hocolate. There are few foods that people feel as passionate

about -- a passion that goes beyond a love for the "sweetness" of most candies or desserts: after all, few people crave caramel, whipped cream, or bubble gum. Chocolate is, well, different. For the true chocoholic, just thinking about chocolate can evoke a pleasurable response. You may want to grab a bar or make a nice cup of hot cocoa before you begin exploring here.

Few people get to sample the fruit of the cacao tree. It was mild tasting, with a subtle, bittersweet chocolate flavor. Embedded in the pulp were dark, purple-colored seeds that, after being dried and processed, chocolate lovers like myself have come to recognize as "chocolate beans."

The cacao tree (Theobroma cacao) is a native of Central and South America. Today, it is cultivated around the equator, and can be found in the Caribbean, Africa, South-East Asia, and even in the South Pacific Islands of Samoa and New Guinea.

There are three main varieties of cacao trees. The most common is Forastero, which accounts for nearly 90% of the world's production of cacao beans. Rarest and most prized are the beans of the Criollo variety. Their aroma and delicacy make them sought after by the world's best chocolate makers. Finally, there is the Trinitario variety of cacao, which is a cross between Criollo and Forastero.

The spread of the cacao tree started during the age of Colonialism, as did the spread of cacao beans, and of chocolate itself. Christopher Columbus was the first European to come in contact with cacao. On August 15, 1502, on his fourth and last voyage to the Americas, Columbus and his crew encountered a large dugout canoe near an island off the coast of what is now Honduras. The canoe was the largest native vessel the Spaniards had seen. It was "as long as a galley," and was filled with local goods for trade --

 

Cacao tree detail from a ninth century Mayan mural at Cacaxtla, Mexico.

   

including cacao beans. Columbus had his crew seize the vessel and its goods, and retained its skipper as his guide.

Later, Columbus' son Ferdinand wrote about the encounter. He was struck by how much value the Native Americans placed on cacao beans, saying:

"They seemed to hold these almonds [referring to the cacao beans] at a great price; for when they were brought on board ship together with their goods, I observed that when any of these almonds fell, they all stooped to pick it up, as if an eye had fallen."

What Ferdinand and the other members of Columbus' crew didn't know at the time was that cocoa beans were

the local currency. In fact, in some parts of Central America, cacao beans were used as currency as recently as the last century.

While it is likely that Columbus brought the cacao beans he seized back to Europe, their potential value was initially overlooked by the Spanish King and his court. Twenty years later, however, Spanish conquistador Hernando Cortez is said to have brought back three chests full of cacao beans. This time the beans were recognized as one treasure among the many stolen from the conquered Aztecs.

      Page Three

 The Cacao God of the Classic Maya, from a bowl engraving.

 

Nineteenth century engraving of the cacao fruit.

 

   

By the beginning of the sixteenth century, the Aztecs had an advanced and powerful civilization located in what is now central Mexico. Many people believe that the Aztecs first developed chocolate. However, chocolate goes back much farther. The ancient Maya, who inhabited what is now parts of southern Mexico and Central America, certainly consumed chocolate. In fact, the word "cacao" is Mayan: as early as 500 A.D., the Mayans were writing about cacao on their pottery. Some think chocolate may be even older, dating back to the Olmec civilization that preceded the Maya.

 

The chocolate of these Mesoamerican civilizations was

consumed as a bitter-tasting drink made of ground cacao beans mixed with a variety of local ingredients. An officer serving with Cortez observed Motecuhzoma, the ruler of the Aztecs, drinking fifty flagons of chocolate a day. The frothy beverage, which was sometimes made with water, and sometimes with wine, could be seasoned with vanilla, pimiento, and chili pepper. It was thought to cure diarrhea and dysentery, and was believed to be an aphrodisiac. Cortez is said to have tried the beverage, but found it too bitter. He did, however, write to King Carlos I of Spain, calling "xocoatl" a "drink that builds up resistance and fights fatigue."

Woodcut of a "metate," used with an element much like a rolling pin to grind cacao beans into paste for making chocolate drinks.

 

   

For many Europeans, drinking chocolate (especially before it was sweetened) was an acquired taste. Spanish missionary Jose de Acosta, who lived in Peru in the late 1500s, described it this way:

"Loathsome to such as are not acquainted with it, having a scum or froth that is very unpleasant to taste. Yet it is a drink very much esteemed among the Indians, where with they feast noble men who pass through their country. The Spaniards, both men and women, that are accustomed to the country, are very greedy of this Chocolaté. They say they make diverse sorts of it, some hot, some cold, and some temperate, and put therein much of that 'chili'; yea, they make paste thereof, the which they say is good for the stomach and against the catarrh."

Soon chocolate would make its way across the Atlantic -- first to Spain, and then to the rest of Europe. The first official shipment was made in 1585 from Veracruz to Seville.

      Page Four

When the Spanish first brought chocolate back to Europe, it was still being served as a beverage, but soon went through an important evolution: the chili pepper was replaced by sugar. The new, sweetened, chocolate beverage was a luxury few could afford, but by the 17th century the drink was common among European nobility. In England, which was somewhat more egalitarian than the rest of Europe, chocolate was more widely available. Those who could afford it could enjoy chocolate drinks in the new coffee and chocolate houses of

 

Europeans continued for centuries to use the Mesoamerican technique of grinding cacao beans on a "metate."

   

London.

As other countries challenged Spain's monopoly on cacao, chocolate became more widely available. Soon the French, English, and Dutch were cultivating cacao in their colonies in the Caribbean, and later, elsewhere in the world. With more production came lower prices, and soon the masses in Europe and the Americas were enjoying chocolate. For many people, however, the expanded production of cacao in the New World (along with that of other agricultural products) meant slavery and privation. Cacao production relied heavily on the forced labor of Native Americans and imported African slaves.

As cacao became more commonly available, people began experimenting with new ways of using it. Chocolate began to appear in cakes, pastries, and sorbets. But it wasn't until 1828 that the "modern era" of chocolate making and production began.

In 1828, Dutch chocolate maker Conrad J. van Houten patented an inexpensive method for pressing the fat from roasted cacao beans. The center of the bean, known as the "nib," contains an average of 54 percent cocoa butter, which is a natural fat. Van Houten's machine -- a hydraulic press -- reduced the cocoa butter content by nearly half. This created a "cake" that could be pulverized into a fine powder known as "cocoa." Van Houten treated the powder with alkaline salts (potassium or sodium carbonates) so that the powder would mix more easily with water. Today, this process is known as "Dutching." The final product, Dutch chocolate, has a dark color and a mild taste.

The introduction of cocoa powder not only made creating chocolate drinks much easier, but also made it possible to combine chocolate with sugar and then remix it with cocoa butter to create a solid. Others began to build on Van Houten's success, experimenting to make new chocolate products. In 1849, English chocolate maker Joseph Storrs Fry produced what was arguably the world's first eating chocolate.

Today, the Swiss are famous for their chocolate, and rightly so. In the late 19th century, they developed a number of processes that contributed greatly to creating the solid chocolate candy that we all enjoy today. Two major developments occurred in 1879. First, Daniel Peter, a Swiss chocolate manufacturer, had the idea of using powdered milk (invented by Swiss Chemist

Henri Nestle in 1867) to make a new kind of chocolate, milk chocolate. Second, Rudolphe Lindt invented a process called "conching," which greatly improved the quality of chocolate candy by making it more blendable.

      Page Five

The process of making fine chocolate hasn't changed much since the Swiss breakthroughs of the late 1800s. To better understand the procedure, I decided to see it firsthand. Just south of San Francisco is the Scharffen Berger chocolate factory. It's the first American factory started in the last 60 years that makes chocolate directly from the beans. It uses all European equipment -- most of it vintage, from before World War II. Steven Taormina was kind enough to take us on a tour and explain the chocolate-making process.  

BeansThe process of turning cacao into chocolate, not surprisingly, starts with the beans. For fine chocolate, the selection and mix of beans is very important. Companies like Scharffen Berger use up to 12 different varieties of beans from all over the world.

RoastingAll of the beans are sorted by hand before being roasted. Each variety of bean is roasted separately.

Winnowing Following the roasting process, the beans are loaded into a machine known as the winnower, which removes the hard outer hulls and separates the "nibs" of the beans by size. The nibs are the basic product used for chocolate production.

      Page Six

Scharffen Berger Factory Tour Continued

Melangéur The melangéur has granite runners which revolve on a steel or stone bed to mash the nibs into a thick paste. Sugar and vanilla are added during this process.

Conching The "chocolate liquor" from the melanguer is transferred to the "conche-refiner" for further processing. Heat is introduced and this process takes several hours (some chocolate makers will conche for up to 72 hours). Conching ensures that the liquid is evenly blended.

TemperingFollowing conching, the liquid chocolate is tempered for several hours. The tempering process involves heating the chocolate liquor and then cooling it in several stages. This process stabilizes the cocoa butter crystals so that they become more uniform in size. It also gives the chocolate a bright luster and a sharp snap when you break it.

 Molding and Packaging The final steps in the process are molding the chocolate, allowing it to cool and harden, and then finally packaging it.

      Page Seven

Chocolate has been said to cause acne and tooth decay, and has a reputation for being a fattening, nutritionless food. On the other hand, chocolate is also known for being everything from an anti-depressant to an aphrodisiac. While there's still much we don't know about chocolate, recent research is helping us better understand how chocolate consumption affects our health.

The good news is that most of the bad effects of eating chocolate are either overstated or entirely false. Eating chocolate neither causes nor aggravates acne. Two studies -- one by the Pennsylvania School of Medicine and another by the U.S. Naval Academy -- showed that eating chocolate (or not eating it) did not produce any significant changes in the acne conditions of the study's participants. These results are further backed by research which shows that acne is not primarily linked to diet.

Chocolate also has not been proven to cause cavities or tooth decay. In fact, there are indications that the cocoa butter in the chocolate coats the teeth and may help protect them by preventing plaque from forming. The sugar in chocolate does contribute to cavities, but no more than the sugar in any other food.

Obviously, eating too much of any food may cause health problems. The cocoa butter in chocolate does contain saturated fat, which can increase blood cholesterol levels, and high cholesterol can contribute to heart disease. However, recent research at the University of California, Davis, has found that chocolate carries high levels of chemicals known as phenolics, some of which may help lower the risk of heart disease. Plants such as chocolate, coffee, tea, and others contain high levels of phenolics.

Andrew Waterhouse, the lead researcher from U.C. Davis, is a wine chemist. For several years he has been studying the possible health benefits of antioxidant phenolics found in red wine. Waterhouse told us that phenolic compounds are found in all plant products, and that the plants "probably make them as protective agents and for improving their success at reproduction." The bitter, astringent taste that these plants have is an indication of the phenolics found within.

So how might phenolics prevent heart disease? Apparently, phenolics prevent fat-like substances in the bloodstream from oxidizing and clogging the arteries. Said Waterhouse: "It's now believed that atherosclerosis, or the formation of plaque in the arteries, is caused by oxidation of LDL (low-density lipoproteins) -- that's one of the cholesterol particles. At first, this leads to subtle damage, and then eventually to the formation of advanced plaque." The buildup of plaque can lead to clogging of the arteries, a major cause of heart attacks.

While phenolics have chemically been proven to reduce oxidation, Waterhouse cautioned that: "It's not known if the phenolic compounds, like the flavenoids that are present in chocolate, can reduce disease. It's well known that these substances are antioxidants in a chemical sense. . .but we don't have strong, large-scale, controlled human studies." More research still needs to be done, but certainly the initial research is encouraging.

      Page Eight

One of the most pleasant effects of eating chocolate is the "good feeling" that many people experience after indulging. Chocolate contains more than 300 known chemicals. Scientists have been working on isolating specific chemicals and chemical combinations which may explain some of the pleasurable effects of consuming chocolate.

Caffeine is the most well known of these chemical ingredients, and while it's present in chocolate, it can only be found in small quantities. Theobromine, a weak stimulant, is also present, in slightly higher amounts. The combination of these two chemicals (and possibly others) may provide the "lift" that chocolate eaters experience.

Phenylethylamine is also found in chocolate. It's related to amphetamines, which are strong stimulants. All of these stimulants increase the activity of neurotransmitters (brain chemicals) in parts of the brain that control our ability to pay attention and stay alert.

While stimulants contribute to a temporary sense of well-being, there are other chemicals and other theories as to why chocolate makes us feel good. Perhaps the most controversial findings come from researchers at the Neurosciences Institute in San Diego, California. They believe that "chocolate contains pharmacologically active substances that have the same effect on the brain as marijuana, and that these chemicals may be responsible for certain drug-induced psychoses associated with chocolate craving." We talked to Emmanuelle diTomaso, who worked on the original study in San Diego (she's now a researcher at Harvard), and to Daniel Piomelli, who heads the project and continues to do research at the Neurosciences

Institute.

How does this work? Brain cells have a receptor for THC (tetrahydrocannabinol), which is the active ingredient in marijuana. A receptor is a structure on the surface of a cell that can lock onto certain molecules, making it possible to carry a signal through the cell wall. (diTomaso described it as a

"lock-and-key" system.) "The active compound," she told me, "will lock itself to the protein on the membrane of the cell, and that triggers a reaction inside the cell." In the case of THC, that chemical reaction is what would make someone feel "high."

THC, however, is not found in chocolate. Instead, another chemical, a neurotransmitter called anandamide, has been isolated in chocolate. Interestingly, anandamide is also produced naturally in the brain. Both diTomaso and Piomelli went to great lengths to explain that this finding doesn't mean that eating chocolate will get you high, but rather that there are compounds in chocolate that may be associated with the good feeling that chocolate consumption provides.

Still, the research results made for great newspaper headlines. In 1996, when Piomelli's first study was published and "picked up" by the press, he received a number a phone calls and visits from representatives of the major chocolate companies. "They were worried," he said, "that they would have to put a warning from the Surgeon General on their products."

Anandamide, like other neurotransmitters, is broken down quickly after it's produced. Piomelli and his team found other chemicals in chocolate which may inhibit the natural breakdown of anadamide. This means that natural anandamide (or introduced anandamide) may stick around longer, making us feel good longer, when we eat chocolate.

More research needs to be done to understand the effects of chocolate on the brain, and Piomelli's group is currently working on a new study that should be published next year. In the meantime, I'm going to be doing a few experiments of my own. Now that I know more about the captivating confection, I guess I'm going to have to start sampling all the different types and brands of chocolate at my local candy store--one by one.

Chocolate is a psychoactive food. It is made from the seeds of the tropical cacao tree. The cacao tree was named by the 17th century Swedish naturalist, Linnaeus. The Greek term theobroma means literally "food of the gods". Chocolate has also been called the food of the devil; but the theological basis of this claim is obscure.

        Cacao beans were used by the Aztecs to prepare a hot, frothy beverage with stimulant and restorative properties. Chocolate itself was reserved for warriors, nobility and priests. The Aztecs esteemed its reputed ability to confer wisdom and vitality. Taken fermented as a drink, chocolate was also used in religious ceremonies. The sacred concoction was associated with Xochiquetzal, the goddess of fertility. Emperor Montezuma allegedly drank 50 goblets a day. Aztec taxation was levied in cacao beans. 100 cacao beans could buy a slave. 12 cacao beans bought the services of courtesan.

        The celebrated Italian libertine Giacomo Casanova (1725-1798) took chocolate before bedding his conquests on account of chocolate's reputation as a subtle aphrodisiac. More recently, a study of 8000 male Harvard graduates showed that chocoholics lived longer than abstainers. Their longevity may be explained by the high polyphenol levels in chocolate. Polyphenols reduce the oxidation of low-density lipoproteins and thereby protect against heart disease. Such theories are still speculative.

        Placebo-controlled trials suggest chocolate consumption may subtly enhance cognitive performance. As reported by Dr Bryan Raudenbush (2006), scores for verbal and visual memory are raised by eating chocolate. Impulse-control and reaction-time are also improved. This study needs replicating.

         A symposium at the 2007 American Association for the Advancement of Science - hyped as a potentially "mind-altering experience" - presented evidence that chocolate consumption can be good for the brain. Experiments with chocolate-fed mice suggest that flavanol-rich cocoa stimulates neurovascular activity, enhancing memory and alertness. This research was partly funded by Mars, Inc.

        Coincidentally or otherwise, many of the worlds oldest supercentenarians, e.g. Jeanne Calment (1875-1997) andSarah Knauss (1880-1999), were passionately fond of chocolate. Jeanne Calment habitually ate two pounds of chocolate per week until her physician induced her to give up sweets at the age of 119 - three years before her death aged 122. Life-extensionists are best advised to eat dark chocolate rather than the kinds of calorie-rich confectionery popular in America.

        In the UK, chocolate bars laced with cannabis are popular with many victims of multiple sclerosis. This brand ofpsychoactive confectionery remains unlicensed.

         Chocolate as we know it today dates to the inspired addition of triglyceride cocoa butter by Swiss confectionerRodolphe Lindt in 1879. The advantage of cocoa butter is that its addition to chocolate sets a bar so that it will readily snap and then melt on the tongue. Cocoa butter begins to soften at around 75 F; it melts at around 97 F.

         Today, chocolates of every description are legal, unscheduled and readily available over the counter. Some 50% ofwomen reportedly claim to prefer chocolate to sex, though this response may depend on the attributes of the interviewer.

        In 2007, a UK study suggested that eating dark chocolate was more rewarding than passionate kissing. More research is needed to replicate this result.

        More than 300 different constituent compounds in chocolate have been identified. Chocolate clearly delivers far more than a brief sugar high. Yet its cocktail of psychochemical effects in the central nervous system are poorly understood. So how does it work?

CHOCOLATE : the Psychoactive Cocktail

        Chocolate contains small quantities of anandamide, an endogenous cannabinoid found in the brain. Sceptics claim one would need to consume several pounds of chocolate to gain any very noticeable psychoactive effects; and eat a lot more to get fully stoned. Yet it's worth noting that N-oleolethanolamine and N-linoleoylethanolamine, two structural cousins of anandamide present in chocolate, both inhibit the metabolism of anandamide. It has been speculated that they promote and prolong the feeling of well-being induced by anandamide.

        Chocolate contains caffeine. But the caffeine is present only in modest quantities. It is easily obtained from other sources. Indeed a whole ounce of milk chocolate contains no more caffeine than a typical cup of "decaffeinated" coffee.

        Chocolate's theobromine content may contribute to - but seems unlikely to determine - its subtle but distinctive psychoactive profile. Surprisingly, perhaps, recent research suggests that pure theobromine may be superior to opiates as a cough medicine due to its action on the vagus nerve.

        Chocolate also contains tryptophan. Tryptophan is an essential amino acid. It is the rate-limiting step in the production of the mood-modulating neurotransmitter serotonin. Enhanced serotonin function typically diminishes anxiety. Yet tryptophan can normally be obtained from other sources as well; and only an unusually low-protein, high-carbohydrate meal will significantly increase its rate of intake into the brain.

        Like other palatable sweet foods, consumption of chocolate triggers the release of endorphins, the body's endogenous opiates. Enhanced endorphin-release reduces the chocolate-eater's sensitivity to pain. Endorphins probably contribute to the warm inner glow induced in susceptible chocoholics. This sensation explains why chocolate gifts are a great way to bring joy to a loved one.

        Acute monthly cravings for chocolate amongst pre-menstrual women may be partly explained by its rich magnesiumcontent. Magnesium deficiency exacerbates PMT. Before menstruation, too, levels of the hormone progesterone are high. Progesterone promotes fat storage, preventing its use as fuel; elevated pre-menstrual levels of progesterone may cause a periodic craving for fatty foods. One study reported that 91% of chocolate-cravings associated with the menstrual cycle occurred between ovulation and the start of menstruation. Chocolate cravings are admitted by 15% of men and around 40% of women. Cravings are usually most intense in the late afternoon and early evening.

        Cacao and chocolate bars contain a group of neuroactive alkaloids known as tetrahydro-beta-carbolines. Tetrahydro-beta-carbolines are also found in beer, wine and liquor; they have been linked to alcoholism. But the possible role of these chemicals in chocolate addiction remains unclear.

        One UK study of the human electroencephalographic (EEG) response to chocolate suggests that the odour of chocolate significantly reduces theta activity in the brain. Reduced theta activity is associated with enhanced relaxation. This study needs replication.

        Perhaps chocolate's key ingredient is its phenylethylamine (PEA) "love-chemical". Yet the role of the "chocolate amphetamine" is disputed. Most if not all chocolate-derived phenylethylamine is metabolised before it reaches the CNS. Some people may be sensitive to its effects in very small quantities.

        Phenylethylamine is itself a naturally occurring trace amine in the brain. Phenylethylamine releases dopamine in the mesolimbic pleasure-centres; it peaks during orgasm. Taken in unnaturally high doses, phenylethylamine can produce stereotyped behaviour more prominently even than amphetamine. Phenylethylamine has distinct binding sites but no specific neurons. It helps mediate feelings of attraction, excitement, giddiness, apprehension and euphoria; but confusingly, phenylethylamine has also been described as an endogenous anxiogen. One of its metabolites is unusually high in subjects with paranoid schizophrenia.

        There is even a phenylethylamine theory of depression. Monoamine oxidase type-b has been described as phenylethylaminase; and taking a selective MAO-b inhibitor, such as selegiline (l-deprenyl, Eldepryl) or rasagiline (Azilect) can accentuate chocolate's effects. Some subjects report that bupropion (Wellbutrin, Zyban) reduces their chocolate-cravings; but other chocoholics dispute this.

Chocolate

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Chocolate (disambiguation).

Chocolate most commonly comes in dark, milk, and white varieties, with cocoa

solids contributing to the brown coloration.

Chocolate  i / ̍ tʃ ɒ k ə l ɨ t /  is a raw or processed food produced from the seed of the

tropical Theobroma cacao tree. Cacao has been cultivated for at least three millennia

in Mexico, Central and South America. Its earliest documented use is around 1100 BC.

The majority of the Mesoamerican people made chocolate beverages, including

the Aztecs, who made it into a beverage known as xocolātl, a Nahuatl word meaning

"bitter water". The seeds of the cacao tree have an intense bitter taste, and must

be fermented to develop the flavor.

After fermentation, the beans are dried, then cleaned, and then roasted, and the shell is

removed to produce cacao nibs. The nibs are then ground to cocoa mass, pure

chocolate in rough form. Because this cocoa mass usually is liquefied then molded with

or without other ingredients, it is called chocolate liquor. The liquor also may be

processed into two components: cocoa solidsand cocoa butter. Unsweetened baking

chocolate (bitter chocolate) contains primarily cocoa solids and cocoa butter in varying

proportions. Much of the chocolate consumed today is in the form of sweet chocolate,

combining cocoa solids, cocoa butter or other fat, and sugar. Milk chocolate is sweet

chocolate that additionally contains milk powder or condensed milk. White

chocolatecontains cocoa butter, sugar, and milk but no cocoa solids.

Cocoa solids contain alkaloids such as theobromine and phenethylamine, which have

physiological effects on the body. It has been linked to serotonin levels in the brain.

Some research found that chocolate, eaten in moderation, can lower blood pressure.[1] The presence of theobromine renders chocolate toxic to some animals,[2] especially

dogs and cats.

Chocolate has become one of the most popular food types and flavors in the world.

Gifts of chocolate molded into different shapes have become traditional on certain

holidays: chocolate bunnies and eggs are popular on Easter, chocolate coins

on Hanukkah, Santa Clausand other holiday symbols on Christmas, and

chocolate hearts or chocolate in heart-shaped boxes on Valentine's Day. Chocolate is

also used in cold and hot beverages, to produce chocolate milk and hot chocolate.

Cocoa mass was used originally in Mesoamerica both as a beverage and as an

ingredient in foods. Chocolate played a special role in both Maya and Aztec royal and

religious events. Priests presented cacao seeds as offerings to the gods and served

chocolate drinks during sacred ceremonies. All of the areas that were conquered by the

Aztecs that grew cacao beans were ordered to pay them as a tax, or as the Aztecs

called it, a "tribute".[3]

The Europeans sweetened and fattened it by adding refined sugar and milk, two

ingredients unknown to the Mexicans. By contrast, the Europeans never infused it into

their general diet, but have compartmentalized its use to sweets and desserts. In the

19th century, Briton John Cadbury developed an emulsification process to make solid

chocolate creating the modern chocolate bar. Although cocoa is originally from the

Americas, today Western Africa produces almost two-thirds of the world's cocoa,

with Côte d'Ivoire growing almost half of it.

Etymology

The word "chocolate" entered the English language from Spanish.[4] How the word came

into Spanish is less certain, and there are multiple competing explanations. Perhaps the

most cited explanation is that "chocolate" comes from Nahuatl, the language of

theAztecs, from the word chocolātl, which many sources derived

from xocolātl [ʃokolaːtɬ], from xococ 'sour' or 'bitter', and ātl 'water' or 'drink'.[4] However, as William Bright noted[5] the word "chocolatl" does not occur in central

Mexican colonial sources, making this an unlikely derivation. Santamaria [6]  gives a

derivation from the Yucatec Maya word "chokol" meaning hot, and the Nahuatl "atl"

meaning water. Sophie and Michael D. Coe agree with this etymology. Pointing to

various sources dating from the time period of the Spanish conquest, they

identify cacahuatl ("cacao water") as the original Nahuatl word for the cold beverage

consumed by the Aztecs. Noting that using a word with caca in it to describe a thick,

brown beverage would not have gone over well with most speakers of Spanish due to

the fact that caca means faeces in Spanish, the Coes suggest that the Spanish

colonisers combined the Nahuatl atl with the Yucatec Maya chocol, for unlike the Aztec,

the Maya tended to drink chocolate heated. The Spanish preferred the warm Mayan

preparation of the beverage to the cold Aztec one, and so the colonisers

substituted chocol in place of the culturally unacceptablecaca.[7] More recently, Dakin

and Wichmann derive it from another Nahuatl term, "chicolatl" from eastern Nahuatl,

meaning "beaten drink". They derive this term from the word for the frothing stick,

"chicoli".[8] However, the Coes write that xicalli referred to the gourd out of which the

beverage was consumed and that the use of a frothing stick (known as a molinollo) was

a product of creolisation between the Spanish and Aztec; the original frothing method

used by the indigenous people was simply pouring the drink from a height into another

vessel.[7]

History

Mesoamerica history

A Mayan chief forbids a person to touch a jar of chocolate

Chocolate has been used as a drink for nearly all of its history. The earliest record of

using chocolate dates back before the Olmec. In November 2007, archaeologists

reported finding evidence of the oldest known cultivation and use of cacao at a site in

Puerto Escondido,Honduras, dating from about 1100 to 1400 BC.[9] The residues found

and the kind of vessel they were found in indicate the initial use of cacao was not simply

as a beverage, but the white pulp around the cacao beans was likely used as a source

of fermentable sugars for an alcoholic drink.[9] The Maya civilization grew cacao trees in

their backyards,[10] and used the cacao seeds it produced to make a frothy, bitter drink.[11] Documents in Maya hieroglyphsstated chocolate was used for ceremonial purposes,

in addition to everyday life.[12] The chocolate residue found in an early ancient Maya pot

in Río Azul, Guatemala, suggests the Maya were drinking chocolate around 400 AD.

Mayan writing referring to cocoa.

The sweet chocolate residue found in jars from the site of Puerto Escondido in

Honduras from around 1100 BC is the earliest found evidence of the use of cacao to

date.[13] An early Classic (460–480 AD) period Mayan tomb from the site of Rio Azul,

Guatemala, had vessels with the Maya glyph for cacao on them with residue of a

chocolate drink.[14] The Maya are generally given credit for creating the first modern

chocolate beverage over 2,000 years ago, despite the fact that the beverage would

undergo many more changes in Europe.[15]

By the 15th century, the Aztecs gained control of a large part of Mesoamerica, and

adopted cacao into their culture. They associated chocolate with Xochiquetzal, the

goddess of fertility,[16] and often used chocolate beverages as sacred offerings.[14] The

Aztec adaptation of the drink was a bitter, frothy, spicy drink called xocolatl, made much

the same way as the Mayan chocolate drinks. It was often seasoned with vanilla, chile

pepper, and achiote, and was believed to fight fatigue, which is probably attributable to

the theobromine content, a mood enhancer. Because cacao would not grow in the dry

central Mexican highlands and had to be imported, chocolate was an important luxury

good throughout the Aztec empire, and cocoa beans were often used as currency.[17] For example, the Aztecs used a system in which one turkey cost one hundred cacao

beans and one fresh avocado was worth three beans.[18] South American and European

cultures have used cocoa to treat diarrhea for hundreds of years.[19] All of the areas

ruled by the Aztecs were ordered to pay a tax, leading those that grew the beans to

offer cacao seeds as tribute.[20]

European adaptation

Chocolate soon became a fashionable drink of the nobility after the discovery of the

Americas. The morning chocolateby Pietro Longhi; Venice, 1775–1780.

The first European contact with chocolate came

when Montezuma (then tlatoani of Tenochtitlan) introduced Hernán Cortés, a

Spanish conquistador, to xocolatl in the 16th century.[14] Antonio de Solís, Philip IV's

official Chronicler of the Indies, described Montezuma customarily taking a chocolate

beverage after meals, as part of a sumptuous daily ritual:

He had Cups of Gold, and Salvers of the same; and sometimes he drank out of Cocoas

[i.e., coconut shells], and natural Shells, very richly set with Jewels.[...] When he had

done eating, he usually took a Kind of Chocolate, made after the Manner of the Country,

that is, the Substance of the Nut beat up with the Mill till the Cup was filled more with

Froth than with Liquor; after which he used to smoak Tobacco perfum'd with liquid

Amber.[21]

Jose de Acosta, a Spanish Jesuit missionary who lived in Peru and then Mexico in the

later 16th century, wrote of it:

Loathsome to such as are not acquainted with it, having a scum or froth that is very

unpleasant taste. Yet it is a drink very much esteemed among the Indians, where with

they feast noble men who pass through their country. The Spaniards, both men and

women that are accustomed to the country are very greedy of this Chocolate. They say

they make diverse sorts of it, some hot, some cold, and some temperate, and put

therein much of that "chili"; yea, they make paste thereof, the which they say is good for

the stomach and against thecatarrh.[22]

The first recorded shipment of chocolate to Europe for commercial purposes was in a

shipment from Veracruz to Sevilla in 1585.[16] It was still served as a beverage, but the

Europeans added cane sugar to counteract the natural bitterness and removed the chili

pepper while retaining the vanilla, in addition they added cinnamon as well as other

spices.[14]

What the Spaniards then called "chocolatl" was said to be a beverage consisting of a

chocolate base flavored with vanilla and other spices that was served cold.[23]

[24] Montezuma's court reportedly drank about 2,000 cups of xocolatl per day, 50 of

which were consumed by Montezuma himself.

Until the 16th century, no European had ever heard of the popular drink from

the Central and South American peoples.[25] It was not until the Spanish conquest of the

Aztecs that chocolate could be imported to Europe. In Spain, it quickly became a court

favorite. In a century it had spread and become popular throughout the European

continent.[25] To keep up with the high demand for this new drink, Spanish armies began

enslaving Mesoamericans to produce cacao.[26] Even with cacao harvesting becoming a

regular business, only royalty and the well-connected could afford to drink this

expensive import.[27] Before long, the Spanish began growing cacao beans on

plantations, and using an African workforce to help manage them.[28] The situation was

different in England. Put simply, anyone with money could buy it.[29] The first chocolate

house opened in London in 1657.[29] In 1689, noted physician and collector Hans

Sloanedeveloped a milk chocolate drink in Jamaica which was initially used

by apothecaries, but later sold to the Cadbury brothers in 1897.[30]

For hundreds of years, the chocolate-making process remained unchanged. When

the Industrial Revolution arrived, many changes occurred that brought about the food

today in its modern form. A Dutch family's (van Houten) inventions made mass

production of shiny, tasty chocolate bars and related products possible. In the 18th

century, mechanical mills were created that squeezed out cocoa butter, which in turn

helped to create hard, durable chocolate.[31] But, it was not until the arrival of the

Industrial Revolution that these mills were put to bigger use. Not long after the

revolution cooled down, companies began advertising this new invention to sell many of

the chocolate treats we see today.[32] When new machines were produced, people

began experiencing and consuming chocolate worldwide.[33]

At the end of the 18th century, the first form of solid chocolate was invented in Turin by

Doret. This chocolate was sold in large quantities from 1826 by Pierre Paul Caffarel in

Italy. In 1819, F. L. Cailler opened the first Swiss chocolate factory. In

1828, Dutchman Coenraad Johannes van Houten  patented a method for extracting the

fat from cocoa beans and making powdered cocoa and cocoa butter. Van Houten also

developed the "so-called" Dutch process of treating chocolate with alkali to remove the

bitter taste. This made it possible to form the modern chocolate bar. The German

company Jordan & Timaeus sold the first known chocolate bar made from cocoa, sugar

and goat's milk in 1839.[34] In England, the company, J. S. Fry & Sons discovered a way

to mix some of the cocoa butter back into the Dutched chocolate, and added sugar,

creating a paste that could be moulded. This led to the first British chocolate bar in

1847, followed in 1849 by the Cadbury brothers.

In 1865, an unknown employee at the Ghirardelli Chocolate Company discovered

the Broma process of separating cocoa butter from cocoa solids (namely, that if

chocolate is hung in a bag in a warm room, the butter will drip out naturally over time).

Daniel Peter, a Swiss candle maker, joined his father-in-law's chocolate business. In

1867, he began experimenting with milk as an ingredient. He brought his new product,

milk chocolate, to market in 1875. He was assisted in removing the water content from

the milk to prevent mildewing by a neighbour, a baby food manufacturer named Henri

Nestlé. Rodolphe Lindt invented the process calledconching, which involves heating

and grinding the chocolate solids very finely to ensure that the liquid is evenly blended.

This enabledMilton Hershey to make chocolate even more popular by mass producing

affordable chocolate bars.

Types

Main article: Types of chocolate

Chocolate is commonly used as a coating for various fruits and fillings, such ascherries.

Disk of chocolate (about 4cm in diameter), as sold in Central America, for making hot

cocoa. Note that the chocolate pictured here is soft, can easily be crumbled by hand,

and already has sugar added.

Several types of chocolate can be distinguished. Pure, unsweetened chocolate contains

primarily cocoa solids and cocoa butter in varying proportions. Much of the chocolate

consumed today is in the form of sweet chocolate, combining chocolate with sugar. Milk

chocolate is sweet chocolate that additionally contains milk powder or condensed milk.

In the U.K. and Ireland milk chocolate must contain a minimum of 20% total dry cocoa

solids; in the rest of the European Union the minimum is 25%.[35] "White chocolate"

contains cocoa butter, sugar, and milk, but no cocoa solids. Chocolate

contains alkaloids such astheobromine and phenethylamine, which have some

physiological effects in humans, but the presence of theobromine renders it toxic to

some animals, such as dogs and cats.[2] It has been linked to serotonin levels in the

brain. Dark chocolate has been promoted[who?] for unproven health benefits, as it seems

to possess substantial amount of antioxidants that reduce the formation of free radicals.

White chocolate is formed from a mixture of sugar, cocoa butter and milk solids.

Although its texture is similar to milk and dark chocolate, it does not contain any cocoa

solids. Because of this, many countries do not consider white chocolate as chocolate at

all.[36] Although first introduced by Hebert Candies in 1955, Mars, Incorporated was the

first to produce white chocolate within the United States. Because it does not contain

any cocoa solids, white chocolate does not contain any theobromine, meaning it can be

consumed by animals. It is usually not used for cooking.

Dark chocolate is produced by adding fat and sugar to the cacao mixture. The U.S.

Food and Drug Administration calls this "sweet chocolate", and requires a 15%

concentration of chocolate liquor. European rules specify a minimum of 35% cocoa

solids.[35] Dark chocolate, with its high cocoa content, is a rich source

of epicatechin and gallic acid, which are thought to possess cardioprotective properties.

Dark chocolate has also been said to reduce the possibility of a heart attack when

consumed regularly in small amounts.[37]Semisweet chocolate is a dark chocolate with a

low sugar content. Bittersweet chocolate is chocolate liquor to which some sugar

(typically a third), more cocoa butter, vanilla and sometimes lecithin have been added. It

has less sugar and more liquor than semisweet chocolate, but the two are

interchangeable in baking.

Unsweetened chocolate is pure chocolate liquor, also known as bitter or baking

chocolate. It is unadulterated chocolate: the pure, ground, roasted chocolate beans

impart a strong, deep chocolate flavor.

Raw chocolate, often referred to as raw cacao, is always dark and a minimum of 75%

cacao. Because the act of processing results in the loss of certain vitamins and minerals

(such as magnesium), some consider raw cacao to be a more nutritious form of

chocolate.[38]

Some people who purchase chocolate off the store shelf can be disappointed when they

see whitish spots on the dark chocolate part. This is called chocolate bloom and is not

an indication of chocolate gone bad. Instead, this is just an indication that sugar and/or

fat has separated due to poor storage.

Production

See also: Children in cocoa production and Cocoa production in Côte d'Ivoire

Chocolate is created from the cocoa bean. A cacao tree with fruit pods in various stages

of ripening

Roughly two-thirds of the entire world's cocoa is produced in West Africa, with 43%

sourced fromCôte d'Ivoire,[39] where child labor is a common practice to obtain the

product.[40][41][42] According to the World Cocoa Foundation, some 50 million people

around the world depend on cocoa as a source of livelihood.[43] In the UK, most

chocolatiers purchase their chocolate from them, to melt, mold and package to their

own design.[44] Despite some disagreement in the EU about the definition,[clarification

needed] chocolate is any product made primarily of cocoa solids and cocoa butter.

Production costs can be decreased by reducing cocoa solid content or by substituting

cocoa butter with another fat. Cocoa growers object to allowing the resulting food to be

called "chocolate", due to the risk of lower demand for their crops.[43] The sequencing in

2010 of genome of the cacao tree may allow yields to be improved.[45]

There are two main jobs associated with creating chocolate candy, chocolate makers

and chocolatiers. Chocolate makers use harvested cacao beans and other ingredients

to producecouverture chocolate (covering). Chocolatiers use the finished couverture to

make chocolate candies (bars, truffles, etc.).[46]

Cacao varieties

Toasted cacao beans at a chocolate workshop at the La Chonita Hacienda inTabasco,

Mexico.

Chocolate is made from cocoa beans, the dried and partially fermented seeds of the

cacao tree (Theobroma cacao), a small (4–8 m (or 15–26 ft) tall) evergreen tree native

to the deep tropical region of the Americas. Recent genetic studies suggest that the

most common genotype of the plant originated in the Amazon basin and was gradually

transported by humans throughout South and Central America. Early forms of another

genotype have also been found in what is now Venezuela. The scientific

name,Theobroma, means "food of the gods".[47] The fruit, called a cacao pod, is ovoid,

15–30 cm (or 6–12 in) long and 8–10 cm (3–4 in) wide, ripening yellow to orange, and

weighs about 500 g (1 lb) when ripe.

Cacao trees are small, understory trees that need rich, well-drained soils. They naturally

grow within 20 degrees of either side of the equator because they need about 2000

millimeters of rainfall a year, and temperatures in the range of 21 to 32 °C. Cacao trees

cannot tolerate a temperature lower than 15 °C (59 °F).[48]

The three main varieties of cacao beans used in chocolate are criollo, forastero, and

trinitario.

Representing only five percent of all cocoa beans grown,[49] criollo is the rarest and most

expensive cocoa on the market, and is native to Central America, the Caribbean

islands and the northern tier of South American states.[50] There is some dispute about

the genetic purity of cocoas sold today as criollo, as most populations have been

exposed to the genetic influence of other varieties. Criollos are particularly difficult to

grow, as they are vulnerable to a variety of environmental threats and produce low

yields of cocoa per tree. The flavor of criollo is described as delicate yet complex, low in

classic chocolate flavor, but rich in "secondary" notes of long duration.[51]

The most commonly grown bean is forastero,[49] a large group of wild and cultivated

cacaos, most likely native to the Amazon basin. The African cocoa crop is entirely of the

forastero variety. They are significantly hardier and of higher yield than criollo. The

source of most chocolate marketed,[49] forastero cocoas are typically strong in classic

"chocolate" flavor, but have a short duration and are unsupported by secondary flavors,

producing "quite bland" chocolate.[49]

Trinitario is a natural hybrid of criollo and forastero. Trinitario originated in Trinidad after

an introduction of forastero to the local criollo crop. Nearly all cacao produced over the

past five decades is of the forastero or lower-grade trinitario varieties.[52]

Processing

Cacao pods are harvested by cutting the pods from the tree using a machete, or by

knocking them off the tree using a stick. The beans with their surrounding pulp are

removed from the pods and placed in piles or bins, allowing access to microorganisms

so that fermentation of the pectin-containing material can

begin. Yeast produce ethanol, lactic acid bacteria producelactic acid and acetic acid

bacteria produce acetic acid. The fermentation process, which takes up to seven days,

also produces several flavor precursors, eventually resulting in the familiar chocolate

taste.[53]

It is important to harvest the pods when they are fully ripe because if the pod is unripe,

the beans will have a low cocoa butter content, or there will be insufficient sugars in the

white pulp for fermentation, resulting in a weak flavor. After fermentation, the beans

must be quickly dried to prevent mold growth. Climate and weather permitting, this is

done by spreading the beans out in the sun from five to seven days.[54]

The dried beans are then transported to a chocolate manufacturing facility. The beans

are cleaned (removing twigs, stones, and other debris), roasted, and graded. Next, the

shell of each bean is removed to extract the nib. Finally, the nibs are ground and

liquefied, resulting in pure chocolate in fluid form: chocolate liquor.[55] The liquor can be

further processed into two components: cocoa solids and cocoa butter.[56]

Blending

Chocolate liquor is blended with the cocoa butter in varying quantities to make different

types of chocolate or couvertures. The basic blends of ingredients for the various types

of chocolate (in order of highest quantity of cocoa liquor first), are as follows:

Fountain chocolate is made with high levels of cocoa butter, allowing it to flow gently

over achocolate fountain to serve asdessert fondue.

Dark chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter, cocoa liquor, and (sometimes) vanilla

Milk chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter, cocoa liquor, milk or milk powder, and vanilla

White chocolate: sugar, cocoa butter, milk or milk powder, and vanilla

Usually, an emulsifying agent, such as soy lecithin, is added, though a few

manufacturers prefer to exclude this ingredient for purity reasons and to remain GMO-

free, sometimes at the cost of a perfectly smooth texture. Some manufacturers are now

using PGPR, an artificial emulsifier derived from castor oil that allows them to reduce

the amount of cocoa butter while maintaining the samemouthfeel.

The texture is also heavily influenced by processing, specifically conching (see below).

The more expensive chocolate tends to be processed longer and thus have a smoother

texture and mouthfeel, regardless of whether emulsifying agents are added.

Different manufacturers develop their own "signature" blends based on the above

formulas, but varying proportions of the different constituents are used. The finest, plain

dark chocolate couvertures contain at least 70% cocoa (both solids and butter),

whereas milk chocolate usually contains up to 50%. High-quality white chocolate

couvertures contain only about 35% cocoa.

Producers of high quality, small batch chocolate argue that mass production produces

bad quality chocolate.[49] Some mass-produced chocolate contains much less cocoa (as

low as 7% in many cases), and fats other than cocoa butter. Vegetable oils

and artificial vanilla flavor are often used in cheaper chocolate to mask poorly fermented

and/or roasted beans.[49]

In 2007, the Chocolate Manufacturers Association in the United States, whose

members include Hershey, Nestlé, and Archer Daniels Midland, lobbied the Food and

Drug Administration to change the legal definition of chocolate to let them

substitute partially hydrogenated vegetable oils for cocoa butter, in addition to using

artificial sweeteners and milk substitutes.[57] Currently, the U.S. Food and Drug

Administration (FDA) does not allow a product to be referred to as "chocolate" if the

product contains any of these ingredients.[58][59]

Conching

Chocolate melanger mixing raw ingredients

The penultimate process is called conching. A conche is a container filled with metal

beads, which act as grinders. The refined and blended chocolate mass is kept in a liquid

state by frictional heat. Chocolate prior to conching has an uneven and gritty texture.

The conching process produces cocoa and sugar particles smaller than the tongue can

detect, hence the smooth feel in the mouth. The length of the conching process

determines the final smoothness and quality of the chocolate. High-quality chocolate is

conched for about 72 hours, lesser grades about four to six hours. After the process is

complete, the chocolate mass is stored in tanks heated to approximately 45–50 °C

(113–122 °F) until final processing.[60]

Tempering

The final process is called tempering. Uncontrolled crystallization of cocoa butter

typically results in crystals of varying size, some or all large enough to be clearly seen

with the naked eye. This causes the surface of the chocolate to appear mottled and

matte, and causes the chocolate to crumble rather than snap when broken.[61] The

uniform sheen and crisp bite of properly processed chocolate are the result of

consistently small cocoa butter crystals produced by the tempering process.

The fats in cocoa butter can crystallize in six different forms (polymorphous

crystallization).[61][62] The primary purpose of tempering is to assure that only the best

form is present. The six different crystal forms have different properties.

Crystal Melting temp. Notes

I 17 °C (63 °F) Soft, crumbly, melts too easily

II 21 °C (70 °F) Soft, crumbly, melts too easily

III 26 °C (79 °F) Firm, poor snap, melts too easily

IV 28 °C (82 °F) Firm, good snap, melts too easily

V 34 °C (93 °F) Glossy, firm, best snap, melts near body temperature (37 °C)

VI 36 °C (97 °F) Hard, takes weeks to form

Molten chocolate and a piece of a chocolate bar

Making chocolate considered "good" is about forming as many type V crystals as

possible. This provides the best appearance and texture and creates the most stable

crystals, so the texture and appearance will not degrade over time. To accomplish this,

the temperature is carefully manipulated during the crystallization.

Generally, the chocolate is first heated to 45 °C (113 °F) to melt all six forms of crystals.[61][62] Next, the chocolate is cooled to about 27 °C (81 °F), which will allow crystal types

IV and V to form. At this temperature, the chocolate is agitated to create many small

crystal "seeds" which will serve as nuclei to create small crystals in the chocolate. The

chocolate is then heated to about 31 °C (88 °F) to eliminate any type IV crystals, leaving

just type V. After this point, any excessive heating of the chocolate will destroy the

temper and this process will have to be repeated. However, there are other methods of

chocolate tempering used. The most common variant is introducing already tempered,

solid "seed" chocolate. The temper of chocolate can be measured with a chocolate

temper meter to ensure accuracy and consistency. A sample cup is filled with the

chocolate and placed in the unit which then displays or prints the results.

Two classic ways of manually tempering chocolate are:

Working the molten chocolate on a heat-absorbing surface, such as a stone slab,

until thickening indicates the presence of sufficient crystal "seeds"; the chocolate is

then gently warmed to working temperature.

Stirring solid chocolate into molten chocolate to "inoculate" the liquid chocolate with

crystals (this method uses the already formed crystals of the solid chocolate to

"seed" the molten chocolate).

Chocolate tempering machines (or temperers) with computer controls can be used for

producing consistently tempered chocolate, particularly for large volume applications.

Storage

Packaged chocolate in the Ghirardelli Chocolate Company shop is stored in controlled

conditions

Chocolate is very sensitive to temperature and humidity. Ideal storage temperatures are

between 15 and 17 °C (59 and 63 °F), with a relative humidity of less than 50%. Various

types of "blooming" effects can occur if chocolate is stored or served improperly. Fat

bloom is caused by storage temperature fluctuating or exceeding 24 C while sugar

bloom is caused by temperature below 15 C or excess humidity. To distinguish between

different types of bloom, one can rub the surface of the chocolate lightly, and if the

bloom disappears, it is fat bloom. One can get rid of bloom by re-tempering the

chocolate or using it for anything that requires melting the chocolate.[63]

Chocolate is generally stored away from other foods, as it can absorb different aromas.

Ideally, chocolates are packed or wrapped, and placed in proper storage with the

correct humidity and temperature. Additionally, chocolate is frequently stored in a dark

place or protected from light by wrapping paper.

If refrigerated or frozen without containment, chocolate can absorb enough moisture to

cause a whitish discoloration, the result of fat or sugar crystals rising to the surface.

Moving chocolate from one temperature extreme to another, such as from a refrigerator

on a hot day, can result in an oily texture. Although visually unappealing, chocolate

suffering from bloom is perfectly safe for consumption.[64][65][66]

Potential health effects

Main articles: Health effects of chocolate and Theobromine poisoning

Even though chocolate is regularly eaten for pleasure, there are potentially many health

effects, both negative and positive. Cocoa ordark chocolate may positively affect

the circulatory system.[67] Other possible effects under basic

research include anticancer, brain stimulator, cough

preventor and antidiarrhoeal activities.[68] An aphrodisiac effect is yet unproven.[citation

needed]

According to research, limited amounts of dark chocolate appear to help prevent heart

disease. The oxidation of LDL cholesterol is considered a major factor in the promotion

of coronary disease. When this waxy substance oxidizes, it tends to stick to artery walls,

increasing the risk of a heart attack or stroke. Research has shown the polyphenols in

chocolate inhibit oxidation of LDL cholesterol.[69]

On the other hand, the unconstrained consumption of large quantities of any energy-rich

food, such as chocolate, without a corresponding increase in activity, is thought to

increase the risk of obesity. Raw chocolate is high in cocoa butter, a fat which is

removed during chocolate refining, then added back in in varying proportions during the

manufacturing process. Manufacturers may add other fats, sugars, and milk as well, all

of which increase the caloric content of chocolate.

Chocolate absorbs lead from the environment during production, and there is a slight

concern of mild lead poisoning for some types of chocolate. In a study of chocolate from

Nigeria, the average lead concentration of cocoa beans was a very low ≤ 0.5 ng/g, one

of the lowest reported values for a natural food. For processed products, lead

concentrations ranged from 70 ng/g for chocolate products to 230 ng/g for

manufactured cocoa.[70] These measurements from Nigeria "are consistent with market-

basket surveys that have repeatedly listed lead concentrations in chocolate products

among the highest reported for all foods. One source of contamination of the finished

products is tentatively attributed to atmospheric emissions of leaded gasoline, which is

still being used in Nigeria."[70] These figures are still comparatively low when compared

to 200,000 ng, which is the WHO tolerable daily limit for lead consumption.[71]Additionally, chocolate is toxic to many animals because of insufficient capacity to

metabolize theobromine.[2]

A BBC report indicated that melting chocolate in one's mouth produced an increase in

brain activity and heart rate that was more intense than that associated with

passionate kissing, and also lasted four times as long after the activity had ended.[72]

In later research, chocolate has been linked with multiple health benefits and liabilities.

Research on elderly people showed chocolate might cause osteoporosis.[73] However,

more research has shown that it will boost cognitive abilities.[74] Further, dark chocolate

and cocoa butter have been linked with multiple positive effects. Scientific evidence has

suggested dark chocolate can help reduce the risk of cardiovascular problems[75] and

also reduce blood pressure in both overweight and normal adults.[75] Finally, studies

have shown dark chocolate as part of a low-fat diet can lower cholesterol levels in

adults.[76]

In August 2011, Cambridge research published in the British Medical Journal: Eating

high levels of chocolate could be associated with a significant reduction in the risk of

certain cardiovascular disorders.[77]

Labelling

Some manufacturers provide the percentage of chocolate in a finished chocolate

confection as a label quoting percentage of "cocoa" or "cacao". It should be noted that

this refers to the combined percentage of both cocoa solids and cocoa butter in the bar,

not just the percentage of cocoa solids.[78]

Chocolates that are organic [79]  or fair trade certified [80]  carry labels accordingly.

In the United States, some large chocolate manufacturers lobbied the federal

government to permit confections containing cheaperhydrogenated vegetable oil in

place of cocoa butter to be sold as "chocolate". In June 2007, as a response to

consumer concern after the proposed change, the FDA reiterated "Cacao fat, as one of

the signature characteristics of the product, will remain a principal component of

standardized chocolate."[81]

Manufacturers

A Hershey chocolate bar. The Hershey Company is one of the largest chocolate

manufacturers in the world.

Main article: List of bean-to-bar chocolate manufacturers

Many chocolate manufacturers have created products from chocolate bars to fudge,

hoping to attract more consumers with each creation. Both The Hershey Company and

Mars have become the largest manufacturers in the world.[citation needed] Other significant

players include Nestlé, Kraft Foods and Lindt.

The Hershey Company, known for their Hershey bar, Hershey's Kisses and Reese's

Peanut Butter Cups, is the largest chocolate manufacturer in North America.[82] Mars,

Incorporated, one of the largest privately owned U.S. corporations, is a worldwide

manufacturer of confectionery and other food products, with US$21 billion in annual

sales in 2006. Mars is known for Mars Bar, Milky Way, M&M's, Twix and Snickers, as

well as other confectionery items, such Skittles.

Food conglomerates Nestlé SA and Kraft Foods both have chocolate

brands. Nestlé acquired Rowntree's in 1988 and now market chocolates under their

own brand, including Smarties and Kit Kat; Kraft Foods through its 1990 acquisition of

Jacobs Suchard, now ownMilka and Suchard. In February 2010, Kraft also acquired

British-based Cadbury plc, the world's largest confectionery manufacturer.[83]Cadbury is

well known for its Dairy Milk   range  and Creme Egg; Fry's, Trebor Basset, the fair-trade

brand Green & Black's also belong to the group.

The chocolate industry, a steadily growing, $50 billion-a-year worldwide business

centered on the sale and consumption of chocolate, is prevalent on five out of seven

continents.[84] Big Chocolate, as it is also called, is essentially an oligopoly between

major international chocolate companies in Europe and the U.S. These U.S. companies,

such as Mars and Hershey’s alone, generate $13 billion a year in chocolate sales and

account for two-thirds of U.S. manufacturers.[85] However, Europe accounts for 45% of

the world's chocolate revenue.[86]

In popular culture

A box of assorted chocolates, often given as a gift.

Holidays

Chocolate is one of the most popular holiday gifts. On Valentine's Day, a box of

chocolates is traditional, usually presented with flowers and a greeting card. It may be

given on other holidays, and birthdays. At Easter, chocolate eggs are traditional. This is

a confectionery made primarily of chocolate, and can either be solid, hollow, or filled

with other sweets or fondant. Many confectioners make holiday-specific chocolate

candies, usually variants of their standard fare.

Books and film

Chocolate has been the center of several successful book and film adaptations. In

1964, Roald Dahl published a children's novel titledCharlie and the Chocolate Factory.

The novel centers on a poor boy named Charlie Bucket who takes a tour through the

greatest chocolate factory in the world, owned by Willy Wonka. Two film adaptations of

the novel were produced. The first was Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory, a 1971

film which later became a cult classic. Thirty-four years later, a second film adaptation

was produced, titled Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. The 2005 film was very well

received by critics[87] and was one of the highest grossing films that year, earning over

US$470,000,000 worldwide.[88] Charlie and the Chocolate Factory was also recognized

at the 78th Academy Awards, where it was nominated for Best Costume Design for

Gabriella Pesucci.[89]

Like Water for Chocolate (Como agua para chocolate), a 1989 love story by

novelist Laura Esquivel, was adapted to film in 1992. The plot incorporates magical

realism with Mexican cuisine, and the title is a double entendre in its native language,

referring both to a recipe for hot chocolate and to an idiom that is a metaphor for sexual

arousal. The film earned 11 Ariel Awards from the Academia Mexicana de Artes y

Ciencias Cinematográficas, including Best Picture.

Chocolat, a 1999 novel by Joanne Harris, tells the story of Vianne Rocher, a young

mother, whose confections change the lives of the townspeople. The 2000 film

adaptation, Chocolat, also proved successful, grossing over US$150,000,000

worldwide,[90] and receivingAcademy Award and Golden Globe nominations for Best

Picture, Best Actress, and Best Original Score.[91][92]

Chocolate also features in a large number of other literary works, often in a role central

to the plot such as JoAnna Carl's Chocoholic Mysteries series and Toby Moore's Death

by Chocolate.