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INFORMATION
PROCESSINGTHEORY
ATKINSON & SHIFFRIN
BY:
wan mohd ridzaudin bin wan majid
mohd asrul hafiz bin ali@ yusofnuranis farhana binti khamis
noor azma binti ab. Rahman
nasuha binti kamaruldin
siti norhanani binti che mat
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approach to the study of cognitive development
evolved out of the American experimental tradition inpsychology.
Information processing theorists proposed that like thecomputer, the human mind is a system that processesinformation through the application of logical rules andstrategies - the mind has a limited capacity for theamount and nature of the information it can process.
Finally, just as the computer can be made into abetter information processor by changes in its hardware
(e.g., circuit boards and microchips) and its software(programming), so do children become moresophisticated thinkers through changes in their brainsand sensory systems (hardware) and in the rules andstrategies (software) that they learn.
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Sensory MemoryInformation enters the human information processing system
via a variety of channels associated with the different senses.
Perceptual systems operate on this information to createperceptions.
But because of a limited processing ability at the higher levels,most incoming information cannot be immediately dealt with
Instead, we attendonly to certain information.
However, information not immediately attended to is heldbriefly in a very temporary "buffer" memory, making it possibleto attend to some of it a bit later -- as when you can still hearsomeone asking you a question even though you weren't reallylistening when they asked it.
This buffer memory is called sensory memory.
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Here are some characteristics of these two sensory memorysystems:
Iconic Memory (vision)Capacity: Essentially that of the visual system (Sperling)Duration: About 0.5 to 1.0 seconds (Sperling)Processing: None additional beyond raw perceptual
processing
Echoic Memory (hearing}Capacity: ????Duration: About 4 to 5 secondsProcessing: None additional beyond raw perceptual
processing
Sensory memory is really have many sensory memory systems,one associated with each sense. Eg:
for vision, called iconic memory,
for audition (hearing), called echoic memory
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Information that is attended to arrives in another temporary store
called short-term or working memory. The more recent term"working memory" is intended to convey the idea that information
here is available for further processing.
In general information in working memory is information you are
conscious of and can work with.
Here are some properties of STM:
Capacity: About 7 plus or minus 2 "chunks" of information
(Miller, 1956)
Duration: About 18 to 20 seconds (Peterson & Peterson, 1959)
Processing: To hold information in STM, it is often encoded
verbally, although other strategies may also be used such as
visualization.
These strategies make it possible to "rehearse" the information.
Short-term memories (STM)
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The low capacity of STM was first noted by George Miller in a famous
paper intitled The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two. Miller
concluded that about seven (plus or minus two) "chunks" of informationcould reside in STM simultaneously.
Miller defined a "chunk" as an independent item of information -- one
whose recall did not aid in the further recall of the other items. Random
letters such as "GJK" would each be considered a chunk, but lettersthat form a recognizable larger whole, such as "CAR" would not. (In this
case the word "car" is a single chunk.)
Information that enters STM fades away, ordecaysas soon as it is nolonger attended to. (The duration of 18-20 seconds assumes that the
information is not being actively rehearsed.)
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Information that is being actively attended to is represented
by a pattern of neural activity in the brain may become
represented more permanently by guiding changes in neural
connectivity in the brain, a process referred to as storage.
But information that is not more permanently stored is
simply lost shortly after attention is directed elsewhere.
Because STM presents severe limits on the amount of
information that can be held in mind simultaneously and on
the duration for which it lasts once attention is withdrawnfrom it, STM has been described as the bottleneck of the
human information processing system.
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Long-term Memory (LTM)
Long-term memory is also called preconscious and unconsciousmemory in Freudian terms.
Preconscious means that the information is relatively easily
recalled.
unconscious refers to data that is not available during normal
consciousness.
Here are some properties of LTM:
1. Capacity: Virtually unlimited
2. Duration: Up to a lifetime
3. Processing: Information is organized according to meaningand
is associatively linked
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1. Capacity: Virtually unlimited :
Capacity is unlimited in the sense that nobody seems to run out of the
capacity to store new information. Except if our brain deteriorate.
2. Duration: Up to a lifetime :
We cant determine how long memory can exist in our LTM.
If you cannot remember something ; it is because of it has been lost
from the system, or because you have developed a problem locating
it for retievalPermanent loses;(occurred due to damaged brain and it is not been
accesed for a long time)
Permanent losses do occur as a result of brain damage and it is
possible that some memories simply decay away if they are not
accessed for a very long time.HOWEVER; some failures of retrieval are due to temporary
blockages and not to the loss of the information in memory
example-: You may be unable to remember someone's name at
present, for example, but later it comes to you. Obviously, it was
there in memory all the while.
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1.Teachers need to recognize the importance of teaching
higher order thinking skill(Lawrenz.,1990)
Teachers must try to change their mind set from teaching
science just as a body of facts.
The higher-order thinking skills, which focus on students ability
to hypothesize, analyse, synthesize and evaluate facts and
concepts, are considered important for students to interact
effectively with the real world environment of day to day problem
solving.
Teachers are encouraged to employ an inquiry-oriented
investigative approach to teach science.
Implications for teaching primary science
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2.Teachers need to play a facilitative role in teachingproblem solving(Pizzini et al.,1989)
Teachers assist students in identifying problems and
developing strategies to obtain and process information.
They could help students by identifying logical errors in theirthinking (such as inconsistencies or unjustifiable inferences),
challenging students to consider other possibilities, and
pointing out to students when they have over generalized on
the basis of false assumptions.
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3.Teachers need to change their mode of assessment( Stiggins et al.,1989)
In order to encourage higher-order thinking in students, the
assessment mode needs to be changed.
It is suggested that teachers should ask more higher-orderthinking questions involving analysis, comparison, inference
and evaluation.
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4.Schools need to improve science facilities andresources (Chin et al.,1994)
To encourage teachers to teach higher-order thinking skills in
science, an increase in the number of science
laboratory/science rooms and additional resources such as
teaching materials for conducting hands-on activities, is
necessary.
At present, supporting laboratory staff at the primary level is
lacking. If a problem-solving approach is to be seriously
employed by teachers as part of science instruction, they needassistance and support from laboratory staff to cut down the
time required in preparing hands-on activities
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The central executive
This is the master controller of the working memory system. Its functions
are thought to include switching attention between tasks,
selecting/ignoring stimuli, and activating necessary information from
long-term memory. At the moment its unclear whether the central
executive is one unitary mechanism, or whether it can be broken down
into subsystems.
The phonological loopThis component holds speech-based information. It has two parts a
phonological store, which temporarily holds speech information, and
the articulatory control process (ACT; the arrow in the diagram),
which is the part thats working when youre talking to yourself in your
head. The ACT is one way of getting information into the phonological
store, but, information in the phonological store starts to decay after afew seconds. This is why to remember a phone number you need to
keep repeating it over and over until you find a penyoure
refreshing the decaying information by it by putting it through the ACT
again.
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Visuo-spatial sketch pad
Not surprisingly, this is the part that processes visual information. This might
be from your eyes, recalling a memory, or creatively visualising something. Ifyoure seeing with your minds eye, or mentally manipulating an image, this
is the part thats working.
The episodic buffer
Information is encoded differently in the phonological loop and the visuo-
spatial sketch pad, while the central executive can only process, not store.
The episodic buffer is able to combine information from the above
components into a single representation. This was added to the model only
recently (2000), because a number of research findings were hard to explain
without it. (2)
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