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"etaphysics in Chinese Philosophy
First published Thu Apr #$ #%&'
(hile there was no word corresponding precisely to the term )metaphysics*$ China
has a long tradition of philosophical in+uiry concerned with the ultimate nature of
reality,its being$ origins$ components$ ways of changing$ and so on- n this sense$
we can spea! of )metaphysics* in Chinese Philosophy$ even if the particular
+uestions and positions that arose di.ered from those dominant in Europe- E/plicit
metaphysical discussions appeared in China with a turn toward +uestions of
cosmogony in the mid0fourth century BCE- These cosmogonies e/press a number of
views that became fundamental for almost all later metaphysics in China- n these
te/ts$ all things are interconnected and constantly changing- They arise
spontaneously from an ultimate source 1most often called dao道
$ the way2 thatresists ob3ecti4cation but is immanent in the world and accessible to cultivated
people- 5itality and growth is the very nature of e/istence$ and nature e/hibits
consistent patterns that can be observed and followed$ in particular patterns of
cycles and interaction between polar forces 1such as yin 陰 and yang 陽2-
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This basic outloo! di.ers fundamentally from the assumptions that dominated
metaphysical thin!ing in Europe after the introduction of Christianity6 the belief that
the ultimate principle of the world is transcendent but anthropomorphic 1as human
beings are made in its image2$ that the things of the world arise through design$ and
that the world is composed of ontologically distinct substances- These assumptions
have been widely re3ected by philosophers over the course of the #%th century$which is partly what ma!es metaphysics in Chinese Philosophy interesting- n the
Chinese tradition we see one possibility for what metaphysics might loo! li!e if we
were neither apologi7ing for nor reacting against such views 1in 8iets7che9s terms$ a
metaphysics based neither on :od nor the Death of :od2- This is not to say that
Chinese metaphysics is homogenous or without its own problems- ;ather$ we can
say that while European metaphysics has tended to center on problems of
reconciliation 1how ontologically distinct things can interact2$ Chinese metaphysics
has been more concerned with problems of distinction- The most central problems
are around the status of individuali7ed things$ the relationship between the patterns
of nature and speci4cally human values$ and how to understand the ultimate
ground of the world in a way that avoids either rei4cation or nihilism- These become
problems precisely because of the underlying assumptions of holism and change-
;eaders should !eep in mind that a survey of metaphysics in Chinese Philosophy is
no more ade+uate than such a survey would be regarding Europe- have
necessarily left out more than have included- Aside from introducing the most
in
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- Coherence and 5ital Energy in 8eo0Confucianism
- Conclusion6 Beyond )Chinese Philosophy*
Bibliography
Academic Tools
ther nternet ;esources
;elated Entries
&- s there )"etaphysics* in Chinese Philosophy=
This entire entry could be ta!en up with the +uestion begged by its title6 s there
metaphysics in Chinese Philosophy= The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy itself
seems ambivalent- There is this entry$ but instead of a corresponding entry for
)"etaphysics in European Philosophy* there is an entry for )"etaphysics* that
draws e/clusively on European traditions- ;ather than argue for the legitimacy ofmy topic in the abstract$ will e/plicate speci4c issues and positions from various
Chinese philosophers$ leaving it to readers to decide how well they 4t the category
of metaphysics- 8onetheless$ one cannot entirely ignore the problem of applying
the term )metaphysics* so far beyond its :ree! origins$ and so a few preliminary
comments are necessary- 1For discussions of this issue$ see i and Per!ins
forthcomingA (eber #%&? Tan #% iu #%&& (en #%&& Gu #%&& Gu and Hu
#%%I Jhao #%% >ansen #%%& Jhu &II Cheng &II%-2
f we designate an area of philosophical in+uiry concerned with the ultimate natureof reality,its being$ origins$ components$ ways of changing$ and so on,there is no
+uestion that Chinese philosophers addressed issues within this domain- The
+uestion is$ do we apply the label of )metaphysics* to philosophical arguments
within this domain$ or do we reserve the label for some speci4cally European
approach or theory- The latter faces an obvious problem,any de4nition broad
enough to include all European approaches will include some Chinese theories$ 3ust
as any de4nition narrow enough to e/clude all Chinese approaches will also e/clude
some European philosophers that everyone would agree addressed metaphysics-
The +uestion$ though$ is more about rhetoric and power than the facts- f
)metaphysics* labels the broader domain$ then studying metaphysics involvesengaging other cultures$ and an SEP entry on )"etaphysics* that discussed only
ideas derived from Europe would be biased and partial- n contrast$ if )metaphysics*
labels a speci4cally European view$ then courses$ boo!s$ and encyclopedia entries
on metaphysics legitimately e/clude other cultures-
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At the same time$ while applying )metaphysics* to both European and Chinese
thought is more inclusive$ it also obscures the depth of the di.erences between the
two- "ore insidiously$ it erodes these di.erences by presenting Chinese philosophy
in European terms- That is a legitimate worry$ but given the almost entire e/clusion
of other cultures from the discipline of philosophy$ the greater danger is ignoring
Chinese Philosophy- Get if we do ta!e Chinese Philosophy as having metaphysics$ wemust strive to avoid distorting it to 4t into European terms- For e/ample$ a simple
approach would be to list the main topics in European metaphysics and then see
what Chinese philosophers have to say about them- The results would be
disappointing$ and this approach would miss what is most interesting about a cross0
cultural perspective$ which is its ability to show that we have not been as!ing the
most interesting or relevant +uestions- (ithin this entry$ then$ have tried as much
as possible to follow and e/plicate the main issues that arose when Chinese
philosophers were concerned with the nature of reality- have then made brief
gestures toward how these issues might connect to metaphysical problems in the
European tradition-
A label li!e )metaphysics* refers to certain human practices at the same time that it
draws boundaries around those practices- (hile Chinese philosophers engaged in
the !inds of practices that metaphysics refers to$ they did not draw the same
boundaries- solating metaphysical in+uiry from practices of self0cultivation$ for
e/ample$ would have struc! almost any Chinese philosopher as odd$ if not
dangerous- Thus there is no native Chinese term mar!ing the same boundaries as
)metaphysics* in European philosophy- (hen Chinese encountered the term$ it was
translated by way of Kapanese as /ing er shang /ue 形而上學$ literally$ )the study of
what is above forms*- )(hat is above forms* had long been a central concept in
Chinese philosophy$ originating in a passage from the )Hici* commentary on the Gi
King易經$ the Classic of Changes$ which says6 )(hat is above forms refers to the
way Ldao 道M what is below forms refers to utensils L+i 器M* 1:ao >eng &II6 @%2-
L&M The distinction between what is above forms and what is below forms has a
vague resemblance to the distinction between metaphysics and physics$ but the
di.erences are telling- First$ what is above forms cannot be fully separated from
what is below forms 1see (ang forthcoming2- Studying only what is above forms
would ma!e little sense- Second$ while the distinction between metaphysics and
physics can be construed in many ways$ its most common correlate in the European
tradition is the distinction between transcendence and immanence- n the Chinesetradition$ the issue instead is the relationship between the formed and the formless-
The implications of this di.erence will appear across a range of metaphysical issues-
#- Proto0"etaphysical Bac!ground6 The "andate of >eaven
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As far as we !now$ e/plicit metaphysical discussions began in China in the mid to
late @th century BCE with the ao7i 1Daode3ing2 and associated te/ts- Before that$
the two dominant philosophical movements were the "ohists and the ;u
1Confucians2- Both focused on political and ethical issues and showed little direct
concern with metaphysical +uestions$ but one can 4nd metaphysical views implicit
in their positions- These are closest to the surface in their discussions of the divine$which set the conte/t for the emergence of metaphysical debates-
The two !ey concepts are tian天 1heaven2 and ming 命 1the command fate2- The
idea of tianming 天命
1the )"andate of >eaven*2 4rst came to prominence in
rationali7ing the con+uest of the Shang dynasty by Ning (en and Ning (u$ who
founded the Jhou dynasty in the eleventh century BCE- >eaven is described in
anthropomorphic terms as having awareness$ preferences$ and values- ts most
fundamental concern is for the people$ as e/pressed in a famous line from the
):reat Declaration* chapter of the Boo! of Documents 1Shangshu 尚書26 )>eavensees from where my people see heaven hears from where my people hear* 1+uoted
from "eng7i 'A'2- As a political doctrine$ the claim is that heaven will support rulers
who help the people and will bring disaster on rulers who do not- n this view$ the
world wor!s on regular principles that encompass ethical and political concerns-
>uman beings determine their own success or failure based on these patterns
rather than depending on divine whim- The emergence of this view is commonly
seen as a decisive moment in the formation of Chinese philosophy-
(hile heaven is presented as a willful and anthropomorphic being in the early partsof the Shangshu 尚書$ it was not transcendent in the sense of being e/ternal to the
system of nature- The term tian simultaneously refers to the s!y$ with senses of the
orderly movement of the heavens and of something that encompasses all things
e+ually- The classical Chinese word for the )world* or )realm* is literally what is
)under0heaven*$ tian/ia 天下- Since the actions of heaven occur through the world$
the two are often diOcult to distinguish- The primary e/pression of heaven9s will is
through human actions,to lose heaven9s mandate is to lose the support of the
people- The eventual transition in conceptions of heaven from a willful deity to the
causal patterns of nature was possible because heaven was never separate from
those patterns- Debates were about the nature of heaven rather than its e/istence$
and heaven remained a central term for philosophers holding widely di.erent
viewpoints-
The belief that heaven rewarded good people and punished those who were bad
came into +uestion as the Jhou dynasty fell apart- Something li!e the classical
problem of evil arose as centuries of civil war and disaster made it diOcult to
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believe that the world was structured along ethical lines 1see Per!ins #%&@2- Three
responses can be distinguished- ne$ e/empli4ed by the "ohists$ defended and
theori7ed the earlier view that heaven rewarded those who are good$ de4ned as
those who care inclusively for other people- The second +uestioned the regularity of
any natural order$ emphasi7ing that good and bad events come without reason and
without concern for 3ustice- This view was associated with a new meaning for ming$ta!ing it not as a command but as something more li!e blind fate- The third position
argued for the regularity of natural patterns but too! those patterns as amoral- n
this view$ human beings remain in control of their fate$ but what brings success is
not necessarily being ethical$ at least in a conventional sense- 5ersions of this view
appears in the ao7i and in theories arising from practical arts li!e medicine or
military strategy- (hile e/pressed in di.erent ways in di.erent times$ the belief that
nature follows consistent patterns that can guide human action became a dominant
view across Chinese philosophies$ while the relationship between these patterns
and humanistic values became one of the main points of dispute-
?- The Cosmogonic Turn
Sometime probably in the middle of the fourth century BCE$ a radical shift in
vocabulary$ concerns$ and visions of the human too! place-L#M This new position has
long been !nown from the ao7i$ but recent archaeological studies show that the
ao7i was 3ust one of a number of positions that together constitute what we might
call )a cosmogonic turn*-L?M These te/ts are the 4rst we !now of to directly +uestion
how the diverse things of the world arise and ta!e form- This concern seems to have
been bound up with de0centering and de0privileging human beings- As the Jhuang7i
puts it6
n stating the number of things we say there are )ten thousand*$ and human beings
are 3ust one of them- LM n comparison with the ten0thousand things$ Lhuman
beingsM are not even li!e the tip of a hair to the body of a horse- 1:uo &I$ &6
'@ cf- Jiporyn #%%I6 I2
This brea! with anthropocentrism went along with a shift away from humanistic
values li!e rightness 1yi 義2 or ritual propriety 1li 禮2 and toward concerns with
maintaining life$ reducing desires$ and acting spontaneously-
These cosmogonies share the following four assumptions6
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The diverse things of the world ultimately trace bac! to a single source-
The generation of things happens spontaneously$ without design$ purpose$ or
deliberate values-
The ultimate is immanent in the world and can be accessed in some way-
Between the ultimate and the myriad concrete things$ there are intermediary steps$
particularly a role for polarities and cyclical patterns-
Almost every e/ample of cosmogonic thin!ing in Chinese philosophy shares these
characteristics$ so it is important to discuss them in some detail-
?-& "onism
All Chinese thin!ers who discussed ultimate origins too! that origin to be uni+ue-
The best !nown name for this source is dao 道$ which means path$ way$ or guide-Another important name is tai3i 太極$ the )supreme polarity*-L@M The term tai3i
appears in the Gi King as the original unity from which yin and yang emerge- t
remained an important term and become particularly prominent during the
Confucian revival in the Song dynasty- Positing a single source had a decisive
in
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The terms you 有 and wu 無 are among the most important metaphysical terms in
the Chinese tradition- They are often translated as )being* and )non0being*$ but wu
refers not to radical nothingness but to the lac! of di.erentiated beings- Thus in the
conte/t of the ao7i$ >ans0:eorg "oeller 1#%%2 translates the two terms as
)presence* and )non0presence*$ ;oger T- Ames and David - >all 1#%%?2 translate
them as )determinate* and )indeterminate*$ and Broo! Jiporyn 1#%&@2 as )being0there* and )not0being0there*- ne problem in ta!ing the ultimate as no0thing is that
it becomes impossible to spea! of- The danger of reifying it is unavoidable$ leading
into an alternation between those tending toward rei4cation and those re3ecting it-
For e/ample$ the Jhuang7i points out that as soon as you label something$ even as
no0being 1wu2$ it becomes a thing that needs its own e/planation6
There is being$ there is no0being$ there is not yet beginning to be no0being$ there is
not yet beginning to be not yet beginning to be no0being- 1:uo &I$ #6 I cf-
Jiporyn #%%I6 &'2
This very warning against rei4cation$ though$ is e/plicated into an inuainan7i$ which
ta!es each phrase as labeling an identi4able point in a progression of concrete
stages- This dialectic between being and no0being was later ta!en up in a di.erent
form through Buddhist debates about emptiness$ and it can be considered one of
the central metaphysical problems throughout the Chinese philosophical tradition
1See (ang Bo #%&&$ Cheng #%%I$ and the essays in iu and Berger #%&@2-
?-# Spontaneous :eneration
f we ta!e no0being as indeterminacy$ then the problem of a 4rst cause is not
getting many from one nor getting something from nothing but rather how
di.erentiation emerges from the undi.erentiated- The common e/planation appeals
to another !ey metaphysical concept,7iran 自然- The character 7i 自 is a re
8/19/2019 Chinese Metaphysics
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identi4cation of being and conatus 1striving2 and even with 8iet7sche9s )will to
power*-
Two important points follow- First$ e/istence is seen not in terms of abstract being
but rather as sheng 生6 life$ growth$ birth$ vitality- The fundamental role of shengappears e/plicitly in the )Hici* commentary on the Gi King$ which says that the
foundation of the Changes is shengsheng$ )generating and generating*$ )growing
and growing*$ )living and living*$ or even )natura naturans* 1:ao >eng &II6 ?2-
This phrase inspired the famous description of nature as shengsheng bu/i 生生不息6
generating$ generating$ never ceasingR t is sometimes said that Chinese philosophy
lac!s ontology 1and thus metaphysics2 because philosophers were never concerned
with being as such- t is more accurate to say that Chinese philosophers too!
dynamic organi7ation as implicit in the very nature of being$ rather than positing an
e/ternal source for motion and order- This means that ontology is also cosmology$
even biology-
Second$ if spontaneous generation is the very nature of being$ then one can
legitimately attribute 7iran to the ultimate or to things themselves- So chapter #' of
the ao7i says$ )>uman beings follow earth$ earth follows heaven$ heaven follows
dao$ dao follows 7iran*$ but chapter @ spea!s of )the 7iran of the myriad things*$
and in chapter &$ the people spea! of their own 7iran- This contrasts the common
division between :od as self0caused and everything else as caused by :od$ a view
which ultimately sees being as divided into two fundamentally di.erent !inds- n
employing a univocal conception of being as sheng$ Chinese philosophies did notsegregate self0generation from the world itself-
?-? mmanence
The third common point is that the ultimate is immanent in the world- t is worth
noting that the lac! of tense in classical Chinese introduces a fundamental
ambiguity into all of these cosmogonies,while they can be read as describing
something that happened in the past$ they can 3ust as well describe an ongoing
process in which the generative function is always present- n one passage$
Jhuang7i is as!ed where dao is and he replies that there is no place from which dao
is absent 1wusuo bu7ai 無所不2- Pushed to give an e/ample$ he says dao is in ants
and cric!ets- (hen as!ed to go lower$ Jhuang7i says dao is in weeds$ bro!en tiles$
and even in piss and dung 1:uo &I$ ##6 '% cf- Jiporyn #%%I6 I2- Similar
statements would later be made about Buddha0nature$ particularly in the tradition
of Chan ! 1Jen2 Buddhism- The immanence of the source is demonstrated most of
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all by the fact that it remains accessible to cultivated people- n the ao7i$ dao is
something one can use in the world6
Dao is constantly without name- Although in its unhewn simplicity it is minute$
heaven and earth do not dare subordinate it- f princes and !ings can preserve it$the ten thousand things will ma!e themselves their guests- 1Ch ?#2
t is diOcult to 4nd the right language to describe the relationship between dao and
human beings- The dao is not e/ternal$ so it is not a matter of getting or reaching it$
and it is not an ob3ect that could be grasped- Since the self0so spontaneity to which
dao refers is always present$ what is re+uired is a negative process of removing
obstacles- Jiran is what remains if we free ourselves from striving and conventional
goals- Thus this same process is described as wuwei 無"$ which literally means
)lac!ing action* but refers to giving up striving and e.ort- The Jhuang7i givesanother e/ample$ the )fasting of the heartmind* 1/in7hai #$2 that allows us to rely
directly on vital energy 1+i2 and respond spontaneously to whatever appears before
us 1:uo &I$ @6 &@ cf- Jiporyn #%%I6 #2-
?-@ Polarity and Cycles
All of the cosmogonies posit stages between the ultimate and the concrete myriad
things of the world- The need for intermediary stages is given no e/plicit
3usti4cation$ but it follows if things arise spontaneously rather than by consciouschoice or design- f their ground is immanent rather than teleological$ concrete
things must be e/plained through a gradual process of spontaneous di.erentiation-
>aving a series of stages also allows for degrees of di.erentiation within a
connected whole- That provides an e/planation not 3ust for the concrete myriad
things$ but also for nature as a system-
The most common stage involved interaction between two forces- These polar
forces could be speci4ed in many ways,heaven and earth$ hot and cold$ dry and
moist,but the pair that came to dominate is yin 陰
and yang陽- 1For anauthoritative study of yin and yang$ see (ang #%-2 Gang originally referred to the
south side of a mountain$ which received the sun$ while yin referred to the north
side- Qltimately$ yang was associated with the masculine$ the forceful$ and the
bright$ while yin was associated with the feminine$ the yielding$ and the obscure-
Creativity followed from the interaction of yin and yang$ modeled on se/ual
reproduction-
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Another common point is a role for cycles and processes of return- ne prominent
model is the four seasons- The change of seasons places cycles of growth and
decay into a broader conte/t of continuous vitality- The change of seasons itself$
though$ was seen as e/pressing a more fundamental cycle between poles such asyin and yang- Cyclical change could also be theori7ed through the progressions of
generation 1sheng 生2 or overcoming 1!e %2 among the 4ve phases 1wu/ing &'26
wood$ earth$ 4re$ air$ and metal- Another version of this cycling between poles was
the claim that when processes reach an e/treme$ they reverse- Get another
manifestation is that things emerge from a common source and ultimately return to
that source- n all of these cases$ cyclicality e/plains the sustainability and
predictability of natural patterns-
@- mpartiality and Di.erentiation8o pre0Buddhist Chinese philosophers claimed that the +ualitatively di.erentiated
world we e/perience is an illusion$ but their monistic metaphysics privileged
connectedness and unity- (hile patterns of di.erentiation may be ob3ective$
individuation 1i-e-$ what counts as a thing2 is provisional and conte/tual- t is always
possible to view all things as forming one whole or one body$ and this unity has
strong tendencies toward e+uali7ing values- From our conte/tual point of view$ one
thing can be said to be better$ bigger$ or more beautiful than another$ but from a
broader perspective all things have the same status- This could lead toward
s!epticism of absolute values 1as in the Jhuang7i2 or toward an imperative to care
for all things- >ui Shi 1c- ?%?%' BCE2 is reported to have said6 )Care over
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A person of King lost a bow and was not willing to search for it$ saying$ )A person of
King lost it$ a person of King will 4nd it$ so why search=* Nong7i heard this and said$
)f you leave out VKing9$ then it is acceptable*- ao Dan heard it and said$ )f you
leave out Vperson9$ then it is acceptable*- Thus it was ao Dan who reached the
utmost impartiality- 1Chen Wiyou &I@$ &@6 @'2L'M
The level of impartiality attributed to ao7i ma!es loss impossible- Everything is
already found-
As the reference to Nong7i suggests$ this tendency toward inclusivity threatened the
humanistic ethics of the Confucians- (hile they continued to focus on social and
ethical issues$ they needed a metaphysical basis for their views- "oreover$ while
the cosmogonies e/empli4ed by the ao7i e/plained the dynamism inherent in
particular things and they e/plained the broader patterns of nature in which thosethings operated$ they did not address the di.erences between !inds of things,what
ma!es human beings di.er consistently from dogs= The concept that arose to 4ll
this gap and to 3ustify Confucian humanism is /ing - 1see Per!ins #%&?2- Hing is
most often translated as the )nature* of a thing or !ind of thing$ but it refers
speci4cally to the way a thing responds spontaneously to its environment- n human
beings$ /ing manifests itself primarily as desires and emotions$ broadly labeled as
+ing .
1genuine a.ects2- ne of the !ey +uestions debated by the Confucians was
the nature of these spontaneous responses,do they push us to pursue our own
pleasures or do they lead us to care for other people=
Hing became a foundation for theories of motivation but its roots are in
metaphysics- Hing derives from heaven and is closely connected to sheng 生$ the
term meaning to live or generate- Hing moves from the generic creativity or vitality
of nature to the speci4c life processes of !inds of things- "ore concretely$ /ing was
conceptuali7ed as the dynamic
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The term +i$ translated here as )vital energy*$ is already well !nown in English- t
was originally ta!en as one !ind of stu.$ connected with air and breath$ but it
eventually became the dominant label for the basic stu. of the world$ used to
e/plain all !inds of dynamic processes$ from the formation of heaven and earth tothe patterns of weather to the processes of the human heart-LM t was closely
connected with life and the generative power of nature- n this passage$ human
a.ects 1including desires and a tendency to approve or disapprove2 are the
movement of this +i when stimulated by events in the world- This is part of the
Confucian response to the focus on wuwei and reducing desires in te/ts li!e the
ao7i and Jhuang7i,a.ects li!e sorrow and care arise spontaneously$ by 7iran-
They are as natural for human beings as it is for water to
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'- Correlative Cosmology
8ear the end of the (arring States Period$ new assumptions about cosmology
appeared that dominated the >an dynasty and profoundly inow could they !now from where they truly
comeR 1Chen Wiyou &I@$ #%@6 &?I2
The categories used could be more or less general$ so on one side might be )human
being* or )animal* while on the most general side all things could be classi4ed as
either yin or yang- Another of the most common categories were wood$ earth$ 4re$
air$ and metal$ !nown as the 4ve phases 1wu/ing2- Get another set were based onthe Gi King$ using either the eight trigrams or si/ty0four he/agrams- These various
systems of categori7ation were eventually integrated$ so that categories from one
could be translated into the others- :iven the underlying ontology of change and
process$ categori7ation is not based on inherent +ualities or essences- The basis is
not the thing itself but its typical ways of acting and reacting,does it tend to
e/pand or contract$ wor! gradually or swiftly$ manifest itself obviously or subtly=
Since these traits are relational$ the same )thing* may not always be in the same
category 1it might act li!e wood in one conte/t but metal in another2$ and because
they are dynamic$ the categories give immediate information on how things can be
controlled$ in
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Consider the use of the most general categories$ yin and yang- Gang labels the
tendency to e/pand and dominate yin labels the tendency to draw things in by
yielding- n the broadest level$ anything can be put in one of these two categories$
but yin and yang are not inherent properties- The same thing that might be active
and dominating in one relationship might be softer and yielding in another 1as is
commonly the case in Chinese medicine2- The function of the labels can becompared to the way we label cause and e.ect- (e can designate a cause and an
e.ect in any change$ but being a cause is not an essential property- Everything is
simultaneously the cause of many e.ects and the e.ect of many causes- As cause
and e.ect illustrate$ even a set of two labels can be helpful in analy7ing situations$
and yinyang could become more and more speci4c in various ways- For e/ample$ in
the Gi King$ lines representing either yin 1a divided line2 or yang 1a straight line2 can
be combined into groups of three to form eight trigrams$ or groups of si/ to form @
categories- Each of these lines could be ta!en as more or less stable$ thus leading to
@%I possible readings-
The conception of causality at wor! here has come to be labeled with the Chinese
phrase ganying 23$ )stimulus and response*- n fact$ causality was described in
several ways- ne model is resonance$ as in the +uotation above where the
vibrations of one string stimulate vibrations in strings tuned to the same note-
Another model is stimulation$ in which one action induces or provo!es the actions of
another- Causality could also be a matter of drawing something forward- These
ways of analy7ing causality re
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The signi4cance of these correlations is that phenomena can be in
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8ature e/hibits the same hierarchical relationships implicit in the systems of
categori7ation- Gin and yang were still seen as complementary$ but they shifted
from e+ual forces driving generation to mar!ers for une+ual positions in a system of
correlated arrangements 1(ang #%%'2- So the dominance of the ruler correlated
with the dominance of the father but also with the dominance of the sun and
ultimately the dominance of yang- Another e/ample of this shift was the correlationof leniency and violence 1or the civil$ wen 7$ and the martial$ wu 82 with the spring
and the fall- This correlation made the use of violence a necessary and natural
principle$ while also restricting it to certain times- This cosmology ends up doing
much of the wor! that was done by anthropomorphism in the European tradition- n
both cases$ human culture is seen as mirroring structures at the foundation of the
natural world- n the case of Europe$ that foundation is seen as human0li!e in that
we are made in the image of :od$ thus anthropomorphi7ing the natural- n Chinese
correlative cosmology$ the opposite occurs$ where speci4cally human phenomena
are theori7ed as natural- n both cases$ social and political hierarchies are given a
metaphysical basis-
The >an dynasty collapsed in ##% CE$ leading to a long period of fragmentation$
instability$ and uncertainty- The dominant philosophical movement is !nown as
Huan/ue9學$ )Profound earning*- The term /uan means dar!$ obscure$ or
profound$ but it also has a sense of what precedes any division$ as it is used in the
4rst chapter of the ao7i- The best !nown wor!s from this movement are the
commentaries by (ang Bi 1###@I2 1on the ao7i and Gi King2 and by :uo Hiang 1=
? CE2 1on the Jhuang7i2- 1For studies of Huan/ue philosophy$ see Jiporyn #%&@6
&?&@ Jiporyn #%%? (agner #%%? Chan &III-2 Because of the centrality of the
ao7i and Jhuang7i$ the movement is sometimes !nown in English as )8eo0
Daoism*- Di.erent philosophers held di.erent positions$ but the core metaphysical
issue was how to understand dao as ultimate ground$ particularly how to interpret
descriptions of dao as no0being 1wu 無2 and how to understand the relations
between dao and the concrete world we e/perience-
Huan/ue was important for establishing much of the metaphysical vocabulary used
in later Chinese philosophy- ne of the most important terms is li :$ which in its
original use was a verb for laying out borders according to the contours of the land$
or for carving 3ade according to its own patterns- Both (ang Bi and :uo Hiang use li
as a technical term,for (ang Bi li refers to the patterns of coherence represented
by the he/agrams of the Gi King$ while for :uo Hiang li refers to patterns of
di.erentiation that spontaneously arise in the world 1Jiporyn #%&@6 &?@2- i was
later used by Chinese Buddhists to refer to emptiness and by 8eo0Confucians to
refer to patterns of coherence- The latter will be discussed further below-
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A second !ey concept to arise is the pairing of ti ( and yong ;- 1For discussions of
ti0yong$ see Jiporyn #%&@6 &@I&'' Jhang #%%#6 #'#'? Cua #%%# Cheng #%%#-2
Gong means use or function- Ti originally refers to an organi7ed form$ a pattern that
can be recogni7ed$ or to a body or part of the body- The pairing of tiyong wasapplied in di.erent ways$ but what is most consistent through these uses is that ti is
singular and yong is multiple- For e/ample$ the same piece of wood 1ti2 could have
many di.erent uses 1yong26 to fuel a 4re$ to build a house$ to carve into bowls$ and
so on- As in this e/ample$ the multiplicity of yong comes through involvement in
concrete circumstances or purposes- n this way$ ti is usually less determinate than
yong- n fact$ the ultimate ti was generally ta!en as fully indeterminate$ thus
allowing for in4nite determinate uses 1yong2- The contrast between ti and yong
sometimes loo!s li!e a contrast between the thing itself and the various ways it can
be used- Such a contrast is highlighted in the translation of ti as substance- This
translation is misleading in several ways- First$ li!e yin and yang$ the labels ti and
yong are conte/tual and thus the very same thing might be considered as ti in oneconte/t but as yong in another- Second$ the ultimate ti is almost never ta!en to be
individuated,it is emptiness or vital energy or the patterns of coherence 1li2 that all
things share- So the )substance* of a thing ultimately undermines its status as an
individual- t is worth noting that the phrase chosen to translate the ontos in
ontology was benti
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the the main themes in Buddhist metaphysics,impermanence 1anityawuchang 無
=2 and dependent co0arising 1pratXtyasamutpYdayuan+i >?2-
The process oriented metaphysics of Buddhism 4t well with the Chinese
philosophical tradition$ but it had a profound transformative e.ect- Buddhistmetaphysics brought a level of precision and comple/ity honed through a long
tradition of intense disputation and dialectic- Positions that had been ta!en for
granted in China were articulated in detail and defended against alternatives that
had never been a concern 1such as the idea of an eternal and unchanging soul2-
8ew possibilities were introduced$ including the claim that only mind is real- f
course$ as Buddhism impacted Chinese philosophy$ China transformed Buddhism$
leading to schools of Buddhism that never e/isted in ndia-
"uch of Buddhist metaphysics involves negotiating a middle ground betweenrei4cation and nihilism- The problem appears in relation to the self,it may be true
that there is no self$ but surely there is something which grounds or generates or is
the illusion of self- ne early school 1Abhidharma2 argued the self is a label for what
is really an aggregate of elements and factors$ !nown as dharmas 1fa @2- Apparent
wholes li!e the self can be reduced to these constituent factors$ 3ust as a chariot
can be reduced to its parts- A more radical view$ though$ e/tended the criti+ue of
the self to any entity that might be ta!en as independently real or self0de4ned$ in
Buddhist terms$ anything that might have svabhYva$ literally )self0being* or )self0
nature* 1in Chinese$ 7i/ing 自-2- This denial of self0being follows from dependent
co0arising$ which claims that any event depends on and is bound up with others-ac!ing an independent essence or ground$ all phenomena are said to be empty$
Z[nyatY or !ong A- Emptiness is meant to be a middle ground between aOrming or
denying the e/istence of things$ but such a middle ground is diOcult to articulate$
and the history of Buddhism can be seen as a dialect between those proposing
some !ind of reality 1tending toward rei4cation2 and those re3ecting it 1tending
toward nihilism2-
This dialectic is portrayed di.erently by di.erent thin!ers$ depending on what they
ta!e to be the 4nal position that encompasses all others- As an e/ample$ we canconsider the progression given by Jongmi BC 1%@&2$ a philosopher
representative of the >uayan DE
school but with close lin!s to Chan 1see :regory
&II' and #%%#2- n his n+uiry into the rigins of >umanity 1Guanren lun FGH2
Jongmi begins with the view that each person has a soul that is reincarnated
according to his or her actions- >e criti+ues this position by analy7ing this self in
terms of its parts,the self cannot be identi4ed with the totality of parts 1since some
parts are lost at death2 nor with one part among many 1which would ma!e the other
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parts irrelevant and thus not really even parts2- This leads into the ne/t position$
that
bodily form and cognitive mind$ because of the force of causes and conditions$ arise
and perish from moment to moment$ continuing in a series without cease$ li!e thetric!ling of water or the e calls this 4fth and 4nal position )The Teaching that ;eveals the 8ature*$
reinterpreting a term we have already seen$ /ing -$ which here stands for the
Buddha0nature 1Fo /ing L-2- This ultimate reality could also be referred to as the
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true mind or as the TathYgatagarbha 1;ulai7angMNO2$ which literally means the
)(omb of the Thus0Come* 1)Thus0Come* being a common name for the Buddha2-
(hile the last three positions had prominent advocates in China$ the 4nal position
became dominant and was shared by Tiantai 天P$ >uayan$ and Chan Buddhists-1For broader studies of metaphysics in >uayan Buddhism$ see Jiporyn #%%% din
&I# Coo! &I- For Tiantai$ see Jiporyn #%%@$ #%%% Swanson &II-2 ne obvious
+uestion is how this 4nal position di.ers from the position of "ind0nly- Jongmi9s
argument comes down to the relationship between reality and illusion$ which is
another core metaphysical problem within Chinese Buddhism 1see Nantor
forthcoming2- The basis of the problem is in the criti+ue of self0being- The world we
e/perience obviously 4ts the Buddhist account,nothing is independent$ a true
unity$ or free from change- Thus any metaphysics that allows for substances with
self0being re+uires a bifurcation between reality and appearances$ or more
speci4cally$ between the substance itself and the various +ualities or modes bywhich it appears- A common line of argument in Buddhist metaphysics is to attac!
any such split- To claim that things are empty is to say that there is nothing more to
them than there appears to be- This is the meaning of the common saying6 )form is
emptiness and emptiness is form*- Any attempt to articulate something as
ultimately real tends to fall into a split between reality and the changing
phenomenal world$ ma!ing the latter false or illusory- That is the core of Jongmi9s
criti+ue of the "ind0nly school- Buddha0nature as it is articulated in Tiantai and
>uayan attempts to tal! about ultimate reality while avoiding the dualism that
implies- This leads to the claim that all sentient beings are already enlightened,
what is needed is not to change reality or get rid of illusion but 3ust to reali7e that
we are already where we need to be-
ne of the more thorough and in
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is not the same as designating water$ yet these designations do not )obstruct* each
other- The very same reality can be ta!en as the phenomena of everyday
e/perience and as emptiness-
The fourth perspective brings us to a metaphysical issue that has recurred acrossthe Chinese philosophical tradition,the interconnection of things- t is not 3ust that
emptiness and phenomena are mutually penetrating but that any phenomenon is
penetrated by all others- The claim that any one thing includes all others is clearest
on the level of causality and intelligibility- Consider the cause for your reading this
article- t might be for help in a course$ or because you followed a lin! out of
curiosity$ or from a desire to better understand the conte/t of the ao7i- But we
could say the cause was the story of how your parents met,had that not happened
you would not be reading this article- r it might be the story of how my parents
met$ or the creation of the internet$ or the founding of Stanford Qniversity- t could
be the gravitational pull of the earth or the farm that raised the food ate forbrea!fast- f everything is interconnected$ then anything could be given as a cause
for your reading this article- (hat ma!es one answer better than another is
determined only by the interests of the +uestioner 1are they interested in increasing
web traOc to the SEP= understanding digital humanities= the legacy of Stanford
Qniversity=2- This shows how any one event implicates and arises with all others-
Consider further$ though$ that all things are empty- They have no independent self0
nature$ so what it is to be that thing is e/plained entirely by all of the factors that
allow it to appear as what it is- Thus it is not 3ust that things implicate each other
but that things include each other- This inclusion applies not 3ust between any two
events but also between any event and the totality of other events the story of the
whole universe can be e/plicated from any one point- Broo! Jiporyn 1#%%%2 calls
this )omnicentric holism*,any phenomena can be ta!en as the center from which
the whole follows 1a position with remar!able similarities to that of eibni72- (e
must remember the soteriological purposes of these Buddhist theories,if any one
thing implies all others$ then it is impossible to grasp only one thing- :rasping and
attachment become incoherent- t is worth comparing this result with the
elimination of loss through radical impartiality$ discussed in Section @ above-
- Coherence and 5ital Energy in 8eo0Confucianism
The interpenetration of emptiness and phenomena is an aOrmation of the changing
world in which we live- Thus it is false to see Chinese Buddhism as life0negating or
as denying the diversity of the world- 8onetheless$ the metaphysics of emptiness is
directed toward overcoming attachments- Diversity remains$ but there are no
individuals that could be held onto- The Confucian response$ which became a
dominant force in the Song dynasty 1I%I2$ was driven primarily by an
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aversion to these conse+uences- This reaction can be seen in three concrete
positions,the acceptance of su.ering and death as unavoidable$ the di.erentiation
of roles and norms within society$ and most of all$ the embrace of negative a.ects
such as sorrow at the death of a parent or an/ious concern for a child in danger$
ta!ing these as essential to our humanity- This Confucian movement was !nown as
the )earning of the (ay* 1Dao/ue 道學2$ but it has come to be !nown in English as)8eo0Confucianism*-
(hile based on practical concerns$ this Confucian revival was grounded in
metaphysical claims-LM n terms of the dialectal movement we have seen$ the 8eo0
Confucians ta!e all of the Buddhist positions as nihilistic- The 4rst in
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Z$ humaneness or benevolence- To be humane is to support and e/tend the
generative process of nature itself- Furthermore$ there is a unity to things in the
world$ grounded in the fact that they are all made up of +i and they unfold in
interloc!ing patterns of ineaven is my father and earth is my mother$ and even such a small creature as
4nds an intimate place in their midst- Therefore that which 4lls the universe regard
as my body Lti (M and that which directs the universe consider as my nature L/ing
-M- All people are my brothers and sisters$ and all things are my companions- 1trans
from Chan &II6 @I2
Cheng >ao[\ 1&%?#&%'2 later compares one who does not care for these other
things to someone who has lost sensation in their own limbs- (ang Gangming 5陽]
1&@#&'#I2 e/tends these feelings of concern even to trampled grass and bro!en
roof tiles-
Deriving inclusive care from the vitality and unity of nature appeared in the (arring
States Period$ but in opposition to Confucianism- For the Confucians$ this focus on
being as vitality needed a counterpoint$ and that came through a reinterpretation of
the term li :- The diOculty of the term appears in the range of common
translations6 principle$ patterns$ coherence- i often refers to something we should
follow and in this sense it might be ta!en as principles$ but li also refers to actualpatterns of di.erentiation$ not 3ust to ideals- Considering that li is conte/tual and
involves human purposes and perspectives$ translating the term as )coherence* or
)coherent patterns* probably best brings these various aspects together- Stephen C-
Angle gives an e/cellent brief de4nition of li as )the valuable$ intelligible way that
things 4t together* 1Angle #%%I6 ?#2-LIM There are patterns of coherence in world$
and these patterns de4ne individual things$ constitute nature as a system$ and
structure human society- i describes the way that these patterns can be optimally
harmoni7ed or made to cohere so as to foster the human good 1i-e-$ to be valuable
and intelligible2-
n some ways$ the 8eo0Confucian interpretation of li is a return to earlier Chinese
views that too! nature as having stable patterns that we can recogni7e and follow-
The 8eo0Confucians defend these earlier views against what they saw as Buddhist
attac!s by claiming that the di.erentiated structure of the world we live in is real- At
the same time$ these patterns of coherence give speci4c form to our concerns and
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e.orts$ so that one can 3ustify caring primarily for one9s own parents while still
ta!ing all things as part of one9s own body- Even so$ the term li had already been
appropriated by Buddhists$ and the 8eo0Confucian conception of li retains several
Buddhist aspects-
The most obvious e/ample is the claim that the totality of li is contained in any one
thing- Cheng Gi [^
1&%??&&%2 coined what became a standard motto6 )i is one
but distinguished as many* 1li yi fen shu :一_`2 1Angle #%%I6 @@2- This unity
within diversity was illustrated with a metaphor ta!en from Buddhism,the moon
reuayan above- The 8eo0Confucians do not go so far as to say that each thing
contains all other things$ though- Any instance of coherence implicates all others$
but events still have their own reality- Another common 8eo0Confucian claim withBuddhist overtones follows6 if the totality of li is included within any particular thing$
then it must also e/ist within each person9s heartmind- ne of the main disputes
among the 8eo0Confucians was on the precise meaning and signi4cance of this
point- Jhu Hiab 1&&?%%%2 argued that li is the nature 1/ing2 found in the heart$
while u Hiangshan cde 1&&?I&&I#2 and (ang Gangming too! li and the heart to
be identical- This leads to a di.erence in emphasis between the two main schools of
8eo0Confucianism regarding their recommended process of accessing li6 the )School
of i* 1li/ue :學2 1also !nown as the Cheng0Jhu school2 placed more emphasis on
study and learning$ while the )School of >eart"ind* 1/in/ue #學2 1the u0(ang
school2 concentrated more on self0re
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cultivation must be conceptuali7ed not as a process of changing ourselves but
rather as removing the obstacles that !eep us from being what we already are-
Phillip K- vanhoe has nicely captured this point by contrasting the views of self0
cultivation for "eng7i and (ang Gangming as the di.erence between a model of
development and a model of discovery 1vanhoe #%%#2-
(ithin this shared position$ though$ there are great di.erences- (hile Buddhists
claim one who reali7es li 1emptiness2 will be free of desires and negative a.ects$
8eo0Confucians thin! someone who follows li will have the appropriate desires and
a.ects- Another ma3or di.erence from Buddhism is in how the obstacles to
enlightenment are conceptuali7ed- 8eo0Confucians always discuss li in relation to +i$
vital energy- f li refers to patterns of coherence$ +i is the stu. in which those
patterns inhere- This distinction has functional similarities with Aristotle9s distinction
between form and matter$ but the force of activity and change is with +i rather than
li- That means that li cannot be e/ternally imposed and must be immanent in +i insome sense- The precise ontological status of li and +i became one of the main
metaphysical disputes among Confucian philosophers- ne could easily claim that
the distinction between patterns of coherence and the stu. that follows the patterns
is more conceptual than ontological- That is close to the view seen in Jhang Jai$ for
whom +i is active and inherently patterned- For Jhu Hi and (ang Gangming$ though$
li has ontological priority over +i- Jhu Hi writes6
Fundamentally$ li and vital energy cannot be spo!en of as prior or posterior- But if
we must trace their origin$ we are obliged to say that li is prior- >owever$ li is not aseparate entity- t e/ists right in vital energy- (ithout vital energy$ li would have
nothing to adhere to- 1modi4ed from Chan &II6 ?@2
The +uestion of the relationship between +i and li e/tended into cosmogonies as
well- (hile Jhang Jai too! +i to be the ultimate$ Jhu Hi claimed it was li 1using the
term Supreme Polarity2- Since li is the locus of intelligibility and values$ the +uestion
ultimately was whether causal and e/planatory priority was with this coherence or if
coherence was instead a product of the generative forces of nature 1+i2-
The distinction between li and +i provided a way to deal with the tension between
the claim that the nature of human beings is good and the recognition that people
need e/tensive self0cultivation in order to actually be good- i is inherently good and
is the same in all things$ but the +uality of +i varies- Turbid +i,which manifests
itself as sel4shness and partiality,obscures li- Thus from the perspective of li
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human nature is good$ but from the perspective of li and +i together$ a person can
be good$ bad$ or in between- n the psychological level$ the wor! of self0cultivation
is cultivating tran+uility and impartiality on the metaphysical level$ one puri4es +i
so as to more perfectly e/press li-
- Conclusion6 Beyond )Chinese Philosophy*
f one turns to metaphysics in the twentieth century and beyond$ it becomes
necessary to distinguish )Philosophy in China* from )Chinese Philosophy*- i!e
almost everywhere else in the world$ the twentieth century in China was
characteri7ed by the incorporation of ideas from other cultures$ most obviously from
Europe- The terms )philosophy* and )metaphysics* were introduced as distinct
concepts through translation and thus they become the ob3ects of conscious
re
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Sellman$ Kames$ #%%#$ Timing and rulership in "aster u]s Spring and Autumn
annals 1Ushi chun+iu2$ Albany6 SQ8G-
Swanson$ Paul$ &II$ Foundations of T]ien0T]ai Philosophy6 The Flowering of the Two Truths Theory in Chinese Buddhism$ Ber!eley6 Asian >umanities Press-
Tan$ Sor0hoon$ #%$ )i 1;itual;ite2 and tian 1>eaven8ature2 in the Hun7i6 Does
Confucian li 8eed "etaphysics=* Sophia$ '&1#26 &'''-
(agner$ ;udolf :-$ #%%?$ anguage$ ntology$ and Political Philosophy in China6
(ang Bi9s Scholarly E/ploration of the Dar! 1Huan/ue2$ Albany6 SQ8G-
(ang Bo$ #%&&$ )The Discovery and Establishment of wu6 Daoist "etaphysics and
Political Philosophy*$ translated by Trenton (ilson$ Contemporary Chinese Thought$
@?1&26 I#I-
(ang$ ;obin ;-$ #%%'$ )Dong Jhongshu9s Transformation of GinGang Theory and
Contesting of :ender dentity*$ Philosophy East ^ (est$ ''1#26 #%I#?&-
$ #%$ Ginyang6 The (ay of >eaven and Earth in Chinese Thought and Culture
18ew Approaches to Asian >istory2$ Cambridge6 Cambridge Qniversity Press-
$ forthcoming$ )Ginyang 8arrative of ;eality6 Chinese "etaphysical Thin!ing*$ in
i and Per!ins forthcomingA-
(eber$ ;alph$ #%&?$ )(hy Tal! about Chinese "etaphysics=* Frontiers of Philosophy
in China$ 1&26 II&&I-
(en >aiming$ #%&&$ );econstructing Chinese "etaphysics*$ Contemporary Chinese
Thought$ @?1&26 ?-
Hiong Shili$ forthcoming$ 8ew Treatise on the Qni+ueness of Consciousness$
translated by Kohn "a!eham$ 8ew >aven6 Gale Qniversity Press-
Gang :uorong$ #%%$ )Being and 5alue6 From the Perspective of Chinese0(estern
Comparative Philosophy*$ Philosophy East and (est$ '1#26 ##-
$ #%&&$ )An utline of a Concrete "etaphysics*$ translated by Chad Austin"eyers$ Contemporary Chinese Thought$ @?1&26 @?'I-
Gu$ Kiyuan$ #%&&$ )s Chinese Cosmology "etaphysics=,A :ree!0Chinese
Comparative Study*$ Kournal of East0(est Thought$ &1&26 &?'%-
Gu$ (eidong and Kin Hu$ #%%I$ )"orality and 8ature6 The Essential Di.erence
between the Dao of Chinese Philosophy and the "etaphysics in (estern
Philosophy*$ Frontiers of Philosophy in China$ @1?26 ?%-
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Jhang Dainian$ #%%#$ Ney Concepts in Chinese Philosophy$ translated by Edmund
;yden$ 8ew >aven6 Gale Qniversity Press-
Jhao Dunhua$ #%%$ )"etaphysics in China and in the (est6 Common rigin and
ater Divergence*$ Frontiers of Philosophy in China$ &1&26 ##?#-
Jhu Bo!un$ &II$ )Daoist Patterns of Thought and the Tradition of Chinese"etaphysics*$ Contemporary Chinese Thought$ #I1?26 &?&-
Jinda$ Gvonne Schul7$ #%$ Kin Guelin]s ntology6 Perspectives on the Problem of
nduction$ eiden6 Brill-
Jiporyn$ Broo!$ #%%%$ Evil andoras the :ood6 mnicentrism$ ntersub3ectivity$ and
5alue Parado/ in Tiantai Buddhist Thought$ Cambridge 1"A26 >arvard Qniversity Asia
Center$ #%%%-
$ #%%?$ The Penumbra Qnbound6 The 8eo0Taoist Philosophy of :uo Hiang$ Albany6
SQ8G-
$ #%%@$ Being and Ambiguity6 Philosophical E/periments with Tiantai Buddhism$
aSalle$ 6 pen Court-
$ 1trans-2$ #%%I$ Jhuang7i6 The Essential (ritings$ with Selections from Traditional
Commentaries$ ndianapolis6 >ac!ett Publishing-
$ #%&?$ ronies of neness and Di.erence6 Coherence in Early Chinese Thought6
Prolegomena to the Study of i$ Albany6 SQ8G-
$ #%&@$ Beyond neness and Di.erence6 i and Coherence in Chinese Buddhist
Thought and ts Antecedents$ Albany6 SQ8G-
$ forthcoming$ )>armony as Substance6 Jhang Jai]s "etaphysics of Polar
;elations*$ in i and Per!ins forthcomingA-
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