e d on a U B D S y d n e y R e g i o n map s h o w i n g i n d u s t r i a l and c o m m e r c i a l a r e a s a n d u s e d t h e DMR c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s y s t e m a s r e c o r d e d on t h e a c c i d e n t r e c o r d . The d a t a i s r e a s o n a b l y p r e c i s e w i t h r e s p e c t t o l o c a t i o n . The f o l l o w i n g c o d e s were u s e d .

Code DMR Type 1 F r e e w a y _I I_____

ORS Type T r a f f i c Movement F u n c t i o n

2 S t a t e Highways 3 Main Road 4 S e c o n d a r y Road A c c e s s F u n c t i o n 5 O t h e r T r a f f i c a b l e r o a d s 6 Main T r a f f i c R o u t e T r a f f i c Movement F u n c t i o n

A d d i t i o n a l l y , e a c h l o c a t i o n was c l a s s i f i e d a s r e s i d e n t i a l o r c o m m e r c i a l o r i n d u s t r i a l . On ly S y d n e y M e t r o p o l i t a n a r ea f a t a l i t i e s were i n c l u d e d i n t h e a n a l y s i s . The r e s u l t s a p p e a r i n T a b l e 64 .

The d a t a i n T a b l e 64 s u g g e s t s t h a t l o c a l r o a d s a r e t h e m o s t l i k e l y v e n u e f o r a f a t a l a c c i d e n t i n v o l v i n g a c h i l d . I t a l s o s u g g e s t s t h a t p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s w h i l s t t h e y o c c u r i n l o c a l s t r e e t s , d o o c c u r i n s t r e e t s w i t h a t r a f f i c movement f u n c t i o n . A n d r e a s s e n d e t . a l . 1 9 8 4 i n a f o o t n o t e , p o i n t o u t i n t h e i r a n a l y s i s of p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s , t h a t a c c i d e n t s o n a p a r t i c u l a r r o a d c l a s s were v i ewed a s c o n s i s t i n q o f a l l t h e l i n k a c c i d e n t s , f o r t h a t c l a s s p l u s a l l t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g a r o a d o f t h a t c l a s s w i t h r o a d s o f e i t h e r t h e same c l a s s o r o f a l o w e r h i e r a r c h y . T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t l o c a l s t r e e t s e t c may g e t subsumed u n d e r h i g h e r p r i o r i t y c a t e g o r i s a t i o n s .

_I

-- -_- __I_

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T A B L E 6 4 --_I

Code Type o f Road 2 S t a t e h ighway -

N . S . W . C H I L D F A T A L I T I E S 1 9 8 1 - 8 2 BY L O C A T I O N O F A C C I D E N T

- i__-__l____l_____--

II________________

( N u m b e r s )

C y c l i s t s P e d e s t V e h i c l e A l l Road

- 6 2 8

I-__ I_--

r i a n s P a s s . Users _-I

3 Main r o a d 2 9 1 2 23

5 O t h e r t r a f f i c a b l e r o a d s 11 1 5 5 31 4 S e c o n d a r y r o a d - 6 1 7

6 Main t r a f f i c r o u t e 4 3 0 7 41 R e s i d e n t i a l 1 5 4 6 1 7 7 8 l___l _______________I______I___

Commerc ia l I n d u s t r i a l

2 1 5 1 1 8 - 4 7 1 1

S o u r c e : T A R U p r o v i d e d d a t a .

4.319 P u r p o s e o f T r i p --l__l__

T h i s a s p e c t of t h e a n a l y s i s o u g h t t o p r o v e mos t u s e f u l . U n f o r t u n a t e l y a c c i d e n t r e p o r t s a r e f r e q u e n t l y l e f t i n c o m p l e t e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h i s q u e s t i o n .

TABLE 65 1_1_

PURPOSE O F TRIP F O R C H I L D R E N 0 - 1 6 K I L L E D O N

---l-__ll_

A U S T E ~ E E C . C D ~ K __- By Type o f Road User

P u r p o s e Work -I_

Home S ho p p i n q R e c r e a t i o n F r i e nd s H o t e l S c h o o l Unknown O t h e r

P e d e s t- r i a n s

1 19 9

1 3 6 3

1 1 6 0 1 2

13-Z

P a s s e n - g e r s -_I

8 2 1

2 1 6 21 , 1 0

3 4 9 1 8

1 4 8

C y c l e * ---

- 8 1

1 0 4

3 38

2 6 6

-

--

Motor C y c l e *

1

1 3 2 2

1 0 2

21

-

-

D r i v e r

3 - - 3 2 1

4

1 3

- - I

T o t a l -__

1 3 4 8 1 3 45 3 5 1 6 1 7

1 6 1 3 4

382 -

S o u r c e : D . O . T . , F a t a l F i l e 1 9 8 1 . *. I n c l u d e s p i l l i o n p a s s e n g e r s .

A n a l y s i s of c a s e r e c o r d s a l s o r e v e a l e d a h i g h l e v e l of “ p u r p o s e unknown”. A g a i n , t h i s s u p p o r t s t h e s u g g e s t i o n i n s e c t i o n 4.14 f o r b e t t e r a c c i d e n t r e p o r t i n g p r o c e d u r e s .

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4.32 V e h i c l e P a s s e n g e r s

4 . 3 2 1 Month o f Yea r __ -- F o r a l l v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n 0-16 y e a r s

t h e r e i s v e r y l i t t l e c o n s i s t e n c y o v e r t i m e , b e t w e e n S t a t e s , m e t r o v e r s u s c o u n t r y . The f o l l o w i n g g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s c a n

l______lll--ll I__

o f a g e -- b e made:

- J a n u a r y and December a r e l i k e l y t o b e p e a k m o n t h s b u t a r e

- The h i g h e r i n c i d e n c e s i n J a n u a r y a n d December a r e more

- May i s a l s o l i k e l y t o b e a p e a k month . - S e p t e m b e r i s a p e a k mon th i n V i c t o r i a a n d w a s a p e a k mon th

n o t a l w a y s so .

p r o n o u n c e d i n c o u n t r y a r e a s .

i n N.S.W. i n 1983 .

A n a l y s i s o f s p e c i f i c s c e n a r i o g r o u p s r e v e a l s s i m i l a r p a t t e r n s t o a b o v e . A l t h o u g h , a s m a l l sample b a s e , c h i l d r e n 5 - 7 w i t h o u t r e s t r a i n t a l s o h a v e a p e a k i n J u n e .

4 . 3 2 2 Day o f Week

C h i l d p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t s 0-16 y e a r s o f a g e i n c r e a s e f r o m T h u r s d a y t o a p e a k on S a t u r d a y w i t h S u n d a y a c c o u n t i n g f o r a l m o s t , o r a s many a s S a t u r d a y . T h i s p a t t e r n a p p l i e s t o m e t r o , n o n - m e t r o ; f a t a l s , n o n - f a t a l s ; 1981-83 ; N . S . W . a n d V i c t o r i a .

--l----l---____l~

l_-_l__ii______ ---- -- ____ll_-l___l

V a r i a t i o n s b y s c e n a r i o g r o u p s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e s i z e of t h e weekend p e a k i n c r e a s e s w i t h t h e i n c r e a s i n g a g e g r o u p o f t h e c h i l d r e n . T h i s a p p l i e s a c r o s s b o t h m e t r o and n o n - m e t r o a r e a s .

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4 . 3 2 3 T i m e o f Day

The p e a k t i m e f o r c h i l d p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t s i s a f t e r n o o n s . I n t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a , t h e i n c i d e n c e i n c r e a s e s s u b s t a n t i a l l y f r o m 3 p . m . t o 8 p . m . w i t h a s l i g h t p e a k a t 4 - 6 p.m. I n t h e c o u n t r y , t h e numbers i n c r e a s e f rom 1 p.m. o r 2 p . m . u n t i l 7 p . m . w i t h a s l i g h t p e a k a t 3 p.m. t o 5 p.m.

W h i l s t t h e s e p e a k t i m e s o c c u r i n t h e a f t e r n o o n t h e r e i s a l s o a sma l l e r mid m o r n i n g p e a k 1 0 - 1 1 a.m. i n V i c t o r i a h u t n o t i n N.S.W. w h e r e t h e n u m b e r s r e m a i n h i g h e r t h a n e a r l y m o r n i n g u n t i l t h e a f t e r n o o n r i s e .

F o r t h e 5-7 y e a r o l d s , n o t w e a r i n g a r e s t r a i n t , t h e p e a k b e t w e e n 4 - 6 p.m. i s q u i t e marked . F o r t h e 8 - 1 2 y e a r o l d s , t h e r e i s a l m o s t n o p e a k so t h a t t h e i r a c c i d e n t s a r e a l m o s t e q u a l l y s p r e a d a c r o s s a l l h o u r s of d a y l i g h t u p t o 8 p . m . F o r t h e t e e n a g e r s 1 3 - 1 6 y e a r s , t h e r e is no peak . U n l i k e o t h e r a g e g r o u p s , t h i s a g e g r o u p a r e i n v o l v e d i n s i z e a b l e numbers i n a c c i d e n t s u p t i l l 1 a . m .

--___I

4 . 3 2 4 P o s i t i o n i n V e h i c l e

On a n a t i o n a l b a s i s f o r 1 9 8 1 , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e F a t a l F i l e , 2 6 % o f c h i l d r e n 0 - 1 6 k i l l e d a s o c c u p a n t s were s e a t e d i n t h e l e f t f r o n t s e a t . The i n c i d e n c e o f b e i n g i n t h e l e f t f r o n t s e a t was 4 0 % f o r t h e t e e n a g e g r o u p ( 1 3 - 1 6 y e a r s ) . F o r a l l r o a d p a s s e n g e r f a t a l i t i e s ( a l l a g e s ) t h e l e f t f r o n t s e a t a c c o u n t e d f o r 6 0 % of o c c u p a n t d e a t h s .

E x a m i n a t i o n of c h i l d c a s u a l t i e s i n p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t s i n w h i c h a f a t a l i t y ( a n y a g e ) o c c u r r e d r e v e a l t h a t t h e l e f t f r o n t s e a t a c c o u n t e d f o r 2 4 % of c a s u a l t i e s t o 0 - 1 6 y e a r o l d s and 37% o f c a s u a l t i e s t o 1 3 - 1 6 y e a r o l d s , and 5 2 % o f c a s u a l t i e s to a l l ages.

A n a l y s i s of a l l c h i l d p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t s i n N . S . W . and V i c t o r i a r e v e a l s t h a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e q u a r t e r ( i n V i c t o r i a ) and o n e t h i r d ( i n N . S . W . ) o f c h i l d p a s s e n g e r c a s u a l t i e s i n v o l v e a c h i l d i n t h e l e f t f r o n t s e a t . However , t h i s s e a t a c c o u n t s f o r a g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n of c h i l d f a t a l i t i e s . _I I n N.S.W. t h e r e i s a s l i g h t t e n d e n c y f o r a g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n o f c h i l d p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t s i n t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a t o i n v o l v e a c h i l d i n t h e l e f t f r o n t sea t .

Across t h e t w o s t a t e s , o v e r t i m e , and b y m e t r o and n o n - m e t r o a r e a s t h e n e x t most f r e q u e n t l y used s e a t s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t s a r e l e f t r e a r and r i g h t r e a r i n t h a t o r d e r .

I_ ---

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I n v e r y few of t h e t o t a l number o f a c c i d e n t s were c h i l d d r i v e r s ( u s u a l l y 1 3 - 1 6 ) i n j u r e d . However , a c r o s s a l l t h e a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n 0 - 1 6 a s p a s s e n g e r s a s i z e a b l e number o f d r i v e r s ( 1 7 y e a r s and o l d e r ) were a l s o i n j u r e d o r k i l l e d . I n V i c t o r i a , d r i v e r s a c c o u n t e d f o r o n e q u a r t e r o f a l l p e r s o n s ( a l l a g e s ) i n j u r e d o r k i l l e d i n a c c i d e n t s i n w h i c h a c h i l d was i n v o l v e d a s a p a s s e n g e r . However , d r i v e r s i n j u r e d o r k i l l e d a s a p r o p o r t i o n of a c c i d e n t s i n w h i c h a c h i l d w a s i n j u r e d o r k i l l e d w a s o f t h e o r d e r of 5 5 % i n t h e m e t r o a r e a a n d 3 5 % i n n o n - m e t r o a r e a s . T h u s , w h e r e a c h i l d is i n j u r e d o r _- k i l l e d a s a n o c c u p a n t t h e r e i s a good c h a n c e t h a t t h e d r i v e r w i l l a l s o b e i n j u r e d o r k i l l e d i n h a l f o f t h e s e a c c i d e n t s i n t h e m e t r o _ a r e a . 2 o n e t h i r d __i__I______I___ l__-lll_ ______ __ -_ o f t h e n o n - m e t r o a c c i d e n t s , a t l e a s t i n V i c t o r i a .

A n a l y s i s of s c e n a r i o g r o u p s r e v e a l s t h a t c h i l d r e n a g e d 5 - 7 y e a r s i n j u r e d o r k i l l e d w i t h o u t a r e s t r a i n t were more l i k e l y t o h a v e h e e n s e a t e d somewhere i n t h e r e a r s e a t p o s i t i o n . A s t h e a g e O f c h i l d i n c r e a s e s s o t o o d o e s t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f c h i l d r e n i n j u r e d o r k i l l e d s e a t e d i n t h e l e f t hand f r o n t s e a t . T h i s a p p l i e s a c r o s s t i m e , s t a t e s , and m e t r o v e r s u s n o n - m e t r o .

4 . 3 2 5 R e s t r a i n t U s e

T h e d a t a i n t h i s s e c t i o n i s s u b j e c t t o c o n s i d e r a b l e e r r o r . So much so t h a t f o r a number o f y e a r s V i c t o r i a c e a s e d c o l l e c t i n g t h e d a t a . A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s f o r N.S.W. d a t a o u g h t t o b e r e g a r d e d w i t h some c a u t i o n . More r e l i a b l e d a t a b a s e d on o b s e r v a t i o n s t u d i e s a p p e a r s i n s e c t i o n 8.41.

The i n c i d e n c e o f a c c i d e n t s c o d e d " c h i l d i n v o l v e d n o t w e a r i n g a s e a t b e l t " ( e x c l u d i n g "unknown") i s c o n s i s t e n t l y r e l a t e d t o s e v e r i t y o f i n j u r y .

llll_____--l_l__ ___--

I________-

T A B L E 66 N.S.W. C h i l d P a s s e n g e r A c c i d e n t s - C h i 1 d I n vo 1 ve d " N o t 'I W e a r i n g R e s t r a i n t

K i l l e d A d m i t t e d O t h e r T o t a l

____I

~ _ _ _ _ -

1 9 8 1 M e t r o 36 .8% 2 5 . 4 % 24 .3% 24.6% Non-met ro 55 .3% 3 2 . 3 % 2 8 . 7 % 3 0 . 7 %

1 9 8 2 M e t r o 40 .0% 31 .9% 1 9 . 7 % 2 1 . 7 % Non-met ro 49.1 % 35 .7% 1 9 . 7 % 2 6 . 5 %

1 9 8 3 M e t r o 40 .0% 22.3% 1 9 . 9 % 20.5% Non-met ro 43 .2% 31 .3% 22.7% 25.9%

-_

S o u r c e : T A R U (N.S.W.)

The a c t u a l i n c i d e n c e o f n o t w e a r i n g s e a t b e l t s i s m o s t l i k e l y u n d e r s t a t e d . However , i t i s l e s s l i k e l y t o b e s o w i t h r e s p e c t t o f a t a l i t i e s . From t h e a h o v e d a t a i t seems r e a s o n a b l e t o c o n c l u d e :

-

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1 1 3

- t h a t w e a r i n g r a t e s a r e l o w e r i n t h e c o u n t r y ; - t h a t a t l e a s t b e t w e e n 4 0 - 5 0 % of c h i l d r e n k i l l e d

- t h a t t h e i n c i d e n c e of a c h i l d w e a r i n g a r e s t r a i n t a s p a s s e n g e r s were n o t w e a r i n g a r e s t r a i n t ;

i n c r e a s e s a s t h e s e v e r i t y of t h e i n j u r y d e c r e a s e s .

C h i l d p a s s e n g e r i n j u r i e s and f a t a l i t i e s a r e m o s t l i k e l y ( 6 5 % ) t o i n v o l v e c h i l d r e n o v e r t h e a g e o f 8 y e a r s . A n a l y s i s of t h e two o l d e s t age s c e n a r i o s r e v e a l s t h a t s e a t b e l t n o n - w e a r i n g r a t e s were l o w i n b o t h age g r o u p s i n m e t r o and n o n - m e t r o .

-I______

N.S .W. C h i l d P a s s e n q e r A c c i d e n t s -II_

T A B L E 67 _- 1 9 8 1 - 8 2 Combined

P e r c e n t a g e N o t Wear ing of S e a t B e l t --_-I-_

8 - 1 2 y e a r s M e t r o

K i l l e d A d m i t t e d O t h e r A l l P a s s e n g e r -- -I- ---I_-_--

A c c i d e n t s

25% 0-1 6

2 7 % 2 3 % 2 3 % Non-me t r o 4 5 % 2 9 % 2 0 % 2 4 %

1 3 - 1 6 y e a r s M e t r o Non-met ro

40% 28% 20% 2 0% 5 5 % 3 3 % 2 6 % 2 6 %

S o u r c e : T A R U (N.S.W.)

4 . 3 2 6 G e o g r a p h i c A r e a

C o n s i s t e n t l y more c h i l d r e n a r e k i l l e d a s p a s s e n g e r s i n t h e -_ - ~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~

c o u n t r y t h a n i n the^ m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a s ~ y e t ~ - a l m o s t ---I_ ~ t w i c e % many a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g i n j u r i e s o r d e a t h t o c h i l d r e n o c c u r i n t h e -_ -__ - - m e t r o p o l i t a n area.

I n N.S.W., c h i l d p a s s e n g e r s a d m i t t e d t o h o s p i t a l a r e much h i g h e r i n t h e c o u n t r y t h a n t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n a r ea . T h i s is n o t t r u e f o r V i c t o r i a w h e r e m e t r o h o s p i t a l i s a t i o n s o n l y s l i g h t l y e x c e e d c o u n t r y hos p i t a l i s a t i o n s .

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114

C H I L D PASSENGER A C C I D E N T S __ ___I_ T A B L E 68

K i l l e d A d m i t t e d t o A l l P a s s e n g e r -____I H o s p i t a l A c c __ i d e n t s

V i e . 81 M e t r o 16 276 705 C o u n t r y 25 233 359

V i c . 82 M e t r o 16 268 643 C o u n t r y 19 228 354

N . S . W . 81 Metra 19 276 1538

______________II_____I__~-__I_____

i__________________-___________-_-

C o u n t r y 47 539 976 N . S . W . 82 Metra 20 204 1258

C o u n t r y 57 490 861 N . S . W . 83 M e t r o 20 188 1314 -__________i_I__I-___-____-_I____

C o u n t r y 37 41 8 895 _________lll___l____lll_______l

S o u r c e s : T A R U ( N . S . W . ) R T A ( V i c . )

4.327 S o b r i e t y o f D r i v e r

A l c o h o l i s p r e s e n t i n a sma l l bu , t s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n o f d r i v e r s i n v o l v e d i n c h i l d p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t s :

T A B L E 69 N.S.W. C H I L D PASSENGER ACCIDENTS 1981-83 SOBRIETY OF D R I V E R

( P e rc e n t a q e s )

Under .05 .05 and o v e r Unknown + O p i n i o n U.l.

Under .05 . 0 5 and o v e r Unknown + O p i n i o n u.1.

Under .05 - 0 5 and o v e r Unknown + O p i n i o n U . l .

M e t r o ~ l l F a t a l s

0.4 - 4.3 10.5 0.2 - 0.1 -

-l_ I

1981 _I

1982 1.1 X-D- 3.8 10.0 0.1 - 0.1 -

1983 _I

1.1 5.0 3.8 5.0 0.1 -

- -

C o u n t r y A l l F a t a l s - -- 0.6 - 3.4 4.2 0.1 - 0.8 2.1

0.5 1 .8 4.1 8.8 0.3 1 .8 - - 0.2 - 6.0 5.4 0.1 2.7 0.1 -

S o u r c e : T A R U (N.S.W.)

I t i s q u i t e c o n c e i v a b l e , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e s e f i g u r e s c o u l d u n d e r s t a t e t h e l e v e l o f a l c o h o l i n v o l v e m e n t b y d r i v e r s . A n a l y s i s o f t h e 13-16 a g e g r o u p p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t d a t a r e v e a l s a somewhat g r e a t e r d e g r e e of a l c o h o l i n v o l v e m e n t b y d r i v e r s .

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T A B L E 7 0 PERCENTAGE O F A C C I D E N T S I N V O L V I N G - _I-_---______-________

V E H I C L E PASSENGERS N . S . W . 1 3 - 1 6 y e a r s . I N W H I C H ALCOHOL I S SUSPECTED I N D R I V E R

__-I-- --

~ 1 9 8 1 1 9 8 2 I_

Metro K i l l e d 2 0 . 0 % 2 0 . 0 % A l l A c c i d e n t s 8 .0% 8 . 0 %

Non-metro K i l l e d 1 1 . 8 % 2 0 . 0 % A l l A c c i d e n t s 7.6% 9 .8%

S o u r c e : T A R U ( N . S . W . ) --I

4 . 3 2 8 D r i v e r E x p e r i e n c e / L i c e n c e S t a t u s

F i r s t y e a r d r i v e r s i n V i c t o r i a and N.S.W., c o u n t r y and m e t r o , a r e more t h a n twice-as l i k e l y a s a n y o t h e r s i n g l e y e a r g r o u p o f d r i v e r s t o b e i n v o l v e d i n p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n

-_ I_--- _l_----__l

-~ -i_-l-_____lll

0-16.

I N C I D E N C E O F INEXPERIENCED D R I V E R S -_l____l_l_--_-I

TABLE 71 - I N V O L V E D I N C H I L D PASSENGER A C C I D E N T S

I-__I_--_______

Years o f D r i v e r E x p e r i e n c e l___l___l_-____l_

( P e r c e n t a g e s )

2 3 4 5 1 - 5 6 - 1 0 V i c t o r i a 1 9 8 1 1 M e t r o 11,9 6,7 5,7 4,7 2,9 3 1 . 9 18.8

1 3 . 0 5.0 2.6 2.3 1.6 24.5 9.8 Non-me t r o V i c t o r i a 1 9 8 2 Metro 1 1 . 4 5.5 3.3 4.4 3.0 27 .6 17.9

1 0 . 8 6.5 3.3 2.3 3.7 26.6 14 .2 Non-me t r o N.S.W. 1 9 8 1 M e tr 'o 14.1 6.7 6.0 4.6 2.2 33 .6 16.7

2.8 31.4 11.7 N.S.W. 1 9 8 2 Metro 13 .8 4.7 ' 5 .1 4.5 3.2 31.3 15.8 N o n - m e t r o 16.2 6.0 4.0 4.5 3.3 34 .0 11.7 N.S.W. 1 9 8 3 - M e t r o 13.1 5.0 3.9 6.0 3.8 31.8 14.0

1 0 . 6 3.5 5.8 3.9 3.6 27.4 13.0 Non - m e t ro

---l_l---l_-l_-_l___--_______-__

l_ll-l_l-_l___l--_l________l_-

-I_ Non-metro _ 13 .3 5.5 6.5 3.3 ___

-_____I-______I_ --_I-_

S o u r c e s : T A R U ( N . S . W . ) R T A ( V i c . ) _I-

T a b l e 71 shows how c o n s i s t e n t t h e f i n d i n g s a r e r e g a r d i n g :

- t h e o v e r - i n v o l v e m e n t o f f i r s t y e a r d r i v e r s ; - t h e d r a m a t i c r e d u c t i o n i n i n v o l v e m e n t by d r i v e r s i n t h e i r s e c o n d f i v e y e a r s of d r i v i n g .

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A n a l y s i s o f mass a c c i d e n t d a t a ( T a b l e 7 2 ) r e v e a l s t h a t a s t h e a g e o f t h e c h i l d p a s s e n g e r i n c r e a s e s s o t o o d o e s t h e y e a r s o f d r i v e r e x p e r i e n c e i n c r e a s e f r o m 1 0 - 1 9 y e a r s t o 2 0 - 2 9 y e a r s r e f l e c t i n g t h e a g e o f t h e p a r e n t s . However , f o r t h e t e e n a g e p a s s e n g e r s t h e r e v e r s e i s t r u e .

T A B L E 7 2 ~ _ - _ Y e a r s o f D r i v i n g E x p e r i e n c e o f Drive_= I n v o l v e d i n P a s s e n g e r A c c i d e n t s i n

N . S . W . 1 9 8 1 - 8 2 .

--- I-_______---

--____-_I_

P a s s e n g e r s 0 - 4 y e a r s D r i v e r e x p e r i e n c e

u n d e r 1 y e a r 1 y e a r 1 0 - 1 9 y e a r s 2 0 - 2 9 y e a r s

P a s s e n g e r s 5 - 7 y e a r s D r i v e r e x p r i e n c e

u n d e r 1 y e a r 1 y e a r 1 0 - 1 9 y e a r s 2 0 - 2 9 y e a r s

P a s s e n g e r s 8-1 2 y e a r s D r i v e r e x pe r i e n c e

u n d e r 1 y e a r 1 y e a r 1 0 - 1 9 y e a r s 2 0 - 2 9 y e a r s

P a s s e n g e r s 1 3 - 1 6 y e a r s D r i v e r e x p e r i e n c e

u n d e r 1 y e a r 1 y e a r 1 0 - 1 9 y e a r s 2 0 - 2 9 y e a r s

1 9 8 1 M e t r o Non-met ro

-_

6.8% 2.2%

38.6% 7.2%

1.9% 1 .9%

47 .2% 7.5%

5.2% 2.9%

35.6% 20.4%

27.2% 13.6% 12 .7% 1 3 . 1 %

5 . 3 % 1 .1%

37 .7% 1 0 . 6 %

6.8% 6.8%

4 4 . 1 % 1 0 . 7 %

4.6% 2.0%

39 .8% 2 2 . 8 %

25 .2% 1 0 . 8 % 12.7% 14.6%

1 9 8 2 -- M e t r o Non-met ro -

5.0% 1 . 5 %

40 .4% 9.4%

5.1% 2.6%

25 .6% 1 7 . 9 %

6.1 % 2.5%

37 .5% 2 0 . 3 %

26 .5% 9.0%

1 5 . 9 % 15 .3%

6.1% 2.6%

44 .0% 8. 3 %

2.9% 2.9%

5 4 . 3 % 1 1 . 4 %

6.9% 1.9%

39.4% 24 .3%

32 .2% 11 .9% 1 0 . 2 % 12.8%

S o u r c e : T A R U ( N . S . W . ) __-

I n V i c t o r i a , non s t a n d a r d l i c e n c e h o l d e r s ( i . e . l e a r n e r , p r o b a t i o n a r y , d i s q u a l i f i e d , and u n l i c e n s e d ) a c c o u n t e d f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 5 % o f c h i l d p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t s . T h i s h e l d f o r 1 9 8 1 a n d 1 9 8 2 a n d a c r o s s m e t r o and n o n - m e t r o a r e a s . I n N.S.W., t h e e q u i v a l e n t f i g u r e i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 5 % . -I I - ~ ---

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I n V i c t o r i a , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 20% of c h i l d p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v e p r o b a t i o n a r y d r i v e r s o r l e a r n e r s . I n N . S . W , t h e c o m p a r a b l e f i g u r e i s l e s s t h a n 1 5 % c l a s s i f i e d a s p r o v i s i o n a l o r l e a r n e r s .

As w i t h t h e " d r i v e r e x p e r i e n c e " d a t a , t h e r e i s a m a s s i v e i n v o l v e m e n t o f d r i v e r s w i t h a l e a r n e r / p r o v i s i o n a l l i c e n s e s t a t u s i n t e e n a g e ( 1 3 - 1 6 y e a r s ) p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t s . W h e r e a s , €or y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n , t h e i n v o l v e m e n t o f s u c h d r i v e r s i s q u i t e low.

_I--_--_-_-__-_-__

- -----_-ll_l__---l-l___I__-_____

-~_---_-_--I-------I_

4 . 3 2 9 L o c a t i o n

The ' t y p e ' of r o a d o n w h i c h c h i l d p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t s o c c u r v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y b e t w e e n m e t r o p o l i t a n and c o u n t r y a r e a s . I n t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a h a l f o f t h e a c c i d e n t s o c c u r o n ' l o c a l r o a d s ' ; a n o t h e r q u a r t e r o c c u r o n ' m a i n r o a d s ' , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 5 % o n S t a t e h i g h w a y s and l e s s t h a n 1 0 % o n s e c o n d a r y r o a d s . A n a l y s i s o f f a t a l i t y d a t a o v e r t h r e e y e a r s i n N.S.W however i s n o t s o c o n s i s t e n t s i n c e l o c a l r o a d s v a r y f r o m 3 5 % i n 1 9 8 2 t o 6 3 % i n 1 9 8 1 and 5 0 % i n 1 9 8 3 . The i n v o l v e m e n t of main r o a d s i n c h i l d p a s s e n g e r f a t a l i t i e s v a r i e s f r o m 3 5 % i n 1 9 8 3 to 5 0 % i n 1 9 8 2 t o 2 6 % i n 1 9 8 1 .

___I

I n c o u n t r y a r e a s , S t a t e h i g h w a y s t a k e on much more s i g n i f i c a n c e a c c o u n t i n g f o r a r o u n d 3 6 % o f a l l c h i l d p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t s ( m o r e t h a n d o u b l e t h e m i f i g u r e s ) . L o c a l r o a d s a c c o u n t f o r o n e

~- --~-- -__I ____I__-- I ---I

t h i r d of c o u n t r y a c c i d e n t s and main r o a d s a r o u n d 1 6 % . The f a t a l i t y d a t a a g a i n shows g r e a t v a r i a t i o n . S t a t e h i g h w a y s v a r y i n s i g n i f i c a n c e f rom 6 4 % of f a t a l s i n c o u n t r y N.S.W. i n 1 9 8 1 t o 5 1 % i n 1 9 8 2 t o 3 8 % i n 1 9 8 3 .

A n a l y s i s of s c e n a r i o g r o u p s r e v e a l s r o u g h l y c o n s i s t e n t i n c i d e n c e s b y r o a d t y p e a c r o s s t h e a q e g r o u p s . Where v a r i a t i o n s o c c u r t h e y a r e i n c o n s i s t e n t a c r o s s t h e y e a r s .

4 . 3 3 P e d e s t r i a n s

4 . 3 3 1 Month of Year

C h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s a r e s p r e a d f a i r l y e v e n l y ac ross a l l -- m o n t h s o f t h e y e a r . A c r o s s t h e t h r e e y e a r s 1 9 8 1 - 8 3 , b e t w e e n s t a t e s , and m e t r o v e r s u s n o n - m e t r o t h e r e i s n o c o n s i s t e n t p a t t e r n s u g g e s t i n g t h a t a n y o n e m o n t h is more s i g n i f i c a n t t h a n a n o t h e r . I n some p l a c e s , i n some y e a r s , J u n e a n d O c t o b e r h a v e a s l i g h t peak .

-I_ -- l_-l_--

~ - ~ - -

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4 .332 Day of Week

M e t r o p o l i t a n c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s ( v i z . , 8 0 % o f a l l c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s i n N . S . W . & V i c t o r i a ) p e a k on T h u r s d a y and F r j d a y , a r o u n d 18% on e a c h o f t h e s e two d a y s , d r o p p i n g o f f o n S a t u r d a y s a n d w i t h a low on S u n d a y s ( 8 % ) .

A n a l y s i s of t h e s c e n a r i o s r e v e a l s t h a t , a p a r t f r o m t h e l a t e week p e a k , S a t u r d a y s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t f o r a l l 0 -4 y e a r o l d p e d e s t r i a n s , m a l e p e d e s t r i a n s 0 - 4 y e a r s of a g e , 2 - 4 y e a r o l d p e d e s t r i a n s . F o r t h e s e t h r e e s c e n a r i o g r o u p s Sunday i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t ( b u t l e s s so t h a n T h u r s d a y a n d S a t u r d a y ) a n d more i m p o r t a n t t h a n f o r c h i l d r e n o v e r 4 y e a r s of a g e .

4 . 3 3 3 Time o f Day

C h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s m o s t l y o c c u r b e t w e e n 3-6 p.m. T h e s e t h r e e h o u r s a c c o u n t f o r a r o u n d 5 0 % o f a l l t h e c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s . The p e a k i s g r e a t e s t b e t w e e n 3-4 p.m. i n b o t h m e t r o a n a u r b a n a r eas . I n m e t r o V i c t o r i a a n d N.S.W. t h e r e i s a l s o a s i g n i f i c a n t b u t s m a l l e r p e a k b e t w e e n 8-9 a . m . T h i s same p e a k i s a l s o p r e s e n t i n n o n - m e t r o N.S.W. b u t h a r d l y e v i d e n t i n n o n - m e t r o V i c t o r i a w h e r e a s m a l l p e a k o c c u r s a t 11-12 a.m.

W h i l s t o v e r a l l t h e m o d a l h o u r f o r p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s i s 3-4 p.m. t h i s i s n o t t r u e f o r t h e y o u n g e s t c h i l d r e n . For t h e f o l l o w i n g s c e n a r i o s t h e p e a k i s 4 - 5 p.m.:

- Male p e d e s t r i a n s 0 - 4 y e a r s of a g e - A l l p e d e s t r i a n s 0 - 4 y e a r s o f age - A l l p e d e s t r i a n s 0 -2 y e a r s of a g e .

Ma le p e d e s t r i a n s 5 -7 y e a r s o f a g e a n d p e d e s t r i a n s 8-12 y e a r s o f h a v e a marked p e a k b e t w e e n 3-4 p.m. a c r o s s m e t r o a n d c o u n t r y

a r e a s . T h e p e a k i s a l s o h i g h f r o m 4-6 p.m. I t i s t h e s e s c e n a r i o g r o u p s who c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e 8 -9 a.m. s m a l l p e a k .

T e e n a g e p e d e s t r i a n s ( 1 3 - 1 6 ) e x h i b i t a s m a l l m o r n i n g p e a k 8-9 a . m . a n d a p e a k a t 3-4 p.m. However , t h e i r a f t e r n o o n p e a k i s n o t a s m a r k e d a s t h e y o u n g e r age g r o u p s .

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119

4.334 - G e o g r a p h i c A r e a - C h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i s n t s and f a t a m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a p r o b l e m .

_I-__

Lies a r e p r i m a r i l y a

TABLE 73 C H I L D P E D E S T R I A N A C C I D E N T S K i l l e d A d m i t t e d to A l l P e d e s t r i a n --

H o s p i t a l A c c i d e n t s

V i c . 81 M e t r o 3 2 275 592

8 69 124 N . S . W . 81 M e t r o 40 382 1257

~____l__l-ll___-l__

Non-me t r o

309 N.S.W. 83 M e t r o 35 384 1223

- _ _I__I Non -me t r o 13 139

-------l____llll--l-

13 119 283 _-_l____l-l_____-ll

Non - m e t r o

S o u r c e : T A R U (N.S.W.) R T A ( V i c . 1

4.335 S o b r i e t y o f D r i v e r

A n a l y s i s of s c e n a r i o s t a t i s t i c s r e v e a l s t h a t a l c o h o l i s n o t a f a c t o r i n o v e r 98% o f c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s .

4.336 ~ D r i v e r E x p e r i e n c e / L i c e n c e S t a t u s

F i r s t y e a r d r i v e r s , and l e s s e x p e r i e n c e d d r i v e r s , a r e o v e r - r e p r e s e n t e d b u t t o o n l y a s m a l l d e g r e e i n c o m p a r i s o n t o c h i l d p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t s . The r e l e v a n t s t a t i s t i c s a r e s u m m a r i s e d b e l o w f o r m e t r o a r e a o n l y , s i n c e o v e r 80% of p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s o c c u r i n t h e m e t r o a r e a s i n N . S . W . and V i c t o r i a .

I N C I D E N C E O F I N E X P E R I E N C E D D R I V E R S -- TABLE 74 I N V O L V E D IN CHILDPEDESTRIAN A C C I D E N T S

METROPOLITAN D r i v e r E x p e r i e n c e

1 s t 2nd 3 r d 4 t h 5 t h 1st 2nd Y e a r Yea r Yea r Yea r Year 5 Yrs. 5 Y r s .

V i c . 81 7.8 6.4 5.7 4.7 3.9 28.5 17.5 18.0

N.S.W. 81 7.3 3.7 4.6 5.1 zx- 24.7 16.3 -- 5.6 4.8 5.5 28.1

-II_

82 5.5 6.7 I-_

82 6.0 4.0 4.8 4.9 5.0 24.7 18.2 26.5 18.4 83 6.8 3.4 - 6.1 5.6 4.6

-_I

S o u r c e s : T A R U (N.S.W.) RTA ( V i c . ) -

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1 2 0

A n a l y s i s of n o n - m e t r o c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s a l s o r e v e a l s a s l i g h t l y h i g h e r i n c i d e n c e of i n v o l v e m e n t o f f i r s t y e a r d r i v e r s .

4 .337 L o c a t i o n

Two t h i r d s o f m e t r o p o l i t a n c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s occur -= l o c a l r o a d s ; a r o u n d 2 0 % o n main r o a d s ; 1 0 % on S t a t e h i g h w a y s ; and a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 % o n s e c o n d a r y r o a d s . The same p a t t e r n

__ l__--___i-_-I- _I-I

_-I____I

_ _ e m e r g e s f o r c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n s k i l l e d i n t h e m e t r o a r eas .

I n n o n - m e t r o a r e a s , w h i c h i n t o t a l o n l y a c c o u n t f o r a r o u n d 2 0 % of c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s , l o c a l r o a d s s t i l l a c c o u n t f o r b e t w e e n 5 0 - 6 0 % of c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s w h i l s t S t a t e h i g h w a y s a r e more s i g n i f i c a n t t h a n i n t h e m e t r o a r e a s and a c c o u n t for b e t w e e n 1 5 - 2 5 % of c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s .

The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f l o c a l r o a d s i s c o n s i d e r a b l y g r e a t e r f o r y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n .

I N C I D E N C E O F C H I L D P E D E S T R I A N ACCIDENTS O N - T A B L E 75 LOCAL ROADS I N N.S.W. -I_

M e t r o Non-met ro 8 2 I

81 - 8 2 - 81 __ Key P e d e s t r i a n G r o u p s

I____

0 - 4 y e a r s M a l e s 0-4 y e a r s

2 - 4 y e a r s M a l e s 5 - 7 y e a r s

8 - 1 2 y e a r s 1 3 - 1 6 y e a r s

8 8 . 5 % 8 0 . 3 % 64.1% 67 .9% 8 8 . 5 % 81 . 8 % 64 .1% 66 .7% 89 .7% 81 .3% 62.2% 68 .4% 74.2% 76.6% 53 .7% 67 .6% 55 .9% 60.7% 4 6 . 6 % 57 .6% 5 1 . 1 % 47.3% 5 2 . 2 % 47.0%

S o u r c e : T A R U ( N . S . W . ) _ A s c h i l d r e n g e t o l d e r , p r o p o r t i o n a l l y more o f them a r e i n v o l v e d a s p e d e s t r i a n s i n a c c i d e n t s r e l a t e d t o ma in r o a d s and s t a t e h i g h w a y s .

A n a l y s i s of p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s i n N.S.W., i n terms o f t y p e o f l o c a t i o n , r e v e a l s t h a t a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o c c u r m i d - b l o c k . I t m u s t b e n o t e d t h a t i n t e r s e c t i o n s a r e c o d e d a s s u c h i f a c r a s h o c c u r s w i t h i n 1 0 metres o f a n i n t e r s e c t i o n . T a b l e 7 6 s u m m a r i s e s t h e m e t r o N . S . W . s i t u a t i o n i n 1 9 8 1 a n d 1 9 8 2 .

O n l y o n e i n e v e r y t h r e e c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s o c c u r a t i n t e r s e c t i o n s . T - J u n c t i o n i n t e r s e c t i o n s a p p e a r t o p r e s e n t t h e g r e a t e s t h a z a r d ( p r o b a b l y r e f l e c t i n g e x p o s u r e ) .

-I_- -I

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1 2 1

1 9 8 2 -_-- 1 9 8 1 -_-- N o . % N o . %

13.5 20.1

9 0.6 6 0.4 2 1 4 0.3

5 2 9 5 6 . 7

6 9 4.6 84 6. 3

8 0.5 2 0 1.5 6 5 7 8 7 8 ----------_---_----_--2-

1 8 0 2 6 9

1.3. 3 21.1

2 0 0 3 1 8

Cross i n t e r s e c t i o n T - j u n c t i o n Y - j u n c t i o n __-__-__ A l l o t h e r i n t e r s e c t i o n S u b - t o t a l i n t e r s e c t i o n s T W O way s t r e e t D i v i d e d S t r e e t One way s t r e e t O t h e r n o n - i n t e r s e c t i o n

Sub t o t a l n o n - i n t e r s e c t i o n 9 7 8 64.9

34.3 4 5 9 35.1 ________ ---- 7 5 8 5 8 . 4 8 8 0

21 1.4 1 6 1 . 2 -l_l_

T o t a l 1 5 0 7 1 0 0 1 3 3 7 1 0 0

S o u r c e : T A R U (N.S.W.)

4 . 3 3 8 M a n o e u v r e s - ~

R u n n i n g i s t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y ( o v e r 5 5 % ) n o m i n a t e d m a n o e u v r e i n v o l v e d i n c h i l d p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s . However , a s i z e a b l e p r o p o r t i o n o f c h i l d r e n a r e w a l k i n g when s t r u c k down. No t a l l p e d e s t r i a n s a r e o n t h e roadway when t h e y a r e i n v o l v e d i n an a c c i d e n t . T h i s a p p l i e s e s p e c i a l l y t o v e r y young c h i l d r e n .

MANOEUVRES O F PEDESTRIANS -_-I

TABLE 7 7 --- I N V O L V E D I N ROAD A C C I D E N T S I N N.S.W. -- l_-l_--

P e d e s t r i a n Manoeuvre I --

---_ 1 9 8 1 1 9 8 2 -

8 6 1 81 5

4 5 41

2 0 1 8 1 9 1 2 1 8 1 8 1 7 2 5 1 1 1 4

5 7 4 1 5 4 3 5 2 - 1 1

2 5 3 9

R u n n i n g a c r o s s r o a d W a l k i n g a c r o s s r o a d O n f o o t p a t h On e d g e of r o a d w a l k i n g w i t h t r a f f i c I n / o n t o y o n r o a d S t a t i o n a r y o n r o a d S t e p p i n g o f f / o n t o k e r b P l a y i n g o n r o a d w a y On e d g e of r o a d w a l k i n g a g a i n s t t r a f f i c E n t e r i n g s t a t i o n e r y v e h i c l e S t e p p i n g of f / o n t o m e d i a n s t r i p E n t e r i n g moving v e h i c l e w o r k i n g o n r o a d w a y W o r k i n g o n v e h i c l e O t h e r

51 6 3 7 9

1552 1 3 7 9 S o u r c e : T A R U (N.S.W.)

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4 . 3 4 P e d a l C y c l i s t s

4 .341 Month o f Yea r

T h e r e i s l i t t l e c o n s i s t e n c y a c r o s s t h e two s t a t e s , o v e r t h e 2-3 y e a r s , o r m e t r o v e r s u s n o n - m e t r o e x c e p t t h a t , p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y

I -

- - __

more p e d a l c y c l i s t a c c i d e n t s o c c u r i n t h e w a r m e r m o n t h s f r o m O c t o b e r - A p r i l a n d more p a r t i c u l a r l y November - March i n c l u s i v e . -___________I________-_--___-__-I__ -- I f a n y o n e month i s a p e a k , i t i s m o s t l i k e l y t o b e March , b u t i t i s n o t a l w a y s s o o v e r t i m e o r p l a c e .

A n a l y s i s o f t h e two key s c e n a r i o g r o u p s , males 8 - 1 2 and males 13 -16 , r e v e a l t h a t n o n - m e t r o p e d a l c y c l e a c c i d e n t s a m o n g s t 8-12 y e a r o l d b o y s h a v e a May p e a k . F o r 13 -16 y e a r o l d s t h e r e i s no p r e v a i l i n g p a t t e r n , e x c e p t f o r t h e b i a s t o w a r d s warmer mon ths .

4 . 3 4 2 Day o f Week

A n a l y s i s o f V i c t o r i a n and N . S . W . p e d a l c y c l e a c c i d e n t s o v e r 1981 and 1 9 8 2 r e v e a l s no c o n s i s t e n t p a t t e r n so t h a t i t a p p e a r s e a c h ~~

~

d a y o f t h e week c o n t r i b u t e s i t s s h a r e of a c c i d e n t s . S u n d a y c o n s i s t e n t l y p r o v i d e s t h e l e a s t a c c i d e n t s . T h i s f l i e s i n t h e

_l-ll_l-__ll-

f a c e of h o s p i t a l p e d a l c y c l e a c c i d e n t d a t a ( s e e s e c t l o n 5 . 5 ) .

A n a l y s i s o f t h e two key ma le s c e n a r i o g r o u p s a l s o r e v e a l s a number o f p e a k d a y s b u t t h e s e v a r y b e t w e e n 1981 and 1982 a n d b e t w e e n m e t r o and n o n - m e t r o . N o c o n s i s t e n t p a t t e r n e x i s t s .

4 . 3 4 3 T i m e o f Day

P e d a l c y c l e a c c i d e n t s a r e much more l i k e l y t o o c c u r b e t w e e n 3-6 p . m . w i t h a p e a k b e t w e e n 4-5 p.m. A l m o s t h a l f t h e p e d a l c y c l e a c c i d e n t s o c c u r i n t h e t h r e e h o u r s b e t w e e n 3-6 p.m. A s m a l l e r p e a k o c c u r s b e t w e e n 8 -9 a.m. The o v e r a l l p a t t e r n o c c u r s a m o n g s t t h e two key m a l e s c e n a r i o a q e g r o u p s .

4 . 3 4 4 G e o g r a p h i c A r e a

W h i l s t more p d a l c y c l e a c c i d e n t s o c c u r i n t h e m e t r o a r e a , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of a c c i d e n t s i s more c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o p o p u l a t i o n i n c i d e n c e t h a n a r e p e d e s t r i a n a c c i d e n t s .

I__-----

-I---

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123

C H I L D PEDAL CYCLE A C C I D E N T S _____________I_-_______

T A B L E 78 ----I

K i l l e d A d m i t t e d t o A l l P e d a l H o s p i t a l C y c l e

A c c i d e n t s

V i c . 81 M e t r o 14 199 490 _I_ Non - m e t r o 8 85 193

V i c . 82 M e t r o 10 200 534

l____________l_l___-_______ll_____i____ Non-metro 3 93 273 N . S . W . 83 M e t r o 1 0 151 696

Non-metro 5 101 300

S o u r c e s : T A R U ( N . S . W . ) R T A ( V i c . )

4.345 S o b r i e t y of D r i v e r _I___---------

A s i z e a b l e number of p e d a l c y c l e a c c i d e n t s d o n o t i n v o l v e a m o t o r i s e d v e h i c l e . Where a m o t o r i s e d v e h i c l e i s i n v o l v e d , t h e i n c i d e n c e o f d r i v e r s w i t h m e a s u r a b l e b l o o d a l c o h o l c o n c e n t r a t e s

-- I---____-_I_ _-___________I I

i s l e s s t h a n 1%. O n e n o t i c e a b l e f e a t u r e o f t h e N . S . W . s t a t i s t i c s i s t h e m a g n i t u d e ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10%) of t h o s e coded ' o p i n i o n s o b e r ' .

4.346 E x p e r i e n c e of D r i v e r

N o v i c e d r i v e r s a r e i n v o l v e d d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y i n a c c i d e n t s w i t h p e d a l c y c l i s t s b u t n o t t o t h e same e x t e n t a s i n p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t s .

-_I ll__-__ll

I____-_ __I-_I___ -

- _____ -

I N C I D E N C E O F INEXPERIENCED D R I V E R S - T A B L E 79 --- I N V O L V E D IN P E D A L C Y C L E A C C I D E N T ~

D r i ve r' Ex pe r i e n c e - 1 s t 2nd 3 r d 4 t h 5 t h 1s t 2nd Year Year Year Year Year 5 Y r s . 5 Y r s .

V i c . 1981 M e t r o 7.9 4.0 6.1 5.1 2.2 25.3 15.9

-_ _I -_

Non-metro 8.8 1.0 2.1 3.6 3.1 18.6 11.9 ----_____l_-_l____l__I___-l_l__-__-

V i c . 1982 M e t r o 7.5 6.9 6.0 4.7 3.4 28.5 15.8 Non-metro 3.2 4.8 3.2 2.1 1.6 14.9 12.7

_I I__-_--_II

N.S.W. 1981 M e t r o 8.2 3.4 4.9 5.3 3.4 25.2 15.1 Non-metro 5.8 5.1 4.7 6.2 5.5 27.3 15.4

N.S.W. 1982 M e t r o 6.1 3.8 4 . 2 3.9 3.8 21.8 13.9 _I----I- -- _ I--__ N O n - m e t r o _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ - _ ~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 8.4 3.7 4.8 2.9 2.6 22.4 14.3

N . S . W . 1983 M e t r o 6.0 4.3 5.0 5.2 3.2 23.7 14.0 Non-metro 5.0 5.0 3.3 5.0 3.3 21.6 18.0 - II _-I-

S o u r c e : T A R U (N.S.W.) R T A ( V i c . )

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A n a l y s i s of t h e two key ( m a l e ) p e d a l c y c l i s t s c e n a r i o s s i ; g g e s t s t h a t 1 s t y e a r d r i v e r s a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y more l i k e l y t o b e i n v o l v e d i n t h e s e a c c i d e n t s t h a n t h e s e c o n d y e a r d r i v e r s . L e s s e x p e r i e n c e d d r i v e r s a s a w h o l e a r e more l i k e l y t o b e i n v o l v e d i n c h i l d 0-16 p e d a l c y c l e a c c i d e n t s .

I n V i c t o r i a , a s i z e a b l e number o f l e a r n e r p r o b a t i o n a r y d r i v e r s a r e i n v o l v e d i n p e d a l c y c l e a c c i d e n t s ( 1 8 % m e t r o and 1 3 % c o u n t r y ) . I n N . S . W . t h e i n c i d e n c e o f l e a r n e r / p r o v i s i o n a l d r i v e r s i s much l o w e r ( 7 % ) b u t t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e l i k e l y t o b e r e l a t e d t o t h e r e l a t i v e s i z e s of t h o s e d r i v e r s c l a s s i f i e d a s unknown.

I n N . S . W . m a l e s 8 -12 y e a r s of a g e who a r e more . l i k e l y t o b e i n v o l v e d w i t h a m o t o r i s t who h a s a l e a r n e r / p r o v i s i o n a l l i c e n c e , t h a n t h o s e aged 13-16 y e a r s .

4 . 3 4 7 L o c a t i o n

I n N . S . W . , l o c a l r o a d s a c c o u n t f o r t h e m a j o r i t y of c h i l d p e d a l c y c l e a c c i d e n t s . I n t h e m e t r o a r e a t h e y a c c o u n t f o r 7 5 % o f a c c i d e n t s . I n t h e n o n - m e t r o a r e a , t h e f i g u r e r a n g e s f r o m 6 3 % t o 7 2 % . Main r o a d s a c c o u n t f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 4 % i n t h e m e t r o a r e a and a r o u n d 1 2 % i n t h e n o n - m e t r o a r e a s . S t a t e h i g h w a y s a c c o u n t f o r a r o u n d 1 6 % of p e d a l c y c l e a c c i d e n t s i n t h e n o n - m e t r o a r eas .

The y o u n g e r b o y s , 8 -12 y e a r s , a r e e v e n more l i k e l y t o h a v e t h e i r p e d a l c y c l e a c c i d e n t s o n l o c a l s t r e e t s ( m e t r o BO%, n o n - m e t r o 7 0 % ) . F o r t h e t e e n a g e b o y s , i n t h e m e t r o a r e a 60-69% o c c u r o n l o c a l r o a d s and 2 0 - 2 5 % i n ma in r o a d s .

--___I

I n t e r s e c t i o n s a c c o u n t f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y h a l f t h e p e d a l c y c l e a c c i d e n t s i n N . S . W . and t h i s a p p l i e s t o b o t h t h e m e t r o a s w e l l as 111111111111 ~ ______l_l_l_______

t h e n o n - m e t r o a r e a .

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L O C A T I O N O F PEDAL C Y C L E ACCIDENTS I N N.S.W. _____l__-____l___________________

T A B L E 80

1 9 8 2 ~

1 9 8 1 M e t r o Non-met ro M e t r o Non-metro -___- __I--_-

N o . No. NO . No. C r o s s i n t e r s e c t i o n 1 0 8 5 6 1 0 4 6 6 T - j u n c t i o n 1 7 4 7 0 2 2 0 5 7 Y-i u n c t i o n 6 0 2 1 A l i o t h e r i n t e r s e c t i o n s 3 1 4 1 --_I_

Sub-To t a l i n t e r s e c t i o n s 2 9 1 1 2 7 3 3 0 1 2 5 Two-way s t r e e t 2 6 0 1 3 9 2 3 4 1 3 2

--ll_--___--------l_______l______l_

D i v i d e d S t r e e t One wav s t r e e t

18 3 32 2 2 1 2 2

S o u r c e : T A R U (N.S.W.) - 4 . 3 4 8 Manoeuvres

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 0 % o f p e d a l c y c l e a c c i d e n t s i n N . S . W . a r e c l a s s i f i e d i n t h e a c c i d e n t r e c o r d s a s moving a l o n g t h e roadway ( c o d e 1 2 ) which e n c o m p a s s e s " p r o c e e d i n g a l o n g l a n e " ( o n e i t h e r s t r a i g h t o r c u r v e d r o a d o r a t a n i n t e r s e c t i o n ) . A n a l y s i s o f t h e r e m a i n d e r i s a l s o n o t v e r y i n s t r u c t i v e . The n e x t mos t f r e q u e n t c a t ego r y is ( Turn- 2 6 ) " P e r f o r m i n g o t h e r / u n s pe c i f i e d f o r w a r d manoeuvre ". A l i s t of t h e most f r e q u e n t m a n o e u v r e s i n t h e N.S.W. a c c i d e n t d a t a f o l l o w s i n t a b l e 81.

------I

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T A B L E 81 MOST FREQUENT* B I C Y C L E MANOEUVRES -- - _ __ -_ I N V O L V E D I N A C C I D E N T S I N N . S . W .

(Move 1 2 ) ( T u r n 2 9 ) ( T u r n 2 1 )

( T u r n 2 6 ) (Move 1 7 )

(Move 1 1 ) ( T u r n 2 8 ) (Move 1 3 )

( T u r n 2 3 )

( T u r n 3 8 )

P r o c e e d i n g a l o n g l a n e Un s pe c i f i ed f o r w a r d T u r n r i g h t o u t o f own l a n e i n t o r o a d / d r i v e E n t e r r o a d f r o m d r i v e T r a v e l l i n g wrong s i d e of r o a d P u l l i n g o u t f r o m k e r b P e r f o r m i n g U - t u r n V e e r i n q t o r i g h t t o c h a n g e l a n e T u r n l e f t o u t of own l a n e i n t o r o a d / d r i v e Movinq a l o n g f o o t p a t h

1981 -I

61 . 4 8 . 6

8.1 6 . 5

5.2 1 . 9 1 . 9

1 . 6

1 . 6 > 1

1 9 8 2 -- 5 6 . 2 15 .1

7 .8 5 .7

5.5 1 . 3 >1

1 . 4

1 . 0 2 . 3

S o u r c e : T A R U ( N . S . W . ) * I n c l u d e s a l l m a n o e u v r e s a c c o u n t i n g f o r more

t h a n 1 % o f a c c i d e n t s .

4 . 3 5 Motor C y c l e a n d P i l l i o n P a s s e n g e r s -- _________-__I_

No a t t e m p t w i l l h e made t o a n a l y s e t h i s r o a d u s e r c a t e g o r y i n a n y d e t a i l b e c a u s e of t h e s m a l l s a m p l e b a s e . D a t a w a s o b t a i n e d f o r N.S.W. o n l y , w h e r e 1 2 c h i l d r e n d i e d i n 1 9 8 1 , and 8 i n 1 9 8 2 a n d 1 9 8 3 r e s p e c t i v e l y a s d r i v e r s . The t o t a l number of c h i l d r e n i n v o l v e d i n a c c i d e n t s a s d r i v e r s or p i l l i o n p a s s e n g e r s was a p p r o x i m a t e l y 250 i n e a c h y e a r . D r i v e r s were d i v i d e d e q u a l l y b e t w e e n m e t r o and n o n - m e t r o w h i l s t p i l l i o n p a s s e n g e r s w e r e s l i g h t l y more numerous i n t h e m e t r o a r e a i n N.S.W.

Of t h e m o t o r c y c l e r i d e r s a g e d 0 -16 i n v o l v e d i n a c c i d e n t s o v e r 8 0 % were males a g e d 13 -16 . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 0 % of t h e d r i v e r s had no l i c e n c e and t h e r e m a i n d e r had a l e a r n e r s p e r m i t . F o r p i l l i o n p a s s e n g e r s i n j u r e d , o n l y o n e t h i r d of d r i v e r s had a l i c e n c e , t h e r e m a i n d e r w e r e l e a r n e r s o r u n l i c e n s e d . F o r o n e t h i r d of t h e d r i v e r s , t h e m o t o r c y c l e s u s e d were n o t r e g i s t e r e d . F o r p i l l i o n p a s s e n g e r s , t h e i n c i d e n c e o f u n r e g i s t e r e d v e h i c l e s was much l o w e r ( a r o u n d 2 0 % ) .

T h e i n c i d e n c e of n o t w e a r i n g s a f e t y h e l m e t s w a s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 0 % f o r r i d e r s and p i l l i o n p a s s e n g e r s a l i k e .

A p p r o x i m a t e l y 70% of t h e a c c i d e n t s o c c u r on l o c a l r o a d s , 5 5 % o c c u r on s t r a i g h t r o a d s on two way s t r e e t s and 4 0 % a t i n t e r s e c t i o n s . 80% o c c u r p r o c e e d i n g down a r o a d o r a t a n i n t e r s e c t i o n ( i . e . Move 1 2 c o d e ) .

___I_

- --- --__ _- ____-__I---__-

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1 2 7

4 . 3 6 Summary of Mass D a t a A n a l y s e s

Any a t t e m p t t o s u m m a r i s e t h e m a t e r i a l i n s e c t i o n 4 . 3 c o u l d n o t d o j u s t i c e t o t h e mass of d a t a p r o v i d e d . A c c o r d i n g l y , a s c h e m a t i c d i a g r a m ( F i g u r e E ) h a s h e e n i n c l u d e d i n t h e hope t h a t t h e r e a d e r w i l l s e e k o u t t h e d e t a i l s i n t h e r e l e v a n t s u b - s e c t i o n s .

FIGURE E SCHEMATIC SUMMARY O F MASS D A T A ANALYSES I l___~-_l____l___--__-___l__

A l l Road V e h i c l e P e d e s t r i a n s P e d a l Users I___I _-___I __I____-I ____- V a r i a b l e

I-___

C y c l i s t s I-__I

P a s s e n g e r s __I-__ I

Month ---- No c o n s i s t e n t p a t t e r n ---- F r i d . T h u r s - T h u r s A 1 1 S a t / S u n s u n F r i d / S a t Days

T i m e P e a k 3-5 /4-6 3-8 M e t r o / 3-4 4-5 _I

O t h e r s 2-414-8 1 - 7 Non-Met 3 -6 /4 -5 3-6

I? e a t h e r ---- Bad W e a t h e r i n l e s s t h a n 1 0 % --- D r i ve r E x pe r i e n c e ---- O v e r - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f n o v i c e -11

d r i v e r s m o s t e s p e c i a l l y i n v e h i c l e p a s s e n g e r a c c i d e n t s . ----

A l c o h o l ---- p r e s e n t i n o v e r 1 0 % o f f a t a l ~ -- m o r e s o i n n o n - m e t r o ----

h i g h i n t e e n l o w low p a s s . a c c . 2% 1 %

Type o f Road L o c a l 50% l o c a l 2 / 3 r d s 60-70% s t r e e t s M e t r o , local Sts local

NOn-metro mid b l o c k i n t e r h i g h w a y s s e c t -

i o n s

Geo g r a p h y I_----

M e t r o more M e t r o M e t r o a c c i d e n t s Non-me t ro more f a t a l s . left f r o n t p a s s e n g e r and d r i v e r r e s t r a i n t s n o t u s e d .

i n j u r ed

O t h e r I_-


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