C hronica H ORTICULTURAE A PUBLICATION OF THE I NTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR HORTICULTURAL SCIENCE Volume 44 - Number 4 - 2004 ISHS Symposia and Workshops Rose Hip • Hazelnut • Plum and Prune Genetics, Breeding and Pomology • Persimmon • Fire Blight Horticultural Highlights Horticultural Biotechnology: Challenges for Commercial Development • Caravaggio’s Fruit: A Mirror on Baroque Horticulture • Australian Ginger Industry • Biodiversity of Tropical African Vegetables • Horticulture in Sri Lanka • Horticultural Research in the French Agricultural Research Centre (CIRAD)
Transcript
ChronicaHORTICULTURAE
A PUBLICATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR HORTICULTURAL SCIENCE
Volume 44 - Number 4 - 2004
ISHS
Symposia and WorkshopsRose Hip • Hazelnut • Plum and Prune Genetics, Breeding and Pomology •Persimmon • Fire Blight
Horticultural HighlightsHorticultural Biotechnology: Challenges for Commercial Development •Caravaggio’s Fruit: A Mirror on Baroque Horticulture • Australian Ginger Industry •Biodiversity of Tropical African Vegetables • Horticulture in Sri Lanka •Horticultural Research in the French Agricultural Research Centre (CIRAD)
CONTENTS
ISHS
ChronicaHORTICULTURAE
� News from the Board3 Horticultural Science – the Integrating Factor, I.J. Warrington
� Issues4 Horticultural Biotechnology: Challenges for Commercial
Development, K.J. Bradford and J.M. Alston
� Horticultural Science Focus9 Caravaggio’s Fruit: A Mirror on Baroque Horticulture, J. Janick
� Horticultural Science News16 Lychee Production Soars in China16 The Australian Ginger Industry, M. Smith
� The World of Horticulture19 Biodiversity of Tropical African Vegetables, G. Grubben and
L. Oyen23 Horticulture in Sri Lanka, W.A.P. Weerakkody28 Horticultural Research in the French Agricultural Research
Centre (CIRAD), J. Ganry32 New Books, Websites34 Courses and Meetings
� Symposia and Workshops34 First Int’l Rose Hip Conference36 Sixth Int’l Congress on Hazelnut38 Eighth Int’l Symposium on Plum and Prune Genetics, Breeding
and Pomology40 Third Int’l Symposium on Persimmon41 Tenth Int’l Workshop on Fire Blight
� News from the ISHS Secretariat43 New Members44 In Memoriam45 Calendar of ISHS Events46 Available Issues of Acta Horticulturae48 Index to Volume 44 of Chronica Horticulturae
Jules Janick, Purdue University, USA, Chair of the Editorial AdvisoryCommitteeTony Biggs, Australian Society of Horticultural Science, AustraliaByung-Dong Kim, Department of Plant Sciences and Center forPlant Molecular Genetics and Breeding Research, Seoul NationalUniversity, KoreaAntónio A. Monteiro, College of Agriculture and Forestry, TechnicalUniversity of Lisbon, PortugalRobert K. Prange, Atlantic Food and Horticulture Resarch Centre,Agriculture and Agri-Food CanadaManfred Schenk, Institute of Plant Nutrition, University ofHannover, GermanyMembership and Orders of Chronica Horticulturae
Chronica Horticulturae is provided to the Membership for free:Individual Membership 45 EUR annually (special rate for IndividualMembers from selected developing countries: 45 EUR for 2 years),Student Membership 12 EUR per year. For all details on ISHS mem-bership categories and membership advantages, including a mem-bership application form, refer to the ISHS membership pages atwww.ishs.org/members.Payments
All major Credit Cards accepted. Always quote your name andinvoice or membership number. Make checks payable to ISHSSecretariat. Money transfers: ISHS main bank account number is230-0019444-64. Bank details: Fortis Bank, Branch “HeverleeArenberg”, Naamsesteenweg 173/175, B-3001 Leuven 1, Belgium.BIC (SWIFT code): GEBABEBB08A, IBAN: BE29230001944464.Please arrange for all bank costs to be taken from your accountassuring that ISHS receives the net amount. Prices listed are in euro(EUR) but ISHS accepts payments in USD as well.Acta Horticulturae
Acta Horticulturae is the series of proceedings of ISHS ScientificMeetings, Symposia or Congresses. (ISSN: 0567-7572). ISHSMembers are entitled to a substantial discount on the price of ActaHorticulturae. For an updated list of available titles go towww.ishs.org/acta. A complete and accurate record of the entireActa Horticulturae collection, including all abstracts and full textarticles is available online at www.actahort.org. ISHS Individualmembership includes credits to download 10 full text ActaHorticulturae articles. All Acta Horticulturae titles-including those nolonger available in print format-are available in the ActaHort CD-ROM format.
Cover photograph: Still Life with Fruit on a Stone Ledge byMichelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, 1603, see p. 13
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A publication of the International Society for Horticultural Science,a society of individuals, organizations and governmental agenciesinterested in horticultural research, education, industry and humanwell-being.
CHRONICA HORTICULTURAE •VOL 44 • NUMBER 4 •2004 • 3
Horticultural Science -the Integrating Factor
NEWS FROM THE BOARDNEWS FROM THE BOARD
Ian J.Warrington
Ian J. Warrington, ISHS Vice-President and Scientific Co-ordinator
The move to disband historic HorticulturalScience Departments and to form multidisci-plinary Plant Science Departments in manyuniversities around the world (see ChronicaHorticulturae 44(3) 2004) has been matchedby major shifts in government funding for hor-ticultural research over recent years. The fac-tors that have led to this shift are many andcomplex. They include the fact that food iscurrently inexpensive to many and availableyear-round - leading to the question “why dowe need more research?” Furthermore,governments have struggled to meet R&Dbudget demands and have seen an easy wayout by funding “basic” research while leavingthe responsibilities for picking up “applied”research to industry groups and to individualcompanies. This somehow assumes that“applied” research is less sophisticated, lessoriginal, and less intellectually challenging tothose scientists providing solutions to industryproblems. It also implies that industries shouldpay taxes to governments for basic researchand then tax themselves again for appliedstudies!
Decisions taken over the past decade alsoreflect a confidence that molecular biology willprovide a range of solutions to problems thathave challenged scientists for many years. The“molecular” community has certainly beenvery effective in advocating that point of viewand has lobbied effectively for a vastly greaterproportion of the total research budget inalmost every country around the world. Issuch an approach likely to succeed in provi-ding the research findings necessary to movehumankind ahead in the sustainable produc-tion of the food that present and futuregenerations will need?
Such disproportionate allocation of researchfunding to a particular field of plant science isnot new. Nor are the promises that were deli-vered at the time by those involved - such arethe politics of many government-supportedresearch funding schemes. In the 1930sthrough until the 1970s, those involved inplant growth regulation research were strong
in their conviction that plant growth anddevelopment could eventually be managedand manipulated by one specific chemical oranother. We would, for example, be able toturn flowering on or off, stunt our lawns sothat they would not need mowing as fre-quently, and apply compounds that wouldinduce cold or drought resistance. Like manyareas of plant science, these phenomenaproved to be much more complex than therhetoric suggested. Not only was the range ofnatural growth regulating compounds muchmore extensive than first realised, the actualability to regulate specific aspects of growthturned out to be much more complex.Nonetheless, horticulture did benefit fromsuch research with new herbicides, dormancy-breaking compounds, and the development ofchemicals that induce compact growth habit,increase or reduce fruit set, facilitate plantpropagation, and change flowering behaviourin some plants. Horticultural science can makestrong claims to underpinning many of thesedevelopments and to demonstrating theirapplications.
Photosynthesis research in the 1960s and1970s was also full of promise. The frequentclaim was that if research could increase theconversion efficiency of sunlight from beingless than 1%, or reduce photorespiration, thenproductivity would increase so much that foodsupply issues would be readily resolved. Inreality it is difficult to identify practical applica-tions of relevance to horticulture productionfrom all of the excellent research that wasdone on photosynthetic pathways, chloroplastultrastructure, photoinhibition and respiration.In fact, most of the gains have come not froma “reductionist” approach to research in thisarea but from a “synthesis” approach largelyfrom sophisticated computer-based cropmodelling (initially developed by agronomists)and an understanding of the physics of lightinterception by crop stands. This research chal-lenged our understanding of tree canopyarchitecture, between-tree and between-rowspacing in orchards, and the importance ofrootstocks in providing a means of influencing
these factors. The impacts of light interceptionby canopies and transmission within canopieswere also very significant in terms of influen-cing fruit distribution and quality. Productivitygains from the application of this basic know-ledge, both in terms of gains in yield and interms of improved pack-out, have beenimpressive.
Perhaps the most impressive gain in know-ledge that has emerged from basic research inrelation to horticultural science has been theapplication of information about the floweringprocess. Classic research in the 1920s demon-strated the importance of photoperiod in con-trolling flowering in plants and the importantinfluence of the length of the dark period inthat process. Ongoing studies have expandedthis knowledge and, for example, demonstra-ted the nature of juvenility and the importanceof chilling in relation to breaking dormancy.The “reductionist” research into the floweringprocess has focused on a number of factorsincluding the nature of phytochrome, thesearch for the “flowering hormone” and theroles of other plant bioregulators in the flowe-ring process. However, the applications for thisfundamental knowledge have been verylimited. Significantly, converting the know-ledge from the original discoveries into practi-cal applications has been very much driven byhorticultural scientists. Development ofmethods for producing flowering crops inmodern greenhouse complexes where precisecontrol of temperature, day-length, CO2 con-centration and light intensity can allow flowercrops to be produced efficiently, on time, andfor specific, often high value markets, hascome from horticultural science. Clearly, thedevelopment of our knowledge of plantresponses to temperature as well as to day-length has also allowed horticultural crops tobe scheduled through the use of heat summodelling and related techniques.
The recent emergence of molecular biologyresearch has its origins in plant biochemistrystudies that have been carried out over thepast 50 years. There is no denying that ourunderstanding of biochemical pathways, theroles of specific enzymes and other co-factors,and the structure and function of DNA have alldeveloped remarkably over that time. There isalso no denying that a “reductionist” approach
Horticultural Biotechnology: Challengesfor Commercial Development
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ISSUESISSUES
Kent J. Bradford and Julian M. Alston
to research has markedly improved our know-ledge of how plants develop and function.However, as indicated in the examples usedabove, our ability to use much of the know-ledge that has been obtained has been limitedby the complexity of the plants themselves -all too frequently the controls over theprocesses that have been studied have beenmultifaceted and considerably more complexthan was initially envisaged. Furthermore,the environments in which horticulturalistsmanage these crops are also highly complex
(unlike the laboratory test-tube) and require aspecial knowledge and understanding in whichto usefully apply the knowledge that isavailable for specific crop growth and develop-ment processes.
Horticultural scientists have truly been the“integrators” that have brought togetherinformation available from fundamentalresearch, which has then been interpreted andapplied to practical solutions for real-worldproblems. Those currently involved with
establishing Plant Science Departments with amarkedly down-sized presence of staff withsound horticultural knowledge and experienceand a parallel growing dependency onachievements based on molecular biology,might reflect on actual achievements overrecent history. Clearly, each area of researchdiscipline needs the other and the groups thatcan identify strong areas of interaction andcollaboration are the ones that are likely toexcel.
THE ISSUES
Genetic approaches have been utilized exten-sively for crop improvement, and biotechnolo-gy has expanded the tools available to geneti-cists and breeders. Herbicide-tolerant andinsect-resistant crop cultivars developedthrough recombinant DNA technology havebeen rapidly adopted for soybeans, cotton,maize, and canola. Between their first large-scale introduction in 1996 and 2003, theglobal area planted to transgenic field cropshad grown to 67.7 million hectares, represen-ting 55% of the area of soybeans, 21% of cot-ton, 16% of canola and 11% of maize (James,2003). While 63% of this area was in theUnited States and 6% in Canada, 85% of the7 million farmers growing transgenic cropswere in China and South Africa. Althoughadoption is still limited in some countries,noticeably the European Union and Japan,other countries such as India, Brazil and thePhilippines have recently approved the pro-duction of biotech crops. China, in particular, issupporting research on an array of biotechcrops (Huang and Rozelle, 2004).
In contrast to the increasing global adoption ofbiotech field crops, biotechnology has hadlimited commercial success to date in horticul-tural crops, including fruits, vegetables, flowersand landscape plants. The first biotech crop toreach the fresh market was the ‘Flavr Savr’™
tomato having extended shelf-life (Fig. 1), anda processing version of this tomato had higherviscosity, allowing it to be made more econo-
mically into puree and paste (Fig. 2). Sweetcorn, potato, squash and papaya varietiesengineered to resist insects and viruses have
Figure 1. Calgene’s Flavr Savr tomato was sold under the MacGregor’s brand inthe United States when first introduced in 1994. It was accompanied by informa-tion identifying it as being modified through genetic engineering to slow the rateof fruit softening during ripening. It was accepted by consumers, but was not afinancial success due to problems in production and marketing. Photo by courtesyof Keith Redenbaugh.
CHRONICA HORTICULTURAE •VOL 44 • NUMBER 4 •2004 • 5
also been approved for commercial use andmarketed, but papaya is the only horticulturalcrop for which transgenic cultivars haveachieved a significant market share (about70% of the Hawaiian crop shipped to the U.S.
mainland is transgenic). Development ofpapaya cultivars resistant to the papayaringspot virus has allowed the recovery of thatindustry in Hawaii after devastation from thedisease in the early 1990s (Fig. 3; Gonsalves,2004). Insect-resistant sweet corn and pota-toes initially achieved sufficient utilization todemonstrate that they can dramatically reducethe use of pesticides in these crops, yet marketresistance has largely prevented their wide-spread adoption, and the transgenic potatocultivars are no longer commercially available.Only limited amounts of insect-resistant sweetcorn and virus-resistant squash are currently
marketed in the United States, and with theexception of papaya and a few flowers engi-neered for novel color (Fig. 4; www.flori-gene.com), biotech fruit or ornamental cropsare not produced commercially.
Various traits that would be desired bygrowers and consumers of horticultural crops,including novel genetic methods for diseaseand insect protection and weed control,longer-lived flowers and slower-growing grass,have been developed and tested without asyet achieving commercialization (Clark et al.,2004). What once was a significant pipeline ofresearch and development in horticulture, asevidenced by the number of U.S. field trials ofbiotech horticultural crops, has recently dwin-dled to only a handful in fruits and vegetables(Fig. 5). Field trials of turf grasses (e.g.,creeping bentgrass) and tree species (e.g.,poplar) account for the majority of continuingfield trials of ornamentals. As a consequenceof the disappointing past commercial resultsand current market outlook, many horticul-tural seed and nursery companies are reducingtheir investments in research involving geneticengineering, although they are continuing toapply biotechnology to support traditionalbreeding activities, such as the use of DNA-based molecular markers.
THE CHALLENGES
A number of technical, economic, regulatoryand market factors have combined to createhurdles for the utilization of biotechnology inhorticultural crops. Here we summarize themajor challenges facing horticultural biotech-nology (Bradford and Alston, 2004).
Figure 2. Zeneca developed a processing tomato using similar technology to that forFlavr Savr. Blocking polygalacturonase activity slowed fruit softening and also resul-ted in higher viscosity, which allowed more economical processing into puree orpaste. This product was successfully sold in the United Kingdom between 1996 and2000. Photo by courtesy of Martina McGloughlin.
Figure 3. (Top) Papaya fruit infectedwith papaya ringspot virus shows thesmall darkened rings that make itunmarketable; the virus also causesfoliar damage. (Bottom) ‘SunUp’ cul-tivar of papaya resistant to papayaringspot virus was developed usingbiotechnology. Photos by courtesy ofDennis Gonsalves.
Figure 4. Florigene, of Melbourne, Australia, markets transgenic Moon™ seriescarnations engineered for blue-violet color. Photo by courtesy of Florigene.
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Species Diversity
Hundreds of species and thousands of culti-vars are represented among fruit, vegetableand ornamental crops. In most cases, specificprocedures are required for transformation ofeach species, and often even cultivars differwidely in the ease with which they can betransformed. Thus, introducing a trait into aspecific crop and cultivar may require consi-derable research and development before it iseven feasible. The diversity of propagationand marketing mechanisms also presents chal-lenges, as many horticultural crops are vegeta-tively propagated from cuttings or grafting,rather than by seed, and are perennial, bring-ing different issues for containment and post-commercialization stewardship.
Multiple Niche Markets
Horticultural markets are highly segmentedinto a multitude of niches by location, season,consumer preferences, and other factors.Satisfying these diverse markets requires manycultivars within each species that may vary forresistance to pests and diseases, dates ofmaturity, seasonal adaptation, color, shape,taste and other attributes. Thus, introducing aparticular trait into a horticultural species like-ly requires its introduction into multiple culti-vars to achieve market success. Since regulato-ry approvals are based on individual transgenicevents, this generally necessitates extensivebackcross programs using a single initial trans-formed line, which can result in transfer ofundesirable traits and delay forward breedingprograms. In many perennial or vegetativelypropagated species, backcrossing is not aviable option.
Small Production/Market Windows perCultivar
Multiple niche markets for horticultural cropsalso mean that any single cultivar is likely to besuccessful only for a relatively small fraction ofthe total market for that crop. The potentialcrop area (and sales) of a given cultivar istherefore limited, and the potential returns ona biotech trait solely from seed or propagationmaterials may be too small to justify theinvestment. This is particularly the case withthe current regulatory requirements thatsignificantly increase development costs rela-tive to conventional cultivars (Redenbaughand McHughen, 2004). Mechanisms for costrecovery and value capture for perennial cropshave also not been established, since the valueof a novel biotech trait extends over manyyears after the initial sale of propagative mate-rials.
Requirements of Processors
Some biotech traits would be highly beneficialfor processors, such as high viscosity in tomatoor insect resistance in sweet corn. However,processors often have recognizable brandnames that are much more valuable than anysingle product. There is little incentive for themto jeopardize their overall market position byrisking protests from anti-biotech activists overthe introduction of a single biotech product. Inaddition, many processed products are marke-ted internationally, so that regulatory approvalwould be required in each importing country,possibly with each having different testing orlabeling requirements. Segregating or channe-ling processed products for different markets ispossible, but would require extensive (and
expensive) changes in current production anddistribution systems.
Requirements of Distributors and Retailers
Distribution and retailing of horticultural pro-ducts is increasingly global and concentrated.Only 30 firms are estimated to account for10% of global grocery sales, and 30% ofWalmart’s $259 billion in global 2003 saleswere in groceries (Cook, 2004). Large distribu-tion firms can dictate standards independentlyof any regulatory system, so whether theyagree to market a particular product can spellthe difference between success and failure.The major issues for marketers are labeling,traceability, liability, and global markets. Manycountries require labeling if recombinant DNAtechniques were used in producing a foodproduct, but standards vary, particularly forprocessed or mixed products. Harmonizingsuch requirements would reduce uncertainty inmarketing, but achieving international agree-ment on these issues will be difficult.Traceability is the ability to track a productfrom the market back to the field or green-house where it was produced. While this ispossible and a standard practice with wholeflowers, fruits and vegetables in some markets,it becomes much more difficult with productsthat are commingled during processing.Segregation of products is possible, such as isdone for organic products, but requires higherprices. Liability is a critical issue, as demon-strated by the product recalls that occurred fol-lowing the ‘Starlink’™ maize situation in theUnited States. Without reasonable thresholdsfor adventitious presence of biotech DNA orprotein, the risk is high with little or no benefitto the distributor. Again, this is exacerbated byglobal marketing, where differing thresholdsor regulatory approvals could make a productlegal in one country but not in the next.
Benefits to Growers, Processors, Distributorsand Consumers
While the first wave of biotech products weretargeted primarily to growers, benefitsthroughout the marketing chain will beneeded to ensure adoption. Products havingclear benefits to the consumer may be neededfirst to develop demand that will pull themthrough the marketing chain. These will likelyrequire a premium price to compensate for theadditional tracking and segregation that maybe needed to ensure that the promised qualityis delivered. They will also require consumereducation to better understand how biotech-nology fits into food production systems(James, 2004). If horticultural biotechnology isto move beyond the initial phase of input traitsinto output and consumer traits, attentionmust be paid to the interests, concerns andrequirements of all participants in the produc-tion, processing, distribution and marketingchain.
Public versus Private Research
Public institutions have traditionally played a
Figure 5. Field trials of biotech vegetables, fruits and ornamentals conducted underpermits in the United States, 1986 to 2004. Data for vegetables do not includepotatoes or sweet corn. Data for ornamentals includes tree species. Data source:U.S. Department of Agriculture Information Systems for Biotechnology(http://www.nbiap.vt.edu/cfdocs/fieldtests1.cfm).
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CHRONICA HORTICULTURAE •VOL 44 • NUMBER 4 •2004 • 7
major research role in horticultural crops, andthis is also true of horticultural biotechnology.How should they respond to the declining pri-vate interest in biotechnology research? It maybe appropriate to increase support for publichorticultural biotechnology research in somecases where there is a compelling publicinterest. This may be the case, for example,where a devastating disease threatens a horti-cultural industry and a biotech-based solutionis the most viable option for developing resis-tant cultivars. Another example might be thedevelopment of nutritionally enhanced foodproducts. However, public institutions general-ly do not have access to the full range ofenabling technologies and trait genes, northe resources to satisfy the regulatory andstewardship requirements that are needed todevelop a commercial biotech cultivar, makingpublic-private partnerships an attractiveavenue for development (Rausser andAmeden, 2004).
Access to Intellectual Property and EnablingTechnologies
A limited number of large corporations haveacquired or licensed the enabling technologiesand traits needed to develop and market abiotech cultivar. In some cases, they may notbe willing to license these technologies for usein specialty crops, or the costs of licensingpatented technologies from diverse sourcesmay be too great to be economical for a smallmarket crop. New licensing structures forenabling technologies developed in universi-ties and public research institutions may beparticularly helpful for small-revenue crops (aswell as for developing country applications)(Graff et al., 2004). The Public IntellectualProperty Resource for Agriculture (PIPRA)recently established at the University ofCalifornia, Davis, with funding from theRockefeller Foundation represents a signifi-cant development in this area(www.pipra.org). Public research agendas canalso be targeted toward developing newmethods that can lower intellectual propertyand regulatory barriers and thus enable horti-cultural crops to have access to modernbiotechnologies.
Regulatory Requirements
Regulation and monitoring are needed toensure that novel traits are assessed for foodand environmental safety prior to commercia-lization. However, such prudent precautionsshould not be so restrictive as to present insur-mountable barriers to the commercialization ofhorticultural products that could providesignificant benefits to producers and con-sumers as well as to the environment. Currentregulations that consider cultivars developedusing recombinant DNA as a distinct categoryfrom those developed using other genetictechnologies, including wide crosses, proto-plast fusion or mutagenesis, markedly increasethe costs of development and testing
(Redenbaugh and McHughen, 2004). Asnoted above, the diversity of regulations andregulatory bodies is particularly burdensomefor commodities traded internationally, as mosthorticultural products are.
RESEARCH AGENDAS
The intelligent application of biotechnology iscompatible with and has much to contributeto agricultural and environmental sustaina-bility while bringing value to producers, dis-tributors and consumers. However, commer-cialization of such applications has been large-ly stymied to date, and additional research inboth scientific and policy arenas is needed toexpand opportunities for horticulturalbiotechnology. With that view in mind, wehave summarized some of the key researchand policy objectives for horticultural biotech-nology.
Research Objectives
New Technologies and Products
� Develop efficient transformation technolo-gies for many specialty crops
� Develop promoters for tissue-, develop-ment-, disease- and environment-specificgene expression
� Develop targeted gene-insertion techniquesto control the site of integration
� Develop a Generally Recognized As Safe(GRAS) set of methodologies that would notrequire characterization and registration ofindividual genetic insertion “events”
� Develop products having clear and signifi-cant benefits for consumers
Regulatory Process
� Develop methods to quantify potential risksassociated with individual species/trait com-binations
� Test product safety, potential for gene trans-fer to non-crop organisms, and the biologicaland environmental consequences of anysuch transfers
� Develop quantitative evidence on the totalbenefits and risks of biotech versus conven-tional technologies, including human andenvironmental health
� Quantify full economic costs of differentregulatory policies
Marketing and Adoption
� Model and measure the determinants ofconsumer demand for biotech foods andhow consumer attitudes change over time
� Model and measure the determinants of pro-ducer adoption of biotech products
� Model and measure the roles of food proces-sors and marketers in affecting farmer adop-tion and market acceptance of biotechproducts
Policy Objectives
New Technologies and Products
� Develop a collaborative public-technologyand intellectual-property resource
� Develop technology and trait licensingpackages to enable public and entrepreneu-rial commercialization of minor and subsis-tence crops
� Target increased public research fundingtoward application of genomics andbiotechnology in horticultural crops, inclu-ding methods that support traditionalbreeding
Regulatory Process
� Examine current regulations in light of accu-mulated experience and reduce redundantregulatory requirements when appropriateand justified
� Establish risk analysis protocols that treatbiotech and conventional technologies on acomparable basis
� Replace regulation based on a single gene-insertion “event” with a more generalapproval of species/trait combinations
� Create or extend governmental programs toassist small-market crops in data collectionrequired for the regulatory process
Marketing and Adoption
� Establish identity-preservation and channe-ling programs to allow co-existence ofdiverse market segments
� Establish practical thresholds for adventitiouspresence of approved biotech products tofacilitate international trade
� Provide documented scientific informationon the relative risks and benefits of biotech-nology for horticultural crops
FUTURE PROSPECTS
Even as the adoption of biotech field cropsincreases every year, biotech horticulturalproducts are struggling to emerge into themarketplace. There is no shortage of targetsand applications, particularly with respect topest management, where biotech crops coulddramatically reduce the high rates of pesticideuse in horticulture (Gianessi, 2004). However,it appears unlikely that additional biotech traitsproviding primarily grower benefits (so-calledinput traits) will be marketed in the near futurefor most horticultural crops (herbicide-tolerantturf grasses may be an exception). The proces-sor and distributor segments of the supplychain are unwilling to risk even slight con-sumer rejection, regardless of the benefits togrowers. Possible exceptions to this could besituations like that with papaya in Hawaii,where a disease or pest is so devastating thatthe entire industry is threatened and the onlyavailable solution is a biotech approach.Nutritionally improved horticultural productscould appeal to consumers and create demand
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that would lessen distributor risks. However,most targets for nutritional improvementrequire metabolic engineering of multiplegenes, which will need additional research toachieve. Testing requirements to obtain regu-latory approval for nutritionally enhancedproducts will likely also be higher than for cur-rent products that are substantially equivalentto their conventional counterparts withrespect to composition. Until such consumer-oriented products are available to open themarkets to biotech, tangible benefits forgrowers and for the environment from inputtraits are not likely to be realized.
Counterbalancing this grim picture for horti-cultural biotechnology are some positivedevelopments. Fundamental scientific advan-ces continue to occur at a rapid pace, and thegenomes of horticultural crops are beginningto be sequenced. Researchers and breeders inhorticultural crops will increasingly be able toaccess and apply the information being deve-loped in the more intensively studied modelplants like Arabidopsis, rice and maize. Publicinstitutions and foundations are collaboratingthrough PIPRA and other organizations tolower the intellectual property barriers forinternational agriculture and specialty crops(Delmer et al., 2003). The continuing adop-tion of biotech field crops is stimulating theestablishment of regulatory and biosafety pro-tocols around the world, and the EuropeanUnion is slowly beginning to relax its morato-rium on approvals of biotech crops. China’ssignificant investments in horticulturalbiotechnology, along with their huge internalmarket, will allow continued scientific andcommercial progress in that country (Huangand Rozelle, 2004). Nutritionally enhanced“foods for health,” such as canola and soy-bean oils with enhanced content of omega-3fatty acids (Ursin, 2003), are being developed,and if accepted by consumers, could open thedoor for acceptance of similar products in hor-ticultural commodities. A few ornamentalbiotech products are in the market, and addi-tional ones may face lower hurdles for accep-tance since they are not consumed. Thus,while the timeline for a significant impact ofbiotechnology on horticulture will be pushedback from earlier predictions, continuedresearch is creating products that will eventu-ally lead to acceptance by growers, proces-sors, distributors and consumers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This article is drawn largely, but not enti-rely, from material in a special issue ofCalifornia Agriculture that is available onthe web at http://californiaagriculture.ucop.edu/0402AMJ/toc.html. The ori-ginal material is copyrighted by theRegents of the University of California.
Kent J. Bradford Julian M. Alston
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
CONTACT
Kent J. Bradford, Department of Vegetable Crops, One Shields Avenue, University ofCalifornia, Davis, CA 95616, USA, email [email protected] M. Alston, Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, OneShields Avenue, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA, [email protected]
Kent J. Bradford is Director of theSeed Biotechnology Center andProfessor in the Department ofVegetable Crops, University of Cali-fornia, Davis.Julian M. Alston is Associate Directorfor Science and Agricultural Policy ofthe University of California Agri-cultural Issues Center and Professor inthe Department of Agricultural andResource Economics, University ofCalifornia, Davis.
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Rausser, G. and H. Ameden. 2004. Public-private partnerships needed in horticulturalresearch and development. Calif. Agric. 58(2):116-119.
Redenbaugh, K. and A. McHughen. 2004. Regulatory challenges reduce opportunities forhorticultural biotechnology. Calif. Agric. 58(2):106-115.
Ursin, V.M. 2003. Modification of plant lipids for human health: development of func-tional land-based omega-3 fatty acids. J. Nutr. 133:4271-4274.
CHRONICA HORTICULTURAE •VOL 44 • NUMBER 4 •2004 • 9
Caravaggio’s Fruit: A Mirror on BaroqueHorticulture
The star of Caravaggio (1571-1610) as amaster painter has never been higher. Hisinnovative artistry is recognized as the bridgebetween the Mannerist style typified byMichelangelo Buonarroti, Agnolo Bronzino,and Titian of the High Renaissance, with theBaroque splendor of Rubens and Rembrandt.His paintings and persona have entered popu-lar culture, his portrait and two of his workswere featured on the 100,000 lire banknote ofItaly and a movie has been made of his life.Interest in Caravaggio has been enhanced byfour current books; three of them biographies:Caravaggio by John T. Spike (2001), M: TheMan Who Became Caravaggio by Peter Robb(1998), Caravaggio by Catherine Puglisi(1998), and a recent work Secret Knowledgeby David Hockney (2001), proposing Cara-vaggio’s use of optical aids.
The life of Michelangelo Merisi, known to usas Caravaggio (Fig. 1), was short and intense,characterized by bouts of brawling, time in jail,banishment, and homicide. His paintings aretypified by a dramatic manipulation of light
Jules Janick
(chiaroscuro); reliance on human models,many with multiple appearances in his pain-tings; by a blatant homoerotic content (seePosner, 1971; Robb, 1988); direct paintingwithout preliminary drawings, a non-senti-mental approach to religious art, and an eerie“photorealism” that extends to portraiture,various objects including musical instruments,scores, and plant material. Caravaggio has leftfew personal records by his own hand but theinterpretations of his paintings by generationsof art historians, combined with recentlyunearthed archival information, provides a rich
history of the man and his time. They includeanalysis of the paintings including style andtechnique, psychological insights into the artistand subjects in the case of portraits, historicalanalysis of the period based on patrons, and ananalysis of religious meaning through thechoice of subject matter and symbolism. Thispaper takes a different approach. The dazzling“super-realism” of Caravaggio and the con-centration of fruit-images (equivalent to fin-ding a cache of contemporary photographs!)are here used to analyze the horticultural infor-mation of the period.
Figure 1. Michelangelo Merisi, knownas Caravaggio from a pastel portraitby Ottavio Leoni.
Figure 2. Paintings by Caravaggio with incidental pictures of fruits; A. Boy PeelingFruit; B. Self Portrait as Bacchus; C. Musicians; D. Boy Bitten by a Lizard; E. LutePlayer; F. Conversion of Mary Magdalen.
A
B
C
D
E
F
ISHS • 10
THE PAINTINGS WITH FRUIT
Various fruits appear in at least 11 differentpaintings dated from 1592 to 1603 and defi-nitely attributed to the Caravaggio. Theyinclude apple, cherry, citrus (flowers), cucum-ber, fig, gourd, grape, medlar, melon, pump-kin, peach, pear, plum, pomegranate, quince,and watermelon. Just as the figures inCaravaggio’s paintings were painted from life,so too were the fruits. Exact in detail theyinclude precise representations of diseasesymptoms, insect damage, and various abioticdefects. Fruits are scattered more or less inci-dentally in six early genre paintings (Fig. 2):Boy Peeling Fruit, 1592 (apple, fig, pear,peach, plum); Self Portrait as Bacchus, 1593(peach, grape); Musicians, 1595 (grape); BoyBitten by a Lizard, 1595 (cherry, apple); LutePlayer, 1596 (cucumber, pear, fig); andConversion of Mary Magdalen, 1595 (lemonflower). In five other paintings, an assemblageof fruits is a prominent part of the composition.These will be discussed in sequence, based onthe dates of origin (see box), followed by areview of each of the fruits.
Boy with a Basket of Fruit (1592)
This early genre painting by Caravaggio (Fig.3) is of a sensual young boy holding a hugebasket filled with fruit. The model has beenidentified as Mario Minniti, who appears inmany of the early works, and who became apainter in his own right. The basket, the mainfocus of the painting, contains a great manyfruits, all in nearly perfect condition and inclu-ding a bicolored peach with a bright red blush;four clusters of grapes, two black, one red, andone “white”; a ripe pomegranate split open,disgorging its red seeds; four figs, two of themdead-ripe and black, both split, and two light-colored; two medlars; three apples, two red,
one blushed and the other striped, and oneyellow with a russet basin and a scar; twobranches with small pears, one of them withfive yellow fruits with a bright red cheek andthe other, half-hidden, with small yellow,blushed fruits. There are also leaves showingvarious disorders: a prominent virescent grapeleaf with fungal spots and another with awhite insect egg mass resembling obliquebanded leaf roller (Choristoneura rosaceana),and peach leaves with various spots.Incongruous-ly, there are two sprigs with red-dish foliage, perhaps mint. While the displayof fruits is beautiful, it does not have thesuper-realism characteristic of some of thelater paintings.
Bacchus (1597)
The arresting painting of a young, flushedBacchus (Fig. 4) is one of the most famous bythe artist. It displays a porcelain dish of ripeand rotting fruit, but the face and torso of themodel, Mario Minniti, is the focal point. Thiswork is characterized by a new sense ofrealism and represents a substantial change instyle. The suggestion by both David Hockney(2001) and Robb (1998) of the use of a mir-ror or optical aids is supported by the fact thatthe goblet of red wine is in the left hand of themodel. The fruits include black, red, and whiteclusters of grapes; a bursting pomegranate;figs; a large green pear; three apples, onegreenish and one red with a codling moth(Carpocapsa pomonella) entrance hole, asmall, golden russet crab with two areas ofrot, likely a form of Botrysphaeria; and a half-rotten quince. The basket contains two figleaves both with a dorsal (abaxial) view and agrape leaf yellowing at the edge suggestive ofpotassium deficiency. The head of Bacchus iscrowned with clusters of black and whitegrapes and senescing leaves, one of which isturning red, perhaps an indication of crowngall, induced by Agrobacterium tumefaciens.
Supper at Emmaus (1601)
Supper at Emmaus is an extraordinary work,painted when Caravaggio was 30 (Fig. 5). Thescene depicts a miraculous post-Crucifixionevent (Luke 24:30) involving the discipleCleophas, the apostle Simon, an innkeeper,and a beardless stranger in the center (whohas just been recognized as the risen Christ),blessing a repast consisting of bread, achicken, white wine, water, and a marvelousbasket of fruits seemingly hovering precari-ously over the edge of the table. The picturehas some striking technical qualities. The useof perspective and foreshortening is startling:the seated Cleophas seems to move his chairand elbow into the observer’s space.However, there is a disturbing perspectiveerror (see Hockney, 2001) in which the distalright hand of Peter is larger than the proximalleft one, suggestive of the use of some type ofoptical aid consistent with the exceptionalrealism of the painting. Combining separate
views may have caused the perspectiveproblem. The figures are clearly portraits ofparticular people, and the fruit is not genericbut represents unique samples, purchasedfrom the market and forever preserved.
The fruits display an enormous amount of hor-ticultural information. The beautifully paintedwicker basket contains fall fruit, somewhatinappropriate for an Easter event, but provi-ding a clue to the date when the picture wasmade. The fruits are fully ripe and drawn pre-cisely from life with the imperfections onewould find in an “organic” production system- no insecticides, no fungicides - but sorelyneeded. There are three clusters of unble-mished grapes, two red and one white (gol-den) as well as grape leaves with fungal spots;three apples, two bicolored and one russet; aplum; and a quince with leaves attached to thespur; a ripe, splitting pomegranate with spotson the skin; and two small medlars. All of theapples show defects: one has a precise repre-sentation of a series of scab lesions caused bythe fungal pathogen Venturia inaequalis, onehas a wormhole (probably from a codlingmoth), and the russet apple shows a rottenspot, perhaps black rot. The pomegranate hasspots on the skin, and the plum is overripe andsplitting. The golden cluster of grapes is fullyripe and there is at least one split berry, whilethe black cluster is rather loose, suggestingpoor pollination; the leaves show fungal spots.The large quince and the small medlars areblemish-free. The prominent position of thefruit bowl is arresting and contrasts with theupended chicken behind it with upright legssuggesting rigor mortis. Symbolism has beenattributed to both the fruit and the chicken,but it is just as likely that Caravaggio was con-fidently showing off his extraordinary talent.
Still Life with a Basket of Fruit (1601)
This stunning still life (Fig. 6), with trompel’oeil realism, consists entirely of a basket offruit. Spike (2001) attributes it to 1596 whilePuglisi (1998) assigns it 1601, the same year asSupper at Emmaus, The 1601 date seems morelikely to me for a number of reasons, and Ihave assigned that date here. The fruit basketsin both Supper at Emmaus and Still Life with aBasket of Fruit are the same, both perchedprecariously on the edge of a table, but with adifferent collection of fruit (possibly excludingthe quince) that appears almost identical inboth paintings. (Could it be the same speci-men?) We will never know for certain but Isuggest this may have been a preparatorypainting for the larger Supper at Emmaus.Perhaps pleased with the result, Caravaggioadded it to the Supper at Emmaus as an after-thought. This basket contains a peach, a sum-mer fruit, suggesting that this image waspainted first. Six different fruits are visible. Theuppermost fruit is a good-sized, light-redpeach attached to a stem with wormholes inthe leaf resembling damage by oriental fruit
Figure 3. Boy with a Basket of Fruit.
CHRONICA HORTICULTURAE •VOL 44 • NUMBER 4 •2004 • 11
moth (Orthosia hibisci). Beneath it is a singlebicolored apple, shown from a stem perspec-tive with two insect entry holes, probablycodling moth, one of which shows secondaryrot at the edge; one blushed yellow pear withinsect predations resembling damage by leafroller (Archips argyospita); four figs, two whiteand two purple - the purple ones dead ripe andsplitting along the sides, plus a large fig leafwith a prominent fungal scorch lesion resem-bling anthracnose (Glomerella cingulata); anda single unblemished quince with a leafy spurshowing fungal spots. There are four clustersof grapes, black, red, golden, and white; thered cluster on the right shows several mum-mied fruit, while the two clusters on the lefteach show an overripe berry. There are twogrape leaves, one severely desiccated andshriveled while the other contains spots andevidence of an egg mass. In the right part ofthe basket are two green figs and a ripe blackone is nestled in the rear on the left. On thesides of the basket are two disembodiedshoots: to the right is a grape shoot with twoleaves, both showing severe insect predationsresembling grasshopper feeding; to the left is afloating spur of quince or pear.
Still Life with Fruit on a Stone Ledge (1603)
This gorgeous painting (Fig. 7), a recent attri-bution, consists of a collection of tree fruits andcucurbits on a slab that resembles one in a star-tling 1602 religious work, the Entombment ofChrist. There is a basket of fruits containingapple, grape, peach, pear, and plum, with twopomegranates. The basket resembles the onesin the 1601 paintings; Caravaggio uses his stu-dio props over and over. The apple has worm-holes; clearly blemish-free apples were rare.Eight figs (three light and five purple), twoshowing wounds of red flesh, are on fig leavesoutside of the basket. Most prominent are ninelarge fruits in the right of the painting, whichrepresent four different genera of the gourdfamily (Cucurbitaceae) as identified by HarryParis (personal communication). There arethree round striped melons (Cucumis melo)with yellowish flesh in the foreground, one ofwhich is burst open and from which a slice hasbeen cut. Two of these melons show thickunfurrowed peduncles and one shows thebeginning of abscission or separation (slipping)from the fruit. To the right are three smoothdark fruit, one of which has been slicedrevealing the red flesh of a watermelon(Citrullus lanatus). In the background is a largegreen and yellow striped fruit with a very thickfurrowed stem that is clearly a pumpkin(Cucurbita pepo). Most unusual are two verylarge, serpentine bottle gourds (Lagenariasiceraria).
THE FRUITS
A total of at least 17 different fruits are depic-ted in the standard paintings attributed to
Caravaggio, more if some questionable attri-butions are included (Fig. 8 and 9). Many areclearly different cultivars and a number showvarious biotic and abiotic defects. Viewedtogether, they represent a unique perspectiveon baroque horticulture between 1592 and1603.
Apple (Malus x domestica)
There is great diversity in the apples painted byCaravaggio based on size, color, and presenceof russet. Some of the apples resemble moderncultivars; they are attractive with red stripingand yellow ground color. Insect and diseaseproblems are clearly evident (Fig. 5B). Codlingmoth seems to be a severe problem and entryholes are evident in many of the fruits. Applescab is shown in one fruit; the disease is still thebane of apple growers. Apples have a continu-ous tradition of representation in Italian pain-tings since ancient Roman times and clearlywere and continue to be a favorite Italian fruit.Although there are a number of small-fruited,bitter species native to Europe, the domestic
apple was imported to Europe from centralAsia in antiquity and was well known inancient Rome.
Cherry (Prunus avium)
The painting Boy Bitten by a Lizard (1595)includes both black and light-red cherries.There is archeological evidence of the cherry inEurope 7000 years ago. Theophrastus was thefirst to describe the cherry and refers to it askerasus after the town of Kerasun in ancientPontus on the Black Sea. By Roman times,cherry was a common fruit described by Virgil(first century BCE) and Pliny the Elder (firstcentury CE) but generally as a product of wildtrees.
Citrus (Citrus species)
Citrus is represented in Caravaggio’sConversion of Mary Magdalen (1599). One ofCaravaggio’s popular models, a courtesanname Fillide Melandroni, born in 1581, is hol-ding citrus blossoms close to her bosom, asymbol of bridal fidelity. The flower, based onpigmentation of the unopened buds, appears
Figure 4. Bacchus.
ISHS • 12
to be lemon (F. Gmitter, personal communica-tion).
In Boy Peeling Fruit (1592), the first pictureconceded by all to be by the hand ofCaravaggio (Fig. 1A), the fruit being peeledhas been described by Gregori (1985) as eithera pear, apple, or bergamot (bergamotto inItalian, beramote in French, a citrus hybridinvolving sour orange and perhaps acid lime(Reuther et al., 1967) and whose rind oil isused as the base of cologne (eau de cologne)and for other perfumery products. However,this fruit is unlikely to be a bergamot, which isdescribed as lemon yellow; furthermore, pee-ling it does not seem like a reasonable activitysince the bergamot is inedible due to extremeacidity. A pear is most likely the fruit as statedby Giulio Mancini, a contemporary and friendof Caravaggio who wrote about the paintingin 1617-1621. Bergamot is often pear-shapedand that may explain the confusion.
A painting of disputed attribution, Still Lifewith Flowers, Fruits, and Vegetables (Fig. 8) inthe Galleria Borghese in Rome, contains alarge citron (Citron medica) that looks verysimilar to citron painted by Bartolomeo Bimbiin the 18th century (Consiglioi Nazionale DelleRicerche, 1982) as well as an orange. Thecitron, the first citrus introduced to the West,was frequently used in Roman mosaics torepresent the winter season (Parrish, 1994)The citron is considered a sacred tree to Jewswho know the fruit as the etrog, still used forthe celebration of Sukkot, the Feast of theTabernacles. The orange is a late introductionto Europe, introduced in the Mediterraneanbasin by the Arabs.
Cucumber (Cucumis sativus)
A single cucumber peeks out of the paintingLute Player (1596) in Fig. 2E and is very simi-
lar in aspect to one found in an early still lifesometimes attributed to Caravaggio (Fig. 8).The cucumber was long a favorite fruit inRoman antiquity. Pliny the Elder in the firstcentury relates that the emperor Tiberius wasso fond of out-of-season cucumbers that heforced its growth in a specularium, an earlygreenhouse using mirrorstone (mica).
Fig (Ficus indica)
Caravaggio is attracted to figs and displaysthem in five paintings. At least four differenttypes are shown: green, light tan, reddish, andblack. Black figs are often shown split at thesuture. Most figs are shown unblemished butthere is evidence of leaf damage by variousinsects. There were many cultivars of figs inItaly in the 17th century and Bartolomeo Bimbi(1648-1720), names and paints 33 of them inone painting (Consiglio Nazionale delleRicerche, 1982). The figs painted byCaravaggio are similar to three figs ‘CosagnoloLungo’ (black), ‘Lardaiolo vero’ (white) and‘Corboliere Lunghi’ (red), illustrated in an
and is famously represented in the festoonspainted by Giovanni da Udina surroundingRaphael’s frescos of Cupid and Psyche in theVilla Farnesina (1517-1519) (Janick, 2004).
Grape (Vitis vinifera)
Grape is found in six of Caravaggio’s paintingsin the form of fruit, leaves, and wine. Manycultivars are displayed and often in the samepicture, with colors ranging from black to va-rious shades of red, green, and amber. Most ofthe clusters are in excellent condition; defectsinclude an overripe berry and mummies. Bothred and white wine are displayed. The chang-ing color of senescing leaves is featured alongwith insect damage; two leaves contain insectegg masses. Some leaves show evidence ofnutritional deficiency symptoms. Grape hasbeen cultivated in Italy since antiquity and isone of the most ancient of fruit crops.
Medlar (Mespilus germanica)
Medlars are included in two paintings ofCaravaggio and all are small and appear simi-lar. Cultivated by the Assyrians, the fruit was
Figure 5. A. Supper at Emmaus; B. Close-up of fruit basket. undated manuscript by P.A. Micheli (1679-1713), the first director of the BotanicalGarden of Florence. The fig is native to theMediterranean area, mentioned in an Egyptianstele about 2700 BCE, commonly referred to inthe Hebrew Bible, and widely cited by Greekand Roman agricultural writers.
Gourd (Lagenaria siceraria)
The two enormous, serpentine fruits in the1603 still life (Fig 7) are bottle gourds native toAfrica, but also found in Asia and theAmericas. Lagenaria was known to the ancientEgyptians and probably reached Europe fromAfrica at a very early date. The Italians mayhave selected these long fruited types, bulbousat the stylar end, and known today as cucuzzi.When very young they are consumed as issummer squash (Cucurbita pepo). This fruitwas recorded in Europe in the 15th century,
AB
CHRONICA HORTICULTURAE •VOL 44 • NUMBER 4 •2004 • 13
introduced to Greece and was referred to byTheophrastus. The fruit is disappearing frommost European markets but can still found inItaly, Germany, and France. The medlar mustbe fermented (bletted) to be enjoyed.Shakespeare ridiculed the fruit in a famousquote:
I’ll graff it with you and then I shall graff itwith a medlar; then it will be the earliest fruiti’ the country; for you’ll be rotten ere you behalf ripe, and that’s the right vertue of themedlar. (As You Like It, III.2).
Melon (Cucumis melo)
The three melons (melone in Italian) shown inthe 1603 painting Still Life with Fruit on aStone Ledge (Fig. 7) resemble heirloom culti-vars of the Cantalupensis group (the rockmelon or the true cantaloupe). These arerounded in shape and often have prominentribs. ‘Noir des Carme’, named for theCarmelite monks who cultivated it in France, issimilar in appearance although the flesh is adeeper orange than the one painted byCaravaggio. A photograph of ‘Noir des Carme’in Amy Goldman’s Melons for the PassionateGrower (2002) shows this melon burstingwhen ripe, as does the one painted byCaravaggio, and also shows the remains of anabscission zone in the peduncle. Robb (1998)misidentifies this fruit as marrow, which is aform of pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo) with a clubrather than a round shape, but this designationis unlikely since the shape is round, and thepeduncles lack the furrowing that is definitivefor this species. In Caravaggio’s painting thewrinkled peduncle is unusually thick, a featurenot unknown in melons, but is not 5-ribbed asis Cucurbita moschata or C. pepo. TheCantalupensis group appears to originate inCentral Asia and, according to Amy Goldman(2002), was taken by missionaries to the gar-dens at Cantalupo, the papal country home
Figure 7. Still Life with Fruit on a Stone Ledge.
Figure 6. Still Life of a Basket of Fruit.
near Rome from which it derives it names. Itwas known to be exported to France in 1495and from there found its way to the rest ofEurope. In Caravaggio’s Still Life with Fruit ona Stone Ledge, two of the three melons aredark green and one is yellow, suggestinggenetic segregation.
Peach (Prunus persica)
Caravaggio illustrates the peach in at least fourpaintings with a remarkable diversity in color.Insect damage, as well as brown rot incited byMonilinia laxa, was clearly a problem then asit is today. This fruit has been popular in Italysince antiquity and was introduced from Chinavia Central Asia. The binomial Prunus persicasuggests that it was introduced from Persia,obviously a way station. A painting from Pom-peii shows large, green fruit with yellowingflesh and a freestone pit (Jashemski, 1979).
Pear (Pyrus communis)
Pears are found in six of Caravaggio’s pain-tings. A great number of types are displayedincluding yellow, green, and red with size vary-ing from small to very large. The small brightred ones in Boy with a Basket of Fruit resem-ble ‘Moscadella’ (‘Moscatelle’) types describedby Bimbi as well as the Micheli manuscript,and also resemble one of the pears in thefamous painting by Vicenzo Campi entitledFruit Seller (1580) as well as paintings byGiovanna Garzoni (Trkulja et al., 2000). Thereis evidence of leaf roller damage on one yellowpear. The soft-fleshed European pear (Pyruscommunis), native in Europe, North Africa,and Asia Minor, has been considered part ofthe cultural heritage of Europe. The pear hasbeen consumed since prehistoric times anddried slices have been unearthed in Swiss cavedwellings of the Ice Age. The first literary men-tion of the pear is found in Homer’s epic poemThe Odyssey and is included as one of the“gifts of the gods” which grew in the leg-endary gardens of Alcinöus. They are men-tioned by Theophras-tus and the Roman agri-cultural writers; Pliny the Elder writes exten-sively of pear, mentioning many types. Thepear is found in a number of religious paintingsof the Renaissance; the most famous isGiovanni Bellini’s Madonna of the Pear. Pearsstill find a large place in Italian horticulturealthough the most popular pear grown in Italyis now a French cultivar called ‘Abbé Fétel’.
Plum (Prunus domestica)
European plums are found in two paintings byCaravaggio. A greengage plum (‘Reine-Claude’) is one of the fruits in Boy PeelingFruit (1592), and purple plums resembling‘Damson’ are found in Still Life with Fruit ona Ledge (1601). European plums are thoughtto be a hybrid between Prunus cerasifera andPrunus spinosa, which originated in Iran and
ISHS • 14
Asia Minor and spread across Europe. Theyhave been known in Europe since antiquity,and Pliny the Elder described 12 different plumcultivars in the first century. Greengage plumsare still grown.
Pomegranate (Punica granatum)
A prominent crown-like calyx characterizes thepomegranate, sometimes known as theChinese apple. This ancient fruit is a favoritesubject of Caravaggio, who includes it in fourpaintings. All but one of these fruits are shownsplit open to highlight the seeds enclosed bybrilliant red pulp. There are two skin colors, redand light brown. Pomegranate appears tohave originated in Iran, with archeologicalremains found at Nimrud. It spread throughoutthe Mideast including Egypt where it wasknown 4000 years ago. It is referred to in theHebrew Bible and was used for juice and wine.It is presumed to have been introduced intoEurope by the Carthaginians, and this is thebasis of its Latin name Punicus. It is describedby Theophrastus; Pliny the Elder considered itone of the most valuable of fruits both for itsbeauty and medicinal properties.
Pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo)
Caravaggio has painted a single striped, ribbedpumpkin very similar to some kinds nowgrown in Europe and Asia. This fruit is knownin the United States, depending on its shape,either as pumpkin (if fruits are round) orsquash (non-round); as citrouille and courge inFrench; and zucca in Italian. Shakespeareabout 1590 derogatorily compares the rotundFalstaff to this fruit:
We’ll use this unwholesome humidity, thisgross watery Pumpion (Merry Wives ofWindsor, III.3).
Cucurbita pepo is very polymorphic and vari-ous cultivated types have been selected (Paris2001), including Halloween, pie, and oil-seedpumpkins, and scallop, acorn, vegetable mar-
row, crookneck, cocozelle, straightneck, andzucchini squash. Native to southern NorthAmerica, the species was introduced intoEurope in the early 1500s and was rapidlycommercialized. The German botanist Fuchsincluded images of the pumpkin in De HistoriaStirpium (1542) and by 1566, ribbed fruitsappear in a market scene painting (Markt-tafereel op het Land) by Joachim Beuckelaar.
Quince (Cydonia oblonga)
Quince was clearly familiar to Caravaggio, forhe paints it at least three times, and each timeas a relatively large fruit as it is known today.In two paintings the fruits are unblemished,although in one example, the leaves show
spots, and in another the fruits are half rotten.The quince, native to western Asia, is anancient fruit known in Mesopotamian cultures.The name cydonia is derived from Cydonea,now Canea (Khaniá), a city in Crete, which,according to Pliny the Elder, was the origin ofquince. Although once widely admired, quincehas lost popularity, probably because they areacid and astringent, thereby restricting theiruse to preserves, but there are types grown inTurkey that are nonacid and can be consumedfresh.
Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus)
Three luscious watermelons, called cocomeroin Italian, are illustrated in the 1603 still life. OfAfrican origin, watermelon has been knownsince antiquity and is mentioned in theHebrew Bible (Numbers 11:5). It was intro-duced to India about 800 and to China about1100. The Arabs brought it to Spain, fromwhich it reached Italy; it is mentioned inEuropean herbals of the 1500s. Watermelonsbecame popular subjects in 17th-century stilllifes.
FRUITS AS METAPHOR
There are many ways to interpret the fruitsimages of Caravaggio. Artistically they can beviewed for their beauty or for the painter’s skillor style. Art historians are prone to interpretthem symbolically including religious, philo-sophical, or erotic overtones. Horticulturallythey can be viewed in the context of geneticdiversity, biotic associations, or managementpractices. That these interpretations are notmutually exclusive, can be shown in an analy-sis of the painting Still Life with Fruits on a
Figure 9. Still Life with Flowers and Fruits, attribution.
Figure 8. Still Life with Flowers, Fruits and Vegetables, attribution.
CHRONICA HORTICULTURAE •VOL 44 • NUMBER 4 •2004 • 15
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Vasari, Georgio. 1550, 1568. Giovanni daUdine, Painter (1494-1564). In: TheLives of the Most Excellent PaintersSculptors and Architects, Florence.
Von Lates. 1995. Caravaggio’s peachesand academic puns. Word & Image11(1)55-60.
Stone Ledge (Fig. 7). Artistically and horticul-turally this painting represents a stunning arrayof temperate fruits and cucurbits brilliantlydepicted. Art historians have been quick tointerpret both religious and erotic overtones.Thus, J.T. Spike (2001) assumes the stoneledge is an altar table, seeing the pome-granates as a Christian symbol of the resurrec-tion, associating the grape and vine leaveswith the Eucharist, the apples as a symbol oforiginal sin, and the wormholes and otherblemishes as symbols of the transience ofhuman life. At the same time he notes that thepainting abounds with visual puns of eroticcontent, a view shared by Peter Robb (1998)and Catherine Puglisi (1998). I was skeptical,but an analysis of a vast literature on theerotic imagery of fruit paintings byRenaissance artists (see Vasari, 1550 onGiovanni da Udina; Morel, 1985; Von Lates,1995; Janick, 2004) leaves no doubt thatCaravaggio has used subtle erotic doubleentendres in this painting.
I also suggest that the fruits pictured byCaravaggio might be of help in authenticatingthe attribution of two disputed works; Still Lifewith Flowers, Fruits, and Vegetables (Fig. 8)and Still Life with Flowers and Fruits (Fig. 9).These two paintings had been in the collectionof Giueseppi Cesari (Cavalieri d’Arpino),1568-1640, who employed the youngCaravaggio to paint flowers and fruits.Whether they are by Caravaggio alone, or bya team including Caravaggio, has been deba-ted, but the suggestion of collaboration for astudio commission is not beyond the pale,despite some compositional and style diffe-rences from his known fruit paintings. Theinclusion of apple, cherry, cucumber, fig,gourd, grape, lemon, medlar, melon, peach,pear, plum, pomegranate, pumpkin, andquince is consistent with Caravaggio’s laterworks; included here are also arbutus, citron,hazelnut, orange, strawberry, walnuts as wellas vegetables such as artichoke, bean, cab-bage, cardoon, celery, eggplant, onion,parsnip, and tomato. Melon, pumpkin, andgourd are found in both Still Life of Flowers,Fruits, and Vegetables (Fig. 8), and Still Lifewith Fruits on a Stone Ledge (Fig. 7). Interes-tingly a partial representation of a cucumber(Fig. 8) is almost identical to, but a mirrorimage of, the one found in The Lute Player(Fig. 2E). In my opinion, these and other simi-larities such as the ubiquitous basket and thevases of flowers support the assumption thatthe young Caravaggio had a hand in thesepaintings, for they presage his later work.
Caravaggio’s images of fruits tell us muchabout baroque horticulture. They underscorethe rich diversity of fruits available in the fruitmarkets of Rome and the genetic diversitywithin individual species, especially noted forapples, pears, and peaches. They demonstratethat diseases and pests were a problem then asthey are now, describing a horticulture in
desperate need of pest control. The most star-tling fact is that the fruits of 1600 surelylooked as luscious as these same fruits do atpresent, 400 years later. Their similarity topresent day cultivars suggests in many casesthere have been only trivial changes in the last400 years, and in some cases 2000 years.
PAINTINGS BY
CARAVAGGIO
[Dates Based by Puglisi (1998) or Spike(2001)]Boy Peeling Fruit, 1592. Philips, LondonBoy with a Basket of Fruit, 1593.
Galleria Borghese, RomeSelf-Portrait as Bacchus, 1593. Galleria
Borghese, RomeMusicians, 1595. Metropolitan Museum
of Art, New YorkBoy Bitten by a Lizard, 1595. National
Gallery, LondonLute Player, 1596. Hermitage, Saint
PetersburgBacchus, 1597. Galleria degli Uffize,
FlorenceConversion of Mary Magdalen, 1599.
Detroit Institute of Arts, DetroitSupper at Enmaus, 1601. National
Gallery, LondonStill Life of a Basket of Fruit, 1601.
cana, Vatican CityStill Life with Fruit on a Stone Ledge,
1603. Private collection
Prof. Jules JanickJames Troop Distinguished Professor ofHorticulture at Purdue University, WestLafayette, Indiana, USA is a BoardMember of ISHS and Director of ISHSPublications.email: [email protected]
Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) is a peren-nial rhizomatous herb, the underground rhi-zome of which is the source of an importantspice. It belongs to Zingiberaceae, which is adistinct family of aromatic tropical plants thatyield spices, dyes, perfumes and medicines.Other well-known members of this familyinclude turmeric and cardamom, while a num-ber of ornamental species are cultivated fortheir showy flowers. The main distinguishingfeatures of the genus Zingiber are the longcurved anther appendages embracing thestyle, the 3-lobed lip, of which the side lobesare staminodes and the relatively large bracts,each with a single flower and a non-tubularbracteole. Z. officinale is a slender plant; 30-100 cm tall, with a robust branched rhizomeborne horizontally near the surface of the soiland bearing leafy shoots close together.
Z. officinale is unknown in the wild statealthough it is considered to have originated inSoutheast Asia. It has been cultivated in Indiaand China since ancient times, usually as anannual. Ginger forms an essential ingredient inmany Asian dishes and traditional medicineswhere distinction is made between fresh anddried rhizome. The aromatic oils provide a dis-tinctive odour and pleasant sweet-lemonyaroma. The most common, zingiberene, isclaimed to be helpful for digestion and flatu-
Production of lychee (also known as litchi)in China has risen almost ten fold in the lastdecade to 1.5 million tonnes and is poised toclimb as high as 2.5 millions tonnes in the nextfew years. The result has been a market disas-ter as prices have plummeted. As a result theChinese government has banned the plantingof any more lychee trees and banks haveceased lending money to farmers. Once a treereaches full size it can continue producing forcenturies; a few lychee trees in western
Guandong Province claimed to be 1,200 yearsold are still bearing. Lychees are hard to exportbecause they spoil quickly although there hasbeen some export to the United States andother overseas markets by air or by sea inrefrigerated shipping containers. Some lycheesare canned but the demand for the processedproduct is negligible despite its refreshingtaste. The lychee, long a symbol of China hasbeen losing its appeal there. For example, acanned lychee-flavored drink sold across the
nation for many years has been losing marketshare to more fashionable drinks such as CocaCola. Despite the overproduction in China,lychee trials and plantings are underway in alarge part of the subtropical world. Lychee(Litchi chinensis) is a sapindaceous fruit and isclosely elated to longan (Dimocarpus longan)and the tropical rambutan (Nephelium lap-paceum).
The Australian Ginger IndustryMike Smith
lence. The oleoresins account for the pun-gency, which provides most of the medicinalvalue of ginger. Most common are the gin-gerols, which are largely responsible for theanti-inflammatory, antinauseant and antioxi-dant effects. There are also components of thespice with antiviral activity and zingibain is apowerful protein-digesting enzyme.
WORLD PRODUCTION
Ginger has been used as a spice and medicinein India and China since ancient times, wasknown to the Greeks and Romans, and gene-rally throughout Europe by the tenth century.Ginger was probably among the first vegeta-tively cultivated plants. Today it can be foundin most tropical countries. India, China,Thailand, Australia, Fiji, Jamaica, Brazil andNigeria are well-known producers. Ginger pro-duction, exports and imports of the top 5countries as compared to Australia are shownin Table 1.
Most of the world trade in ginger is as a driedspice, however fresh rhizomes are also traded.Australia is major world supplier of high quali-ty sugar-coated and preserved ginger. It is esti-mated that although confectionery gingerconstitutes less than 3% of the world trade (byvolume), it is important as a value-addedproduct and earns a much higher rate of returncompared to the fresh or dried rhizomes.
Fresh rhizomes of ‘Queensland’ ginger.Rhizomes, both fresh and dried, are thesource of an important spice and medicine.
Other significant processors and exporters ofconfectionery ginger products include China,Fiji and Thailand.
THE AUSTRALIAN INDUSTRY
Although ginger has been grown in India andChina since ancient times, the Australian pio-neering farmers established a viable industryonly last century. The ginger grown commer-cially in Australia is dominated by one species,Zingiber officinale, and one cultivar,
CHRONICA HORTICULTURAE •VOL 44 • NUMBER 4 •2004 • 17
‘Queensland’. The Australian ginger industryis mechanised, standardised and centralisedwith approximately half sold on the fresh mar-ket and the other half processed.Approximately 40% of the world’s supply ofconfectionery ginger is processed and sold by
one company, Buderim Ginger Limited onQueensland’s Sunshine Coast, just over anhour north of Brisbane.
Today, the Australian ginger industry is valuedat more than US$40 million focused verymuch on exports and the production of supe- rior quality ginger products. Although there
are records of ginger growing in far northQueensland as early as the 1870s, the originsof the present industry are much closer to thestate capital, Brisbane. It is believed the firstginger came to the Buderim plateau fromChina in 1916 when a Brisbane merchantbrought back some rhizome-pieces in hispocket and gave them to his close friendArthur Burnett, who was a Buderim farmer. Atthat time almost all of the ginger used inAustralia was imported from China and wasused as a dried, ground spice in biscuits, cakesand for making ginger beer.
Arthur Burnett distributed it to other growersin the district, and further experimentation inlocal kitchens led to development of other usesfor the rhizome. Beryl Crosby and others dis-covered that by boiling and reboiling the gin-ger, and adding a lot of sugar and storing inairtight jars, a very satisfying sweet could bemade. So in fact it was these women whowere the true pioneers of the crystallised gin-ger we enjoy and know today as ‘Buderim gin-ger’ and which is sold around the world.
The original local ginger growers marketedtheir crop through Brisbane merchants but itwas not until imports of ginger from Chinawere disrupted during World War II that a co-operative was formed and the first processingfacility built in the centre of Buderim Townshipto supply the Australian market. The factorydeveloped the standard of its processing andfinished product to the extent that in 1968 theBuderim Ginger Co-operative won anAustralian export award. The Co-operative isnow a public company and Buderim GingerLimited continues to show leadership and haswon other awards in export, marketing and
Production Exports Imports
Country (tonnes) Country (tonnes) Country (tonnes)
India 275,000 China 200,378 Japan 97,740
China 258,263 Thailand 26,908 USA 21,115
Indonesia 151,000 India 8,531 India 17,693
Nigeria 110,000 Indonesia 7,470 Korea 15,077
Nepal 90,000 Brazil 5,844 Malaysia 13,613
Australia 10,000 Australia 3,000 Australia 800
World 1,034,928 World 274,823 World 254,099
Table 1. Production, exports and imports of the top 5 countries as comparedto Australia.
FAOSTAT (2004)
A field of ginger approximately 5 months from planting and nearing early harvest.Maximum yields are obtained in well-drained friable soils using high inputs of goodquality water, fertiliser and organic matter.
Harvest Time (SE Queensland) Yield (tonnes/ha)
Early Late February-Early March 12-50 (average 30)
1st Late April 20-50 (average 35)
2nd Late Mid June-Early August 38-75 (average 45)
Table 2. Ginger yield at various harvest times.
Ginger at the second late harvest andafter the tops have died and beenremoved. Rhizomes are mechanicallydug and deposited on the surface andthen placed in bins by hand for trans-port to the packing shed or factory.
ISHS • 18
Ginger is sorted for quality and graded to size in the factory prior to the production ofsuperior quality confectionery products.
2000-2003 New value added opportunities for natural DPI&F, Horticultureherapeutic products in the ginger industry Australia Ltd (HAL)
1992-2002 Rhizome and fibre development in early harvest DPI&F, University ofginger Queensland
1998-2001 Overcoming seed quality problems in the ginger Biological Cropindustry Protection Pty Ltd, HAL
1994-2001 Developing tetraploid ginger varieties DPI&F, HAL
Table 3. Recent ginger industry funded research projects.
Havenglaze Pty Ltd, commenced operations inCaboolture, Queensland, in 2001.
Around 25 growers currently constitute theAustralian industry with approximately 150hectares under cultivation in southeastQueensland (centred 26° 25’S). Ginger pro-duction in Australia is a capital and labour-intensive industry and maximum yields areobtained in well-drained friable coastal soilsusing high inputs of good quality water, fer-tiliser and organic matter. A high capital outlayis incurred in irrigation, specialised plantingand harvesting equipment, and planting mate-rials. Planting of 60 gram seed-pieces occursfrom late August through to mid October inraised beds with approximately 7-10 tonnesbeing required to plant a hectare. Carefulattention to irrigation is essential to preventsunburn of newly developed shoots and toprevent water stress, as both will reduce thefinal yield. The majority of the crop is harves-ted in February/March, another portion inApril/May and the balance in June/Julyonwards (Table 2).
By February, ginger farms are covered with adense mass of vegetation to a height of about1 m while under the ground the young rhi-zomes have developed into large clumps ofodd-shaped “hands”. Regular crop surveysmonitor the growth in each patch, and sam-ples are sent to the processor for hand gradingto determine the relative extent of fibre deve-lopment. It is important at early harvest tomaximise the recovery of tender rhizome (42-35% fibre-free) that is used for confectioneryginger. By May, the plants have reached about85% of their ultimate size and the content ofoils and oleoresins are at their highest point inthe growing cycle. These rhizomes are driedand sent to specialist processors for use inflavourings, essences and fragrances. The finalharvest commences in June, by which time theplants are fully-grown with the green topsstarting to die off. Most rhizomes from the lateharvest are retained and treated for next sea-son’s crop and the balance are dried for theinternational spice trade.
Depending on the processor’s sales forecastsfor the next year’s trading, quotas are issued tothe growers for the three harvests. Growersplant according to processor needs and extraginger can be planted for the fresh market.This arrangement ensures that production andmarketing are conducted in an orderly fashionand Australian ginger growers are highlyorganised and efficient.
The success of the Australian ginger industryhas been underpinned by sound research andwork carried out by staff from the Departmentof Primary Industries and Fisheries,Queensland (DPI&F), the University ofQueensland, the Queensland University ofTechnology and the Commonwealth Scientificand Industrial Organisation (CSIRO) (Table 3).It was Geoff Shrapnel of the Ginger Growers’
tourism. Due to space constraints in the origi-nal factory, a modern factory was built in 1980
in Yandina and expanded into a major touristcomplex in 1985. Another processor,
A new tetraploid ginger variety was developed by DPI&F staff using colchicine applied toin vitro shoot cultures and was released to the industry as ‘Buderim Gold’. The tetraploidwas found to produce a rhizome with significantly larger rhizome sections as compared tothe diploid industry standard, ‘Queensland’. Larger rhizome sections mean greater reco-very of premium sized confectionery ginger in the factory from the early harvest crop.
CHRONICA HORTICULTURAE •VOL 44 • NUMBER 4 •2004 • 19
Co-operative Association who realised thatspecific research, not trial and error methods,was essential to the development of theindustry. In instigating a research levy ongrowers in 1963, he pointed out that Stateand Federal Governments were prepared tohelp industries that were prepared to helpthemselves. The main aims for research havebeen to increase yield; to contain or reduceproduction costs; to produce a quality,processed product that can compete on theoverseas markets and to make processingmore efficient. To accomplish the strategy ofimproving profitability of the ginger industry,research embraces field trials to increase pro-duction through improved planting, nutritionand irrigation practices; controlling pests anddiseases; genetic improvement and selectionof superior cultivars; farm mechanisation andthe effects of factory mechanisation and com-puterisation on ginger processing. Today theAustralian ginger industry has some of themost efficient producers and processors in theworld.
Dr. Mike Smith is Principal Scientist withthe Department of Primary Industries &Fisheries (DPI&F), Maroochy ResearchStation, Nambour 4560, Queensland,Australia,email: [email protected]
Tropical Africa is a vast area extending fromMauritania and Sudan in the North to Namibiaand Madagascar in the South, encompassing45 countries and 2 overseas territories with apopulation of about 625 million. In this areaover 800 plant species are consumed as vege-table. Many of the circa 140 cultivatedvegetable species and almost all of the wildones are indigenous in tropical Africa; severalof the major cultivated species, e.g. tomato,onion, capsicum pepper, kale, carrot andcucumber are exotics and were introduced inhistorical or colonial times. They are graduallybecoming traditional, which results in nume-rous landraces. Although less important inquantities consumed than the major cultivatedspecies, wild vegetables play an important rolein rural communities; they are often collectedwhile weeding fields or from fallow land.Some wild vegetables, however, are moreimportant and are even traded internationally.
Gerard Grubben and Leo Oyen
At present, this vast biodiversity is erodingbecause of increasing popularity of high yiel-ding cultivars replacing landraces in e.g. toma-to, pepper, onion and African eggplant (Fig.1). The vast R&D efforts focused on thesewestern vegetables make it difficult for betteradapted but lower yielding traditional ones tocompete. This process will accelerate sincesome Western seed companies have startedbreeding locally important vegetables, inclu-ding a few indigenous ones. Loss of biodiver-sity of wild vegetables is caused by deforesta-tion and degradation of the natural vegeta-tion. Moreover, several wild vegetables arebecoming overexploited and urgently needresearch to accelerate domestication. For otherwild vegetables, the popularity is decreasingbecause harvesting is time consuming, makingthem more expensive than cultivated ones.Other reasons for disappearance of wildspecies are the dwindling knowledge of wild
Figure 1. Biodiversity in a single fieldof Solanum aethiopicum - Africaneggplant in Côte d’Ivoire.
THE WORLD OF HORTICULTURETHE WORLD OF HORTICULTURE
ISHS • 20
food among the younger generations, thedecline of intercropping in favor of sole crop-ping and better weed control thus fewer edi-ble weeds.
For market vegetables, unavailability ofimproved healthy seed, high prices, limitedchoice and poor availability of fertilizers andpesticides, combined with a great gap in tech-nical know-how result in low yield levels.Compared to South-East Asia or LatinAmerica, and apart from a few more advancedareas, vegetable production in tropical Africais lagging behind in all aspects of thevegetable chain, from producer to market andconsumer. To narrow the knowledge gap aninternational programme named PlantResources of Tropical Africa or PROTA hasbeen started, mapping all existing biodiversityand setting up a database of the useful plantsof tropical Africa for researchers, extensionists,trainers and policy makers.
WHAT IS PROTA?
Plant Resources of Tropical Africa is an inter-national programme based jointly atWageningen, the Netherlands and Nairobi,Kenya. Although an independent foundation,it is firmly rooted in a number of research andeducation institutes. The PROTA Office inWageningen is hosted by WageningenUniversity and coordinates the activities of thePROTA Network Europe in which currentlyalso Agropolis, Montpellier, France, and RoyalBotanic Gardens, Kew, United Kingdom par-ticipate. The office is also responsible for theeditorial and publication work. The PROTAOffice in Nairobi, located on the premises ofthe World Agroforestry Centre, coordinatesthe activities of six PROTA Regional Officescovering all of Tropical Africa and the IndianOcean Islands and also covering a broad rangeof subjects. These Regional Offices are part oflocal research and education institutes: CentreNational de Semences Forestières (CNSF),Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso; Centre Nationalde la Recherche Scientifique et Technologique(CENAREST), Libreville, Gabon; ForestryResearch Institute of Ghana (FORIG), Kumasi,Ghana; Parc Botanique et Zoologique deTsimbazaza (PBZT), Antananarivo,Madagascar; National Herbarium and BotanicGardens of Malawi (NHBGM), Zomba,Malawi; Makerere University (MU), Kampala,Uganda. Apart from the formal network, anextensive network of authors, editors andassociate editors is being developed.Hundreds of ethno-botanists, taxonomists,agronomists and crop specialists supported bytechnical specialists for the various groups ofplants are involved in data collection andwriting. In Africa, the official administrativelanguage is English for circa 65% of thepeople and French for 30%, therefore allpublications will appear simultaneously inEnglish and French.
PROSEA, short for ‘Plant Resources of South-East Asia’, is an international programmefocused on South-East Asia. Its purpose is to make available the wealth of dispersedknowledge on plant resources for education, extension, research and industry througha computerized data bank, an illustrated multivolume encyclopaedia and derived pro-ducts for extension and education. A large international team of experts has preparedthe texts of the encyclopaedia. All taxa are treated in a similar manner with details onuses, properties, botany, ecology, agronomy or silviculture, handling after harvest,genetic resources, breeding, prospects and literature. The books are available fromBackhuys Publishers, P.O.Box 321, 2300 AH Leiden, the Netherlands. A low-price edi-tion for developing countries is available from PROSEA Head Office, P.O.Box 332,Bogor 16122, Indonesia. Many of the articles of the encyclopaedia are accessible onInternet at: http://www.proseanet.org. On this site, additional information on PROSEAis available.
The PROSEA encyclopaedia comprises the following volumes:- No 1. Pulses. L.J.G. van der Maesen and Sadikin Somaatmadja (Editors). Pudoc,
Wageningen. 1989.- No 2. Edible Fruits and Nuts. E.W.M. Verheij and R.E. Coronel (Editors). Pudoc,
Wageningen. 1991.- No 3. Dye and Tannin-Producing Plants. R.H.M.J. Lemmens and N. Wulijarni-
Soetjipto (Editors). Pudoc, Wageningen. 1991.- No 4. Forages. L. ‘t Mannetje and R.M. Jones (Editors). Pudoc, Wageningen. 1992.- No 5(1). Timber Trees. Major Commercial Timbers. I. Soerianegara and R.H.M.J.
Lemmens (Editors). Pudoc, Wageningen. 1993.- No 5(2). Timber Trees. Minor Commercial Timbers. R.H.M.J. Lemmens, I.
Soerianegara and Wong Wing Chong (Editors). Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. 1995.- No 5(3). Timber Trees. Lesser-known Timbers. M.S.M. Sosef, L.T. Hong and S.
Prawirohatmodjo (Editors). Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. 1998.- No 6. Rattans. J. Dransfield and N. Manokaran (Editors). Pudoc, Wageningen. 1993.- No 7. Bamboos. S. Dransfield and E.A. Widjaja (Editors). Backhuys Publishers, Leiden.
1995.- No 8. Vegetables. J.S. Siemonsma and Kasem Piluek (Editors). Pudoc, Wageningen.
1993.- No 9. Plants Yielding Non-Seed Carbohydrates. M. Flach and F. Rumawas (Editors).
Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. 1996.- No 10. Cereals. G.J.H. Grubben and Soetjipto Partohardjono (Editors). Backhuys
Publishers, Leiden. 1996.- No 11. Auxiliary Plants. I. Faridah Hanum and L.J.G. van der Maesen (Editors).
Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. 1997.- No 12(1). Medicinal and Poisonous Plants 1. L.S. de Padua, N. Bunyapraphatsara and
R.H.M.J. Lemmens (Editors). Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. 1999.- No 12(2). Medicinal and Poisonous Plants 2. J.L.C.H. van Valkenburg and N.
Bunyapraphatsara (Editors). Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. 2001.- No 12(3). Medicinal and Poisonous Plants 3. R.H.M.J. Lemmens and N.
Bunyapraphatsara (Editors). Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. 2003.- No 13. Spices. C.C. de Guzman and J.S. Siemonsma (Editors). Backhuys Publishers,
Leiden. 1999.- No 14. Vegetable Oils and Fats. H.A.M. van der Vossen and B.E. Umali (Editors).
Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. 2001.- No 15(1). Cryptogams: Algae. W.F. Prud’homme van Reine and G.C. Trono Jr.
(Editors). Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. 2001.- No 15(2). Cryptogams: Ferns and fern allies. W.P. de Winter and V.B. Amoroso
(Editors). Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. 2003.- No 16. Stimulants. H.A.M. van der Vossen and M. Wessel (Editors). Backhuys
Publishers, Leiden. 2000.- No 17. Fibre Plants. M. Brink and R.P. Escobin (Editors). Backhuys Publishers, Leiden.
2003.- No 18. Plants Producing Exudates. E. Boer and A.B. Ella (Editors). Backhuys
Publishers, Leiden. 2000.- No 19. Essential-oil plants. L.P.A. Oyen and Nguyen Xuan Dung (Editors). Backhuys
Publishers, Leiden. 1999.
CHRONICA HORTICULTURAE •VOL 44 • NUMBER 4 •2004 • 21
This long-term programme builds on the expe-rience gained in a similar programme calledPlant Resources of South-East Asia orPROSEA, which published an account of the7000 useful plant species of South-East Asia ina 24 volume encyclopaedia (see Box). PROTAintends to create an up-to-date informationsystem on the circa 7000 useful plant speciesof tropical Africa. These species have beengrouped according to their main or primaryuse into 16 commodity groups, including thethree horticultural commodities: vegetables,fruits, and ornamentals. The commoditygroups delineated are: cereals and pulses (79spp.), vegetables (350 spp.), dyes and tannins(106 spp.), ornamentals (562 spp.), forages(613 spp.), fruits (525 spp.), timbers (986spp.), carbohydrates (185 spp.), auxiliaryplants (222 spp.), fuel plants (119 spp.),medicinal plants (2611 spp.), spices and condi-ments (134 spp.), essential oils and exudates(244 spp.), vegetable oils (55 spp.), stimulants(58 spp.), fibres (394 spp.). Each commoditygroup will be dealt with in a volume of thePROTA encyclopaedia. The description of eachspecies concerns: uses and properties, botany,ecology, agronomy or management, pests anddiseases, genetic resources, breeding andother relevant subjects.
The first volume: PROTA 2: ‘Vegetables’ waspublished in Sept./Oct. 2004 in print, on CD-Rom and on Internet in both English andFrench. It covers 350 ‘primary use’ vegetables.The books and CD-Rom are available fromBackhuys Publishers, Leiden, the Netherlands(book: 40.00, book + CD-Rom 50.00; fordeveloping countries 20.00 and 25.00,resp.); for ACP countries they are availablefrom CTA. The Internet database is accessiblevia www.prota.org.
CHOICE OF VEGETABLESPECIES
Vegetables are succulent plants or parts ofplants, consumed as side-dish with a starchystaple. While this definition is simple and clearat first sight, it is difficult to unambiguouslydelineate the commodity group vegetables.Many species have multiple uses and theboundary with other commodity groups issometimes arbitrary. In PROTA each species isassigned to a single commodity group on thebasis of its main or primary use. For example,although cassava is quite important as a leafyvegetable, its main product is the starchy rootand thus its primary use is carbohydrate. Ofthe 800 species eaten as vegetable in tropicalAfrica 350 have been assigned as primary use‘vegetables’, the remaining 450 have otherprimary uses and will be dealt with in othercommodity groups. The boundary with com-modity group ‘spices and condiments’ is notsharp, e.g. hot pepper is a species used in fair-ly large quantities as a vegetable or in smallquantities as a spice, depending on the cap-
saicin content. Garlic is another good exampleof a multi-purpose plant, sometimes consi-dered a spice or medicinal plant, but in PROTAplaced in the commodity group ‘vegetables’.Melon and watermelon, although sometimestreated as fruits, are considered vegetablesbecause of their annual growth habit.
GEOGRAPHIC VARIATION INMARKET VEGETABLES
The assortment of market vegetables inAfrican countries varies largely. In urban areas,the 25 most important cultivated vegetablescover up to 90% of the daily consumption of100-150 g/person, while vegetables collectedfrom the wild account for less than 5%. Inrural areas, the variation is larger and morewild vegetables are consumed. Ethnical tradi-tion and historical background play a role, nextto climate and altitude. Several exotics are
peculiar to either the French or British culture,e.g. endive is popular among the French andturnips among British people and they are alsomore popular in francophone or anglophoneAfrican countries, respectively. Most indige-nous wild species are more frequently con-sumed in rural areas than in cities because ofavailability, but yet it becomes trendy to eatindigenous vegetables. An example is thepopularity of the leafy vegetable Gnetumafricanum in Cameroon and eastern Nigeriancity markets and upscale restaurants (Fig. 2).Large-scale collection from the wild vegetationin south Cameroon is rapidly leading to itseradication and to destruction of the habitat ofthis species, which has already virtually disap-peared from forests in Nigeria.
Large differences exist between urban andrural environment, forest and savannah zone,lowland and highland, between countries andtribes, more in general between West, Central,East and Southern Africa, between anglo-phone, francophone and Portuguese speakingcountries. As illustration of this location-dependent variation a list of the most impor-tant market vegetables is presented in Table 1.It shows differences between the West Africanforest belt (Lagos) and the savannah or Sahelarea (Kano), the difference between WestAfrica (Nigeria) and East Africa (Kenya) andthe difference between lowland (Mombassa)and high elevation (Nairobi). Many temperatetype vegetables are traded in West Africa fromsavannah areas to the forest belts, and in EastAfrica from highlands to lowlands. Large dif-ferences exist in occurrence of landraces andlocal seed production of temperate vegetables,e.g. tomato, carrot and onion seed is morefarm-saved in West Africa than in East Africa.French bean seed in West Africa is mostlyimported, but in East Africa it is locally pro-duced, while white cabbage seed is alwaysimported. The most important traditional EastAfrican vegetables both in quantity and croparea and for human nutrition are the leaf cab-bages or kales (Brassica carinata, Brassicajuncea, Brassica napus, Brassica oleracea).Unlike the nutritive value of white cabbage,the composition of these green leaf cabbages
Figure 2. Gnetum africanum - 1.branch with male inflorescence; 2.part of male inflorescence; 3. maleflower; 4. branch with female inflo-rescence and infructescence; 5. fema-le inflorescence; 6. seed. Redrawnand adapted by W. Wessel-Brand -Map outlines geographic distribu-tion.
Figure 3. “Portuguese kale” in homegarden in Zimbabwe.
Table 1. Availability and relative importance of vegetables in urban markets inNigeria (West Africa) and Kenya (East Africa).
0 absent; + rare; ++ occasional; +++ common; ++++ important; +++++ frequent, large quantities1 = Supply from savannah area, Nigeria-north2 = Supply from highland Kenya
is excellent. Of these, the main type is a kale(Brassica oleracea), known under the swahiliname sukuma wiki, that has vegetativelypropagated as well as seed-propagated culti-vars. Other types locally known as rugare, vis-cose and tronchuda are popular in SouthernAfrica especially in Zimbabwe. (Fig. 3). Severalof them are of Portuguese origin. In WestAfrica, kales are of little or no importance.Here some important leafy vegetables areamaranth, celosia, Jew’s mallow and Solanumscabrum.
VEGETABLES IN AFRICANNUTRITION
In the African kitchen, vegetables are tradi-tionally important as relishes, soups andsauces. Most vegetables are prepared bycooking, but salads with lettuce, cucumber,tomato, onion and sweet pepper are increa-singly popular. Characteristic for Africa is thatin all drier areas surplus vegetables from therainy season are preserved for the dry seasonby drying in the sun. Vegetables not only make
the food more palatable and digestible, inmany cases they contribute considerably to theprotein and energy value of the meal. Theirforemost importance, however, lies in theirsupply of micro-nutrients (vitamins, minerals).They are the major source of carotene (pro-vitamin A), except in the humid forest beltwhere red palm oil is used as kitchen oil.Vegetables are everywhere important assource of iron, because anaemia caused byintestinal diseases, malaria and bilharzia (try-panosomiasis) is frequent. Many vegetablescontain compounds with preventive or cura-tive properties, e.g. all Brassica species containglucosinolates, presumably effective againstcancer and heart diseases. Many indigenousvegetables have also medicinal uses.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS
Traditionally, in a subsistence economy,vegetable products are partly collected fromthe wild vegetation or as weeds in the fields,and partly cultivated in the field or in homegardens. As a consequence of the presenturbanization and job diversification, a fastincreasing number of households buy theirvegetables at the market or in supermarkets,hence market vegetable production is rapidlyexpanding. This commercial vegetable farmingand marketing creates jobs and cash incomefor many people involved in the chain from
CHRONICA HORTICULTURAE •VOL 44 • NUMBER 4 •2004 • 23
CONTACT
Dr. G.J.H. Grubben, BoeckweijdtConsult, Prins Hendriklaan 24, 1404 ATBussum, the Netherlands, Phone: +31-35-6950903, email: [email protected]. Oyen, PROTA, Haarweg 333,6709 RZ Wageningen, the Netherlands,Phone: +31-317-482512, email:[email protected]
producer to consumer. Unlike with other cashcrops, much of the production and trade ofvegetables is done by women (Fig. 4 and 5).There is much international trade with neigh-boring countries. A few countries (e.g. Kenya,Ethiopia, Uganda, Senegal) are exportingvegetables, e.g. French beans to Westerncountries and there is some trade in the reversedirection, e.g. onion and garlic.
A large gap remains between demand forvegetables and commercial low-price produc-tion. Plant breeding, high quality seed produc-tion, adaptation of existing production tech-nology (e.g. integrated pest management, dripirrigation) to African conditions and reinforcingand training of the services supporting the pro-duction chain are urgently needed.
Gérard Grubben
Leo Oyen
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Sri Lanka is an island located between 6° and10° north of the equator, at the southern tip ofthe Indian sub continent (Fig. 1). The countryhas a land area of 6.56 million ha, and apopulation of 19 million. Most people live inrural areas, as the urban population accountsfor just 14.6% (Department of Census andStatistics, 2003).
The temperature variation through the year islow with the mean ranging between 21.1 and31.7 °C. The rainfall pattern in Sri Lanka isbimodal with two periods of monsoonal pre-cipitation resulting in two distinct cultivationseasons. The major cultivation season, calledMaha, is in October-February. The precipita-tion during this season comes from the north-east monsoon of October-December. Thesecond crop season is called Yala and extendsfrom May to July. The rains in this season comefrom the south-west monsoon. This is inter-cepted by the central mountains resulting in2000-5000 mm of rain per year in the high-lands and south-west part of the island. This is
Horticulture in Sri LankaW.A. Palitha Weerakkody
the “wet” zone of the country covering 1.53million ha. The “intermediate” zone covering4.17 million ha receives 2000-2250 mm ofrainfall per year, and is hotter than the wet
zone. The dry zone receives only 900-1000mm of rain, with the highest temperaturesranging between 28 and 30 °C. It covers 0.8million ha (Ranaweera and De Silva, 1994).
SRI LANKAN AGRICULTUREAND HORTICULTURE
Agriculture plays a major role in the country’seconomy. Approximately 19% of the grossdomestic product and 19% of the total exportearnings are derived from agriculture. It alsoaccounts for 35% of all employment (CentralBank of Sri Lanka, 2003). The crop sub sectorhas a large number of small farmers on 3.3 mil-lion sub holdings. Less than half of the hol-dings are 0.1 ha in size (Department of Censusand Statistics, 2003). Rice is the dominant cropgrown on approximately 732 thousand ha.Other important crops are corn, mung bean,cowpea, groundnut and potato. Vegetables,excluding potato are grown on 117 thousandha, producing an output of 656 thousand tons
Figure 1. Map of Sri Lanka.
Gérard Grubben, editor for the commodity “Vegetables” ofPlant Resources of Tropical Africa (PROTA), is tropical horti-culturist. He started his career in 1965 as associate expertwith FAO in Côte d’Ivoire. He did his PhD research atWageningen University on the tropical leaf vegetableamaranth. He has been working with Plant ResearchInternational, Wageningen UR, throughout the tropics, mostrecently in Indonesia.
Leo Oyen graduated from Wageningen University in 1975,where he specialized in tropical Agronomy. He spent muchof his career in the tropics: oil palm selection in Papua NewGuinea, intercropping of rainfed crops at ICRISAT, India,applied agronomic and extension in Yemen, and irrigationmanagement in Tanzania. He joined PROSEA first as infor-mation specialist and later became editor. He now is gener-al editor of PROTA.
ISHS • 24
worth LKR 7.5 billion (US$ 7.5 million)(Ranaweera and De Silva, 1994). Tea rubber,coconut, spices and other beverage are thedominant crops in the wet and intermediatezones. Tropical fruit crops are scattered infavourable climatic zones all over the island.The horticulture sub sector includes ornamen-tals. The Department of Agriculture with itssub institutions, universities and a few otherstate and private institutions are involved inimprovement and skills development in thehorticulture sub sector in Sri Lanka.
Flowers have been used in worship and offe-ring in Buddhist and Hindu temples for over2500 years in Sri Lanka. According toMahawansa, the oldest history book of SriLanka, the origin of gardening dates back tothe pre-buddhistic period. King Mutassiva(367-307 BCE) established the “Mahamevnapark” which consisted of a vast collection offruit and flowering trees with dense foliage, tocreate a cool and pleasing environment in theancient capital city of Anuradhapura. Later,Kings Parakramabahu and Kashyapa estab-lished the parks and gardens at Polonnaruwaand Sigiriya.
During the British occupation in Sri Lankasome annual and perennial flowering plantswere established in home gardens rather thanas a commercial activity, leading to the estab-lishment of three major botanical gardens atPeradeniya, Haakgala and Henarathagoda inSri Lanka (Dhanasekara, 1998). Later withmany new introductions of ornamental plants,vegetables and fruits, gardening evolved bothin sustainable and commercial forms.
ORNAMENTALHORTICULTURE
Floriculture in Sri Lanka started as a commer-cial venture in the early 1970s and has grownsubstantially during the last few decades tobecome one of Sri Lanka’s stable majorforeign exchange generating ventures. Theagro-climatic diversity in Sri Lanka is verymuch advantageous for growing a wide rangeof foliage ornamentals and cut flowers (Table1). The very wet, wet and semi-wet zones arethe most appropriate areas for the develop-
ment of floriculture. In Sri Lanka the floricul-ture industry consisting of cut flowers, cutfoliage, live plants, bulbs, corms and tubers isthe items of export interest, while domestictrade is primarily comprised of cut flowers andornamental indoor and outdoor plants. About94% of total land area under commercial flori-culture involves the production of foliageplants (Dhanasekera, 1998).
Commercial production facilities of floricultureproducts are mainly found in the centraluplands and the lowlands in western andnorth-western regions. Land availability, taxbenefits and other investment promotionshave facilitated the expansion of floriculturalproduction and trade. Sri Lanka’s floricultureindustry consists of three categories of produ-cers or growers: large commercial ventures forexport, middle level growers catering to thelocal market, and village level producers.
There are about 30 nurseries in Sri Lanka main-ly growing foliage plants for export purpose.They grow both imported and local cultivars,each specializing in a few cultivars (Surangi et
al., 2002). They produce plants with foreigncollaboration, sharing technology and follo-wing fairly advanced methods of production,especially protected culture (Fig. 2). The cutflower production in the wet highlands is donein plastic houses with full or partial side cove-rings while foliage ornamentals are producedin moderately dry lowlands under shade or nethouses. Shading, use of soilless culture andmicroirrigation are common. Pests anddiseases are mainly controlled by chemicals(Weerakkody et al., 2002).
A greater share of the domestic demand iscomprised of potted ornamentals for exteriorand interior decorations. The cut flowerdemand is from weddings, funerals, religiousor cultural festivals and other occasional cere-monies. Small and medium-scale producers arescattered all around the country. The produc-tion standards are below the level of theexport-oriented production. The productiontechnology is mainly based on manual opera-tions and carried out by part time operationsor family business. Marketing is at the farmlevel, regional market places or through col-lecting agents.
Landscape horticulture is gaining momentum,particularly in the urban and semi-urban resi-dential areas, scenic places, national andleisure parks, and tourist hotels and resorts foraesthetic purpose, urban and land-use plan-ning and environmental protection. Rapidincreases in standard of living of urbandwellers and rising hopes for tourism promo-tion have encouraged this industry. However,lots of initiatives are yet to come for land-scaping in private and public holdings. Due tothe scarcity of qualified landscape horticultu-rists, talented or partially skilled landscaping
Vegetables
BeansBitter Gourd (Momodica
charantia)Bread fruit (Artocarpus altilis)BrinjalCabbageCapsicum (pepper)CarrotsCucumberIndigenous yams (Collocasia
& Alocasia spp. and Kohila[Lassia spinosia])
Jak (Artocarpus integrifolia)LeeksLuffa (Luffa acutangula)OkraPumpkinSnake Gourd (Trichosanthus
anguin)Spinach (Spinacia alba)Tomato
Table 1. Diversity of horticultural species in Sri Lanka.
Figure 2. Protected cultivation of ornamental plants (left) and vegetables (right).
CHRONICA HORTICULTURAE •VOL 44 • NUMBER 4 •2004 • 25
persons carry out the landscaping operationswith small or medium-scale nurseries providingplant material. Although the local markets forlandscape plants are increasing, the exportsare still at the infant stage.
VEGETABLE CROPS
Diverse agro-climatic conditions in Sri Lankapermit a wide range of vegetables (Table 1). SriLanka produces 600,000 tonnes (t) of vegeta-bles annually. The productivity ranges from 5to 15 t per ha. The area of cultivation hasexpanded by 13% while total production hasexpanded by 27.5% during the last 10 years(HORDI, 2004). Indigenous species aregrouped as “low-country” vegetables, be-cause they are commonly cultivated in lowcountry and mid country of the country. Thoseintroduced from other countries are calledexotic vegetables or popularly, as “up-coun-try”vegetables and are usually cultivated in thecooler climate of the up country. Leek, carrotand radish are dominant vegetables in the wetzone; beans and tomato dominate in the inter-mediate zone; while pumpkins are dry zonecrops. Most vegetables are grown equally inboth Maha and Yala seasons, except for somelow country vegetables. Total production ofvegetables in Maha is slightly higher than thatin Yala (Ranaweera and De Silva, 1994).
In the cool highlands, where land is scarce andthe climate is favourable throughout the year,monocropping and multiple cropping are prac-tised in vegetable production (Fig. 3). The crop-ping intensity and the level of technology adop-tion is high, often with overuse of inputs.Average plot size is small (0.2-0.4 ha) and culti-vation is undertaken continuously with inten-sive labour, organic and chemical fertilisers andhigh levels of agro-chemicals. Vegetablegrowers are competent, and marketing of inputand produce is well organised (Ranaweera andDe Silva, 1994; Weerakkody et al., 2000).
Vegetable production in the lowland dry zoneis characterised by shifting (Chena) cultivationin large areas with poor technology adoption.The application of fertilisers and use ofimproved cultivars are not widespread. Manyfood crops, such as maize and millet, as well ascowpea, soybean and mung bean are mixedwith low country vegetables such as tomato,cucumber, brinjal, luffa, bitter gourd, capsicumokra and pumpkins. The bulk of the shiftingvegetable production comes during the Mahaseason with little or no supplementary irriga-tion (Ranaweera and De Silva, 1994).
In most home gardens in rural as well as urbanareas, there are at least a few popular vegeta-bles, especially in the wet zone. Home gardensalso have perennial vegetable trees, such asjak-fruit, bread-fruit, drumsticks, ash plantainand kathurumurunga (Sesbania grandiflora)depending on the agro-ecology. Many leafyvegetables grow wild in backyards. Gotukola
(Centella) and Mukunuwwenna (Alternan-thera sessilis) grow under partial shade. Kangkong (Ipomea aquatica) and amaranth arecommon in water stagnant patches of home-steads in the wet lowlands and also on manymarshy lands (Ranaweera and De Silva, 1994).
In the dry and intermediate zones, vegetablesare grown during the Yala season in paddyfields (range from 0.2 to 0.8 ha) only if sup-plementary irrigation is available. The levels oftechnology, applied are in between theupcountry and home gardening systems. Thepopular crops are chilli, capsicum, tomato andonion. In the mid- and upcountry regionsduring the Yala season, terraced paddy fieldsare cultivated with potato, beans, tomato andcabbage (Ranaweera and De Silva, 1994;Weerakkody et al., 2000).
The peri-urban production system is a spe-cialised form of market gardening near majorcities (especially Colombo), which consists ofusually very intensive cultivation of green leafyvegetables to supply the needs of the urbanand semi-urban populations. Both organic andinorganic fertilisers are used in large quantities.As green leaves are an important componentof the Sri Lankan rice and curry based diet,there is a ready demand for these vegetables(Ranaweera and De Silva, 1994).
Cultivation of vegetables and small fruits ingreenhouses with partial environmental con-trol was commenced in the late 1990s in theupcountry and midcountry. Most greenhousesare barrel-shape, single span soft plastic struc-tures and established in small upland holdings.Greenhouse cooling is practised by using roofvents, net-covered side vents, exhaust fansand sometimes with misting. Relatively youngfarmers with a fairly high level of educationand agricultural experience practice protectedvegetable production. However, they are notfully committed owing to part-time involve-ment. Vegetable crops such as tomato, greencucumber, bell pepper and leafy vegetables arecultivated as mono crops with spatial or tem-poral separations (Fig. 2). About 1-2 malemembers of the family mostly conductunskilled operations.
All greenhouse crops are irrigated but microirrigation methods are hard to come by. Othertechnologies are the use of hydroponics,hybrid seeds, inorganic pesticides, improvedsanitary measures, plastic mulching, planttraining, grading and packaging. Coco peat-based media culture with fertigation is themost popular growing system. Relatively lowuse of inorganic fertilisers (724 kg/ha) andpesticides (excluding fungicides) are indica-tions for maintenance of environment-friendlyprocedures. Meanwhile, planned cultivation,improved harvesting and postharvest prac-tices, and adequate mechanisation or automa-tion are very scarce. The greenhouse vegetablegrowers have been able to obtain greateryields and high quality of produce comparedto open field agriculture. However, themajority of the produce is marketed throughconventional channels and directed to low-price markets. Consequently, the greenhousefarmers have not been able to use the inputsmore than 63% efficiently. Positive “return toscale” indicates the possibility of furtherimprovements by investing on selected inputs.However, high degree of uncertainty stillremains due to technical inefficiencies andmarketing problems. A profound promotionalprogram, is needed to expand and upgradethis sub sector in the future (Weerakkody etal., 2002).
TROPICAL FRUITS
Sri Lanka is blessed with a wide variety oftropical and sub-tropical fruit species (Table 1).The total area under the fruit crops is about70,000 ha and annual production is about560,000 t where 50% is totally consumed, 30-40% is wasted and 10% is exported (Kudaga-mage,1996). The extent of cultivation andproduction of major fruit crops are given inTable 2. In addition, there are many minor(regional or under-utilised) fruit crops, inclu-ding guava (Psidium guajava), sapadilla(Manilcara achras), belli (Aegle marmelos),anona (Annona spp.), Nelli (Phyllanthusembelica), Lovi (Flacourtia inermis), Nannan
Figure 3. Open field vegetable cultivation in the upcountry (left); Tropical fruits(right).
ISHS • 26
(Cynometra cauliflora) and Gaduguda(Baccurea motleyana). However, attentionpaid on crop production, post-harvest losses,rate of consumption, fruit research and exten-sion services are not satisfactory when com-pared with other agricultural sub sectors.
Fruit orchards are very small in number. Themajority of orchards are small holdings, whichrange from 0.25 to 2.5 ha managed by indi-vidual growers. Major crops are banana,papaw, mango, pineapple, passion fruit,oranges and rambutan (Fig. 3). They areplanted in monocultures or a combination ofmonocultures. In large plantations, mango,cashew and citrus are found in the low coun-try dry zone. These are managed by thegovernment or private co-operations or com-panies (Amarathunga et al., 2000). The sys-tem can be characterised by use of improvedplanting materials, nursery management, landpreparation, irrigation, management of soilfertility, plant training, pest and disease con-trol, growth regulation, and correct harvestingpractices. Mechanised operations are mostlylimited to large plantations. The yield andquality of produce in this system is much high-er than in the other systems. The output ismarketed at local fresh produce or processingmarkets or specific high value markets such asexports or local supermarkets.
Plantation crop based polyculture is practisedwith coconut and rubber. The recommendedfruit crops in the form of companion crop varywith the major crop, its growth stage and theagro-climatic conditions in the area. For exam-ple, banana, papaw, pineapple or passion fruitare cultivated at the early stages of rubber orcoconut in many areas. Cashew nuts, mangoand rambutan are recommended at maturestages of coconut in dryer areas. Moderatelevels of technology and management prac-tices are followed without interfering with themajor crop. (Gunathilake, 2000).
Home gardens constitute the most significantproduction system for fruits and are scatteredall over the island. However, fruit crop speciesdiffer based on the agro-climate. For example,in wet zone home gardens, avocado, man-gosetin, rambutan, anonas and durian arecommon. In the dry zone, belli, woodapple,citrus fruits and pomegranate are common.Crops such as banana, papaw, jak (waraka),guvava and sapodilla are found in home gar-dens anywhere (John, 1991). Comparativelylow levels of technology and crop manage-ment are practised and the farmers’ attentionis variable. As a result, the yield and quality ofthe home garden fruits are comparatively low.Produce of seasonal fruit crops and largehome gardens in dry areas are marketed whilethe majority of home garden fruits are con-sumed at the household level.
Organic farming and indoor (protected) culti-vation are the main examples for minor fruitproduction systems. Indoor cultivation is limi-
Table 2. Annual cultivation andproduction of major fruit andvegetable crops in Sri Lanka.
Sources:(1) Crop Production Program, 2000(2) HORDI, 2000
ted to few growers of strawberry for exportwhile organic farming is limited to export-ori-ented production of mango, banana, papaya,etc. under irrigation in the dry zone.
POSTHARVESTTECHNOLOGY ANDMARKETING
In general, postharvest technology in the hor-ticulture sub sector has lagged over the lastfew decades. Estimated postharvest losses ofperishable produce range from 10% to 40%(Samarathunga, 1995). Improper regulation ofthe local fresh produce market and lack of pro-cessing technology are the main reasons forthis situation. Processing is limited to 10% ofthe fruit and vegetable production. Tomatoand gherkin are the main two vegetablesundergoing processing (for export). Someindigenous (low country) vegetables are dehy-drated at small scale for the export market.Meanwhile most of the commercial fruits areprocessed and marketed locally and interna-tionally in the forms of jams, chutneys, juices,pulps and canned products (Amarathunga etal., 2000).
The main export markets for Sri Lankan flori-cultural items are Western Europe (cut or pot-
ted foliage) and Middle East (cut flowers)(Samarathunga, 1995). Sri Lanka had obtainedthe 9th place in the European market but atpresent has dropped to the 39th place (Surangiet al., 2004). Yet export earnings of horticul-ture has shown a 7.5% annual increase duringthe last five years. Sri Lanka has earned nearlyRs. 776 million (US$ 7.76 million) from flori-cultural exports in 2002. The major sharescome from cut foliage (42%) and live plants(39%) while cut flowers contribute 19% tothis (EDB, 2003). Relatively high levels of fruitsand vegetable exports have been reported inrecent years. In 1999 fresh and processedforms of fruit and vegetable exports earnedRs. 614 and 855 million (US$ 6.14 and 8.55million), respectively (EDB, 2000).
CONSTRAINTS AND FUTUREPROSPECTS
There are common constraints to upgrading allhorticultural produce in Sri Lanka. Low invest-ment capacity of small-scale farmers, lack ofpost-harvest technologies, imperfect marke-ting, inadequate crop improvement programs,demographic trends towards non-agriculturalsectors, non-targeted production by the smallscale growers, neglected infrastructure deve-lopment in rural areas, lack of active extensionprograms and improper data management aresome of them. Vegetable sub-sector, in parti-cular, suffers from unfavourable weather(rainy), over use of agro-chemicals, high pestand disease attacks, lack of crop improvement,lack of seed production, high cost of technicalinputs and land fragmentation. The fruit sub-sector has some specific limitations such as lowproductivity of home gardens, outdated pro-duction technologies, land scarcity (in the wetzone), seasonality, lack of improved cultivarsand rain fed cultivation. Major constraintsfaced by the export-oriented floriculture andprotected crop ventures against further expan-sions are high cost of technical inputs, highfreight rates and inadequate government sup-port (Ranaweera and De Silva, 1994; Surangiet al., 2002; Weerakkody et al., 2000).
However, there are certain factors favouringhorticultural production in general. Highspecies diversity, favourable climates, low costof labour and availability of technical knowhow are some of them. The committed effortsby the state and private sectors are very muchneeded to get maximum out of the aboveadvantages, especially to explore the advan-tages towards horticultural exports such asstrategic geographical location of Sri Lanka,high international demand for local horticul-tural species, and skilled manpower. Expansionof the fruit sub-sector will depend upon landavailability in the dry zone and in the planta-tion sector, the availability of an array ofunder-utilised species and promotionalschemes for investing on large-scale orchards.
CHRONICA HORTICULTURAE •VOL 44 • NUMBER 4 •2004 • 27
REFERENCES
Amarathunga, K.S.P., W.A.P. Weerakkody and R. Dris. 2000. Fruit and vegetable proces-sing in Sri Lanka. p.409-414. In: Proc. Conf. Improving Postharvest Technologies ofFruits, Vegetables and Ornamentals, Int. Inst. of Refrigeration, Murcia, Spain, 19-21Oct., 2000.
Central Bank Report. 2003. Central Bank of Sri Lanka, Colombo, Sri Lanka.Crop Production Program. 2000. Ministry of Agriculture Lands, Isurupaya, Colombo.Department of Census & Statistics. 2003. Statistical handbook, Department of Census and
Statistics, Colombo.Dhanasekera, D.M.U.B. 1998. Cut flower production in Sri Lanka. p.50-54. In: Cut flower
production in Asia, FAO Publ.EDB. 2000. Export Development Board, Sri C.A. Gardiner Mawatha, Colombo.EDB. 2003. Export Development Board, Sri C. A. Gardiner Mawatha, Colombo.Gunatilake, H.A.J. 1999. Unpublished Report, CRI, Lunuvile, Sri Lanka.HORDI. 2004. Horticulture Research and Development Institute, Department of
Agriculture, Gannoruwa, Sri Lanka. John, R.S. 1991. Pineapple cultivation in Sri Lanka. Agricultural Cooperative Development
Inst. (ACDI), 50F Street, NW, 900 Washington D.C.Kudagamage, G.C. 1996. Present status of horticulture research in Sri Lanka. Horticulture
Crop Research and Development Inst., Gunnoruwa, Sri Lanka.Ranaweera, N.F.C. and G.A.C. de Silva. 1994. Sri Lanka. p.349-378. In: M. Ali (ed.),
Dynamics of vegetable production, distribution and conservation in Asia, AVRDCPublications, Shanhua.
Samarathunga, H. 1995. Present status of fruit and vegetable production. p.60-68. In:Proc. Workshop on Modern Technologies and Trends in Production, PostharvestHandling and Export of Fruits and Vegetables. EDB, Sir C.A. Gardiner, Mawatha,Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Surangi, B.H.A.P., L.C. Wijethilake and B. Ranaweera. 2002. Management of stem rot inDracaena (Dracaena sanderiana white). p.159-165. In: S.J.B.A. Jayasekara and W.I.S.K.Weerakkody (eds.), Proc. 2nd Agricultural Research Symposium, Faculty of Agricultureand Plant Management, Wayamba Univ., Makandura, Sri Lanka.
Weerakkody, W.A.P., B.C.N. Peiris and L.H.P. Gunarathne. 2000. Commercial gardeningof vegetables in Sri Lanka. Sri Lankan J. Agr. Sci. 37:135-147.
Weerakkody, W.A.P., B.C.N. Peiris and L.H.P. Gunarathne. 2002. Implications & prospectsof potected culture as a novel technology to foster horticulture in Sri Lanka. p.405. In:Proc. IHC Toronto.
Dr. W.A. Palitha Weerakkody is a SeniorLecturer in Horticulture in the Universityof Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. He is involvedin teaching and research on field vegeta-ble production and greenhouse horticul-ture. Email: [email protected]
ABOUT THE
AUTHOR
W.A. PalithaWeerakkody
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Author wishes to acknowledge the cooperation of Miss. P.A.I.S. De Alwis, MessrsH.M.S.S. Herath, T.A.B.D. Sanjeewa, W.A.U. Weerakkody and C.K. Beneragama.
www.actahort.org33,000 articles on-line
ISHS • 28
CIRAD AND FLHOR
CIRAD, Centre de Coopération Internationaleen Recherche Agronomique pour leDéveloppement, is the French AgriculturalResearch Centre for International Develop-ment. Its mission is to contribute to the eco-nomic development of the tropical and sub-tropical regions through research on agricul-ture, training, and dissemination of its results.
CIRAD employs 1850 people, including 950senior staff, working in the French overseasdepartments and some 50 other countries.There are seven research departments: annualcrops; perennial crops; fruit and horticulturalcrops; animal production and veterinary medi-cine; forestry; land, environment and people;and advanced methods for innovation in sci-ence. CIRAD operates through its ownresearch centres, collaborating with nationalagricultural research systems, or developmentprojects.
Horticultural Research in the FrenchAgricultural Research Centre (CIRAD)
Jacky Ganry
THE MANDATE AND THECHALLENGE
The department “Fruit and HorticulturalCrops” (FLHOR) is gearing its research anddevelopment-oriented operations in tropicaland Mediterranean zones towards establishingenvironment-friendly integrated productionsystems. The search to secure food supply andquality, the rapid urban growth in developingcountries and the next demands from con-sumers in industrialized countries have placed
fruits, vegetables and aromatic crops at theheart of the main challenges for the future.
To meet those challenges and improve thecompetitiveness, CIRAD is conductingresearch in the following fields:
� Genetic improvement: genetic resource con-servation and management, use of biotech-nologies, disease, pest and abiotic stressresistance, product quality.
� Integrated production systems: sustainabilityand viability of production systems, eco-physiology and modeling, rational protec-tion (IPM), pollution control and wastemanagement, diversification to ensure anew image, (quality-environment) and newproducts (varieties).
� Consumption, from farm to fork: studies ofcompetitiveness, integrated analysis andstructuring of commodity distribution, sup-port to professional and smallholder organi-zations.
� Food consumption and technology: foodquality, nutrition, hygiene and safety studies,innovative processing techniques aimed atconserving fresh product quality, preserva-tion techniques.
FLHOR works closely in France with INRA, IRDand universities; worldwide with research insti-tutes (EMBRAPA in Brazil, Hort Research inNew Zealand, international institutions such asINIBAP, IPGRI, IITA, ISHS, AVRDC, Africannational agricultural research systems);research networks such as CORAF, MUSACO,TROPIGEN, universities, laboratories and spe-cialist organizations.
FLHOR ACTIVITIES
FLHOR activities cover three commodities andproduct groups: fruit trees, banana, plantainand pineapple, and horticultural products.
Fruit Trees
Citrus species and mangoes account for 80%of the fruit tree sector in hot regions. Theremainder covers a wide range of species,hence of potential products, flavours and aro-mas including litchi, avocado, guava, cashewand macadamia nuts. In the southern hemi-sphere, fruit trees are an essential part ofdevelopment insofar as they satisfy bothfamily consumption and market supplyrequirements and also increasing demand forhigh added-value products. Their perennialityhelps to sustain human activity in rural areas
Some members of the CIRAD-FLHOR’s staff in front of the Montpellier building.
The Department FLHOR at a GlanceStaff of 250 people, including 120researchers and technicians.65 researchers based overseas: Africa,Latin America, Asia, French overseasdepartments and territories.80 research and development projects.A budget of 20 million € of which 50%
CHRONICA HORTICULTURAE •VOL 44 • NUMBER 4 •2004 • 29
and to conserve the environment. In conjunc-tion with its research and development part-ners, the Fruit Trees activity deals with funda-mental and adaptive research, technical sup-port and technology transfer operations inresponse to growing local, regional and evenworldwide demand.
The main objectives are to guarantee productquality right up to the consumer and moreeffectively take account of consumer expecta-tions; to steer and monitor changes in inte-grated fruit production systems, as part of asustainable agricultural sector; to obtain inno-vative, quality products; to tailor supply todemand from consumers and users; and tocontribute to economic and social develop-ment in the French overseas departments andterritories and in southern-hemisphere coun-tries.
Plant Genetic Improvement. Several germ-plasm collections, along with the correspon-ding databases, are maintained and managed.Research is concentrating on in situ cultivarbreeding, creating and broadening the rangeof cultivars, and planting material productionand promotion. The work is conducted on amultilocal base in Corsica, Guadeloupe,Martinique, New Caledonia and Reunion, andthrough partnerships. Key projects includeresearch on citrus, mango, passionfruit andpawpaw; genetic resource management andevaluation; creation and evaluation of triploidcitrus cultivars and rootstocks; and creation ofbacterial disease-tolerant pawpaw cultivars.
Improving Production Systems. The pro-gramme is involved in integrated fruit produc-tion aimed at sustainable, environment-friend-ly fruit growing, with a view to developingnew crop management sequences tailored toeach production zone. Key projects on citrusinvolve quality elaboration and on mangoinvolve water supplies in relation to develop-ment and floral induction; pruning and densi-
ty; and ecophysiology of flowering andfruiting.
Crop Protection. The activity includes pest anddisease epidemiology, control and rational pro-tection studies. It develops early disease diag-nosis, varietal purification and pesticide residuecontrol tools. Key projects include bacterialcanker and Huanglongbin disease (HLB) in cit-rus; bacterial disease ecology and epidemiolo-gy in mango; and population dynamics,behaviour, parasitoids, postharvest treatments,integrated control with fruit flies.
Commodity Chain Economics. Integratedstudy of the different commodity chains areevaluated in terms of production cost analysis,marketing and consumer demand assessmentstrategies. Key projects include study of themango and lychee export sector, fruit cropdevelopment, and studies of clementine man-darin.
Improving Quality. The research conducted isaimed at improving fresh and processedproduct quality, nutrition and food safety,developing new preservation and processingtechniques, studying new product ranges(flavourings, concentrates, natural colourings)and making optimum use of by-products andsorting rejects. Key projects include develop-ment of flavour concentrates for developingcountries and their export markets; studies oflychee colour, firmness and aroma deteriora-tion mechanisms after harvesting; mango andlychee storage for the export sectors; anddevelopment of new membrane technologiesaimed at preserving organoleptic and aromaqualities.
Banana, Plantain and Pineapple
Banana and plantain, with an annual output of100 million tonnes worldwide, and pineapple,with 13 million tonnes, are of vital importancefor the development of humid tropical zones.Exports of these products are a precious sourceof income for many countries. In conjunctionwith its research and development partnersand with an eco-friendly approach, the activi-ties on Banana, Plantain and Pineapple aresupporting banana and plantain production forlocal consumption and working to maintainthe competitiveness for the banana, plantainand pineapple sectors on the fresh andprocessed product export market. The mainobjectives are to maintain the competitivenessand sustainability of production systems whilstfacilitating integrated commodity chain deve-lopment; to adapt supply to demand; to obtaininnovative, quality products; to guaranteeproduct quality and traceability up to the con-sumer; and to facilitate supplies to urban areasin the South.
Genetic Resources Management andOptimization. New cultivars are created andselected by studying genetic resources andoptimizing them by crossing and making useof biotechnologies. Such cultivars are intendedto reduce parasite risks and offer consumersnew products. Key projects include collectionmanagement and germplasm morphologicaland molecular evaluation; increased know-ledge of the genera Musa and Ananas; cre-ation and selection of improved hybrids fordomestic and export markets; and use ofsomatic embryogenesis to produce banana invitro plantlets.
Measurement of gas exchange for study-ing effect of flowering and fruiting on thephotosynthesis of Mangifera indica.Photo by Laurent Urban/Cirad.
Fruit market at Muzzafarpur (India). Photo by Christian Didier/Cirad.
ISHS • 30
Improving Production Systems. The aim is toestablish and disseminate the bases for sus-tainable production systems, to understandenvironmental impact, erosion and fertilityphenomena. Key projects include environ-mental impact of banana and pineapple; inclu-sion of in vitro plantlets in crop managementfor integrated production systems and cultivarconversion; reduction of the hazards posedby fertilizer and pesticide applications andmodeling banana yield components.
Integrated Pest and Disease Management.The activity is working on rational pest anddisease control strategies and related cropmanagement sequences.
Improving Quality. The aim is to improvefresh and processed product quality, packing,storage and marketing techniques. The pro-gramme is also working to develop new
Vegetable cultivation in the peri-urban area of Yaounde (Cameroon). Photo by JackyGanry/Cirad.
Experiment on Musa vitro plantsgrowth with and without mulch. Photoby Jacky Ganry/Cirad.
banana and pineapple-based products. Keyprojects include postharvest fruit qualitymonitoring and residue analysis; developmentof new agricultural practices in response toretailer and consumer demand; and studies ofby-products.
Banana Market Economics. Agro economicstudies are conducted at field, farm and pro-duction basin level. Commodity chains andmarkets are studied on a regional, country-wide and international scale. Key projectsinclude study of the competitiveness ofexport-oriented banana commodity chains;export banana market observations; andstudies on banana commodity chains for localconsumption.
Vegetables and Horticultural Crops
Vegetable crops grown in hot regions such astomato, onion, and leafy vegetables are typi-cally perishable and high added-valueproducts. They fit in a drive to improve diets,fight urban poverty, ensure food self-sufficien-cy and sustain the urban environment.Ornamental and aromatic plants also have arole to play in such a drive, particularly giventhe move towards agricultural diversificationand environmental conservation in islandareas. In conjunction with research and deve-lopment partners, activity on HorticulturalProducts are dealing with this wide range ofcrops with a view to guaranteeing fresh, safevegetable supplies to urban markets in theSouth and increasing the financial security ofthose involved in the different commoditychannels. The main objectives are to strength-en the role of peri-urban agriculture in the dietand income of urban populations in Africa andAsia; to support market crop diversification(onion, tomatoes) in African rural systems; to
promote horticultural diversification in islandareas; and to contribute to the sustainablemanagement of urban and island environ-ments.
Genetic Resource Management. The mainlines of research are the evaluation of geneticresources, the creation of new varieties andthe development of new technologies. Keyprojects include genetic improvement of localonion cultivars and of vanilla; development ofgarlic somatic embryogenesis; and collectionand dissemination of floral species.
Improving Production Systems. The aim isto improve production systems and cropmanagement sequences, evaluate horticulturalspecies development models and design deci-sion-making tools for use by producers. Keyprojects include sustainable market gardencrop systems around Southeast Asian towns;crop management for tomatoes and onions;improvement of sheltered cropping techniquesin tropical lowland areas; and planting materialpurification and dissemination.
Crop Protection. The activity conductsresearch on pathogen diversity and behaviour,and on pest and disease diagnosis. The rela-tions between pests and auxiliaries are studiedin relation to biotic and a-biotic factors. Keyprojects include integrated control techniquesfor use on market garden crops and charac-terization and epidemiology of vanilla, garlicand tomato viruses.
Commodity Chain Economics. The contribu-tion of vegetable crops to urban food con-sumption and exchange is the subject of in-depth analysis. Market efficiency diagnosesare conducted and recommendations madewith a view to stabilizing supplies and income.Key projects include diagnosis of onion sup-plies to cities in West Africa; and evaluation ofthe competitiveness of market garden com-modity channels; establishment of informationsystems on vegetable markets and vegetablesupply in urban areas.
Improving Quality. Studies look at productquality and safety from harvest to consumerand cover storage, packing and transportmethods. Key projects include development oftomato production systems for industrial useand studies on vanilla ripening.
RESEARCHACCOMPLISHMENT
New or strengthened strategies have beenadopted by FLHOR in several priority areas tomeet changing market demand and con-sumers’ needs, while it addresses environmen-tal issues and adjusts its programme to theever-evolving fruit and vegetable sector inboth the North and the South. Characterizingthe nutritive value, sensory and aromaticproperties of fruit and vegetables, and pre-serving the quality of this produce by conser-
CHRONICA HORTICULTURAE •VOL 44 • NUMBER 4 •2004 • 31
Dr. Jacky Ganry is an agricultural scien-tist specializing in ecophysiology, agro-climatology and crop improvement. Hecurrently serves as Deputy Director forResearch at the Fruit and HorticulturalCrops Department of CIRAD, a Frenchscientific organization specializing indevelopment-oriented agriculturalresearch for the tropics and subtropics.He is presently a member of theCommittee for Research Cooperation ofISHS.
ABOUT THE
AUTHOR
Jacky Ganry
vation and transformation processes hasbecome a top priority. Structural and functio-nal genomics research is another key priorityof the department, focusing specifically ondisease resistance, enhancing fruit quality, andunderstanding the pathogenic mechanisms ofviruses in the banana genome. The depart-ment’s teams have established a world reputa-tion in this research field.
Research teams are also striving to promotesustainable agriculture in order to strike abalance between agri-environmental concernsand market requirements in terms of productquality and competitiveness. End users shouldbe able to benefit directly from the researchinnovations by adopting, sustainably integra-ting and using these research products in theirtraditional systems. This is the thrust ofmeetings that are organized regularly withstakeholders of the different subsectors.
CONTACT
Dr. Jacky Ganry, Cirad-flhor/Head ofDepartment, Bld. de la Lironde, 34398Montpellier Cedex 5, France, Phone:(+34) 4 67 61 71 49, Fax : (+34) 4 67 6158 71 or (+34) 4 67 61 56 88, email:[email protected]
Horticulture and the Horticultural Sciences, a wealth to the service of man, his health, his well-being, his way of life. How can this be preserved and yield a profit for humanity?
A modest response, is in the form of an agricultural “horticulturist”.
L’Horticulture et les Sciences Horticoles, une richesse au service de l’homme, de sa santé, deson bien-être, de son art de vivre. Comment préserver et faire fructifier ce capital au service del’humanité?
Une réponse modeste, en forme de “clin d’oeil”, d’un agronome “horticulturiste”.
Vivre! (Construire, Lutter, Oser, Résister, Life! (To Build, To Fight, To Dare, To Resist, ToRêver, Aimer, Vivre) Dream, To Love, To Live)
CONSTRUIRE, TO BUILD,
C’est notre contribution, This is our contribution,
Au monde; To the world;
Un peu d’éternité! A little eternity!
LUTTER, TO FIGHT,
C’est notre passion, This is our passion,
Sans fronde; Without catapult;
Source de liberté! Source of liberty!
OSER, TO DARE,
C’est oublier raison, This is to forget reason,
Tel l’onde; Like a wave;
Germe de progrès! To germinate progress!
RESISTER, TO RESIST,
C’est préserver le jour, This is to preserve the day,
Sa lumière; Its light;
Emerge la vérité! The truth appears!
REVER, TO DREAM,
Germe d’innovation, Is the seed of innovation,
Homère; Homer;
L’Iliade et l’Odyssée! The Illiad and the Odyssey!
AIMER, TO LOVE,
C’est donner sans retour, This is to give without return,
En être fier; And to be proud of this;
Socle de l’humanité! Basis of humanity!
VIVRE, TO LIVE,
C’est tout çà sans détour, There is no going back,
Aller vers; Go forward towards;
Bonheur, félicité! Happiness, bliss!
Jacky Ganry (translation: Clare Kennedy)
ISHS • 32
New Books, Websites
The books listed here are non-ISHS-publications. For ISHS publicationscovering these or other subjects, visitthe ISHS website www.ishs.org orthe Acta Horticulturae websitewww.actahort.org
This valuable book is a mini-encyclopediacovering 350 cultivated and wild vegetables oftropical Africa consisting of 275 review articles.Each article contains in depth coverage inclu-ding botanical and horticultural information.Many entries include line drawings as well asmaps of Africa delineating the presence of wildor naturalized plants by country. Especiallyuseful is a complete list of species used asvegetables in Africa. Appendices containliterature cited in the text and indices of ver-nacular names in various languages and scien-tific names. The book is also available in a CDversion. This will be an invaluable resource forall workers on African vegetables.
Diseases of Tropical Fruit Crops. R.C. Ploetz(ed.). 2003. CABI Publishing. 544p. ISBN 085199 390 7 (hardback). £99.50 (US$175.00).www.cabi-publishing.org
This up-to-date reference book consists of 20chapters each well referenced which cover allof the major tropical fruits including annonasand related species, avocado, banana andplantains, breadfruit, jackfruits, carambola, ci-trus, date, durian, fig, guava, kiwifruit, longan,lychee and rambutan, mango, mangosteen,papaya, passion fruit and pineapple. There is achapter on common pathogens of tropical fruitcrops and a final chapter on the managementof tropical fruit diseases. The last chapter men-tions the problems of pesticides but there is nomention of “organic” production; it seems thattropical fruits are almost as pesticide intensiveas cotton. There are three very useful appen-dices: one on microbe taxa, authorities andsynonyms, one on plant taxa, authorities andcommon names, and the last on insect and
acarid taxa, authorities and common names.This permits all authorities to be eliminated inthe text, which simplifies comprehension. Theindex is useful. The book is well illustrated witha separate insert of 128 colored plates andmany black and white figures. This will be anessential reference for all workers in tropicalfruits.
The Pineapple: Botany, Production and Uses.D.P. Bartholomew, R.E. Paul and K.G.Rohrbach (eds.). 2002. CABI Publishing.320p. 8p. of colour plates. ISBN 0 85199 5039 (hardback). £65.00 (US$120.00). www.cabi-publishing.org
This volume on one of the tropics most deli-cious fruits consists of 11 chapters: History,Distribution and World Production; Morpho-logy, Anatomy and Taxonomy; Breeding andVariety Improvement; Biotechnology; CropEnvironment, Plant Growth and Physiology;Cultural Systems; Plant Nutrition; Inflorescenceand Fruit Development and Yield; Pests,Diseases and Weeds; Postharvest Physiology,Handling and Storage of Pineapple; andProcessing. There is a useful index and 8 pagesof colored plates consisting of 42 pictures. Thisis truly an international work with contribu-tions by 18 authors (from Australia, Colombia,France, Malaysia, Taiwan, Hawaii andCalifornia in the United States), many of whomhave contributed to more than one chapter. Todetermine if this work published in 2002 wasup to date I checked the dates of the literaturecited of each chapter. While the latest refe-rence in one chapter (Cultural Systems) was1995, the latest reference for the others variedfrom 1998 to 2001.
Above books were reviewed by Jules Janick
WINE Flavour Chemistry. Ronald J. Clarke andJokie Bakker. 2004. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.336p. ISBN 1-4051-0530-5 (hardback).£85.00. www.blackwellpublishing.com
This book contains a wealth of information onthe chemistry of wine flavor as well as on sen-sory evaluation methods. The first three chap-ters provide basic information about viticul-ture, wine flavor, color, vinification proceduresof various kinds of wines and basic taste andstimulant components. The reader is intro-duced to the chemistry of wine in the thirdchapter where the authors review the nonvolatile constituents of a wide range of wines.Large parts of the rest of the book are devotedto volatiles. There is a genuine effort through-out the entire book to review and analyze thelink between the chemical structure, percep-tion and enological practices. The content ofthe book is based on recent published studies,
is well organized, focused and easy to read.Each chapter contains general recommendedliterature as detailed references. The chemicalformulas are relatively simple and aimed atpresenting molecular structures rather thanbiosynthetic pathways. Appendix I containsgeneral chemical data and some viticulturalinformation; and appendix ii contains units anddata sources of wine volatile compounds. Thisbook may therefore be of interest to scholars,consumers, and all those involved in wine pro-duction and trade including those who areafraid of chemistry.
Reviewed by Ben Ami Bravdo
Banana Improvement: Cellular, MolecularBiology, and Induced Mutations. S. MohanJain and Rony Swennen (eds.). 2004. SciencePublishers, Enfield, NH, USA. ISBN 1-57808-340-0 (hardback). $110.
Mohan Jain and Rony Swennen have compiledan excellent series of research reports, papersand review articles into a well-presented bookdealing with biotechnological approaches forthe conservation and genetic improvement ofMusa. The book had its origins in 1994 whenthe Plant Breeding and Genetics Section of theJoint Division FAO/IAEA started a CoordinatedResearch Project (CRP) involving scientistsfrom around the world. Its general aim was tointegrate radiation induced mutations, in vitroculture and molecular genetics into the con-ventional breeding of banana and plantain. Itculminated in the publication of this importantreference book.
The book is divided into sections covering celland tissue culture, mutation induction, genetic
CHRONICA HORTICULTURAE •VOL 44 • NUMBER 4 •2004 • 33
transformation, genomics (Musa and majorpathogens of Musa), screening for disease andnematode resistance, and molecular cytoge-netics. The book contains the results andachievements of CRP participants and the edi-tors have improved the book’s general appealby inviting other specialists to include additio-nal chapters, providing a more comprehensivecoverage of the research areas. It concludeswith recommendations made by the CRP tofurther advance international Musa improve-ment programs for food security, nutrition andemployment generation.
It is a timely book as banana and plantain con-tinue to be challenged with serious pests anddiseases and most of the important cultivarsare triploid and do not readily lend themselvesto conventional approaches for geneticimprovement. Biotechnology has and will con-tinue to have an important role in the deve-lopment of new cultivars and in assistingbreeders with their on-going efforts to pro-duce improved hybrids. I can recommend thisbook to all of those with an interest in the con-servation and genetic improvement of Musa,as well as those with gaining a better under-standing of how biotechnological approachescan be applied to other vegetatively propaga-ted crops.
Reviewed by Mike Smith
NEW TITLES
Arora, Rajeev (ed.). 2004. Adaptations andResponses of Woody Plants to EnvironmentalStresses. Food Products Press, The HaworthPress, Inc., New York. 311p. ISBN 1-56022-110-0 (hardback). $59.95. ISBN 1-56022-111-9 (paperback). $39.95. www.haworthpress.com
Litz, R.E. (ed.). 2004. Biotechnology of Fruitand Nut Crops. CABI Publishing. 768p. ISBN 085199 662 0 (hardback). £125.00(US$199.00). www.cabi-publishing.org
Walters, T. and R. Osborne (eds.). 2004. CycadClassification: Concepts and Recommen-dations. CABI Publishing. 304p. ISBN 0 85199741 4 (hardback). £55.00 (US$100.00).www.cabi-publishing.org
Lind, K., G. Lafer, K. Schloffer, G. Innerhoferand H. Meister. 2003. Organic Fruit Growing.CABI Publishing. 304p. ISBN 0 85199 640 X(hardback). £55.00 (US$100.00). www.cabi-publishing.org
Zhang, Zhi-Qiang. 2003. Mites of Green-houses: Identification, Biology and Control.CABI Publishing. 240p. ISBN 0 85199 590 X(hardback). £45.00 (US$80.00). www.cabi-publishing.org
Ploetz, R.C. (ed.). 2003. Diseases of TropicalFruit Crops. CABI Publishing. 544p. ISBN 085199 390 7 (hardback). £99.50 (US$175.00).www.cabi-publishing.org
Ferree, D.C. and I. Warrington (eds.). 2003.Apples: Botany, Production and Uses. CABIPublishing. 672p. ISBN 0 85199 592 6 (hard-back). £99.50 (US$175.00). www.cabi-pub-lishing.org
Bartholomew, D.P., R.E. Paul and K.G.Rohrbach (eds.). 2002. The Pineapple: Botany,Production and Uses. CABI Publishing. 320p.ISBN 0 85199 503 9 (hardback). £65.00(US$120.00). www.cabi-publishing.org
Pena, J., J. Sharp and M. Wysoki (eds.). 2002.Tropical Fruit Pests and Pollinators: Biology,Economic Importance, Natural Enemies andControl. CABI Publishing. 448p. ISBN 0 85199434 2 (hardback). £85.00 (US$149.00).www.cabi-publishing.org
Rabinowitch, H.D. and L. Currah (eds.). 2002.Allium Crop Science: Recent Advances. CABIPublishing. 528p. ISBN 0 85199 510 1 (hard-back). £95.00 (US$175.00). www.cabi-pub-lishing.org
WEBSITES
http://www.herbage.info/: The HerbageDatabase of Medicinal Herbs on CD-ROM,Fourth Edition
ISHS • 34
The following are non-ISHS events. Make sure to checkout the Calendar of ISHS Events for an extensive listingof all ISHS meetings. For updated information log on towww.ishs.org/calendar
Use of Molecular Markers in Plant Breeding - Advanced Course, 17-28January 2005, Cabrils, Barcelona, Spain. Info: Instituto AgronómicoMediterráneo de Zaragoza, Apartado 202, 50080 Zaragoza, Spain, Tel:+34 976 716000, Fax: +34 976 716001, email: [email protected],web: www.iamz.ciheam.org
20ème Salon du Végétal, 16-18 February 2005, Angers, France. Info:Luc Vandevelde, BHR, Centre Régional Horticole, Av. Amiral Chauvin,49130 Les Ponts-de-Cé, France, Phone: +33 2 41 79 14 17, Fax: +33 241 45 29 05, email: [email protected], web: www.salon-du-veg-etal.com
International Conference on Emerging Issues along Urban/RuralInterfaces: Linking Science and Society, 13-16 March 2005, Atlanta,Georgia, USA. Info: Dr. David N. Laband, conference coordinator,Forest Policy Center, School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, AuburnUniversity, 202 M. White Smith Hall, Auburn, AL 36849, Phone: 334-844-1074, Fax: 334-844-1084, email: [email protected], web:http://www.sfws.auburn.edu/urbanruralinterfaces/
8th International Workshop on Seeds, 8-13 May 2005, Brisbane,Australia. Info: Krys Henshaw or Allison Bertoni-Remmes, 8thInternational Workshop on Seeds, c/- Organisers Australia, PO Box
17th International Botanical Congress, 17-23 July 2005 andNomenclature Section, 12-16 July 2004, Vienna, Austria. Info: JosefGreimler, Institute of Botany, University of Vienna, Rennweg 14, A-1030 Vienna, Austria, Phone: +43 1 4277 54122, Fax: +43 1 42779541, email: [email protected], web: www.ibc2005.ac.at
32nd Annual Conference of the Plant Growth Regulation Society ofAmerica (PGRSA). 24-27 July 2005, Newport Beach, California, USA.Info: Dr. Sonja Maki, Biology Department, Carleton College, 1 NorthCollege Street, Northfield, MN 55057, USA, Phone: (1)5076464544,Fax: (1)5076465757, email: [email protected], web:www.griffin.peachnet.edu/pgrsa
6th International Cool Climate Symposium for Viticulture & Oenology,6-10 February 2006, Christchurch, New Zealand. Info: ICCS 2006Secretariat, c/- Professional Development Group, PO Box 84, LincolnUniversity, Canterbury, New Zealand, Phone: +64 3 325 2811 extn8955, Fax: +64 3 325 3685, email: [email protected], web:iccs2006.org.nz
International Conference on Cassava, 1-5 December 2006 (tentativedate), Brasilia or Africa. Info: Prof. Nagib Nassar, email:[email protected] or Dr. Rodomiro Ortiz, email: [email protected]
SYMPOSIA AND WORKSHOPSSYMPOSIA AND WORKSHOPS
Section Medicinal and Aromatic PlantsFirst Int’l Rose Hip Conference
More than 40 scientists from 13 countriesattended the 1st International Rose HipConference held in Gümüshane, Turkey, from7-10 September 2004. The meeting wasorganized jointly by Ataturk University, TheGovernorship of Gümüshane, The Ministry ofAgriculture and The Turkish Scientific andTechnical Research Council (TUBITAK) underthe auspices of the International Society forHorticultural Science (ISHS). The convener andchairman of the Organizing Committee,Associate Prof. Dr. Sezai Ercisli, chaired theconference. From both a scientific and a socialviewpoint it was a great success.
An opening speech by Prof. Dr. Sezai Ercisliformally welcomed all participants on behalf ofthe organizing committee. This was followedby addresses on behalf of Ataturk Universityand Governorship of Gümüshane given byProf. Dr. Omer Kaya and Governor Mr. HasanBasri Guzeloglu, respectively. Prof. Dr. Lyle E.Craker, Chairman of the Medicinal andAromatic Plant Section of ISHS, delivered animpressive plenary lecture entitled ‘TheImportance of Aromatic and Medicinal Plants.’
Conference attendees came from Azerbaijan,Belgium, Chile, Denmark, France, Hungary,India, Japan, Kazakhstan, Sweden, The
Netherlands, Turkey, and the USA. The techni-cal sessions included 23 oral and 29 poster pre-sentations, both of which attracted a largenumber of visitors. Covered topics includedgermplasm resources and biodiversity, geneticsand breeding, biology, physiology andchemistry, propagation and rootstock, industry,marketing and industry, pests and diseases andlandscape and architecture.
Most of the speakers spoke to the benefits ofthis crop as food and medicine, citing thevirtues of rose hips as an antioxidant, cancerprotector, diuretic, and laxative. The rose hips,including the oil from seeds, are known to con-
CHRONICA HORTICULTURAE •VOL 44 • NUMBER 4 •2004 • 35
tain active therapeutic and pharmaceuticalcompounds. Moreover, as a food crop, rosehips are well known to have good potential forenergy production.
The session on rose hip pests and diseases wasof great importance to those interested in thetypes of biological pests and their possiblecontrol. In addition, reports on the uniqueinheritance genetics of properties amongsome species of rose hip directed the attentionto the difficulty of characterizing the roseswithin the genera. Indeed, a number of paperswere devoted to the huge genetic diversitywithin rose hip species, making classificationof the plant difficult. Other presentationswarned of the danger of extinction of rose hip
germplasm and emphasized the necessity toestablish a germplasm repository system forrose hip species. Some research reports offereddescriptions of plant selections as potentialnew cultivars. Many speakers emphasized theneed to promote cultivation of rose hips toensure the future of the species. As extendingthe sustainable use of new crops with highpotential requires efficient propagation, reportson seed germination and treatments to ensurerooting success were also well received.
A full day technical and tourist tour occurredmid-conference with attendees visiting a newlyplanted rose hip orchard with 5000 seedlings.During the tour, a number of wild rose hipshrubs were seen at the various places visited.
Dr. Hilde Nybom presenting a gift toconvener Prof. Sezai Ercisli.
Field trip.
Participants of the Symposium.
The field trip also provided an opportunity tosee the Karaca Cave, the Summela Monestry,and the Trabzon-Uzungol region.
After the final session, a general discussion onrose hips was held. During the discussion, theattendees planned for future cooperative workand recommended the use of molecularmarkers instead of pigments to assess diversity,the establishment of a rose hip gene bank, andthe development of an overall strategy for theidentification, conservation, and sustainableuse of plant.
In addition, the attendees voted to establish aWorking Group on Rose Hips within theMedicinal and Aromatic Plant Section of theISHS with Dr. Hilde Nybom from Sweden asChairperson and Dr. Sezai Ercisli of Turkey asVice-Chairperson. Plans were made for a 2ndconference in Sweden in 2008. With that, theFirst International Conference of Rose Hips wasdeclared a success. The participants thankedthe people of Turkey, especially in Gümüshane,for their kind hospitality and Dr. Sezai Ercisliwas highly complimented for his excellentleadership in organizing the conference.
Selected papers, after peer review, will bepublished in Acta Horticulturae.
Sezai Ercisli
CONTACT
Prof. Dr. Sezai Ercisli, Ataturk UniversityAgricultural Faculty, Department ofHorticulture, 25240 Erzurum, Turkey,email:[email protected]
ISHS • 36
Section Nuts and Mediterranean Climate FruitsSixth Int’l Congress on Hazelnut
The 6th International Congress on Hazelnutwas held in Tarragona, North-East of Spain,June 14-18, 2004. The Congress offered aninternational forum to meet each other and toexchange experiences related to the latestresults concerning agronomic, industrial,health benefits and commercial aspects ofhazelnut growing. The Congress was orga-nized by the Institut de Recerca i TecnologiaAgroalimentàries (IRTA) - Centre Mas Bové incollaboration with the International Society forHorticultural Science (ISHS) and the FAO-CIHEAM Nut Network. This event was finan-cially supported by several institutions:Diputació de Tarragona, Ministerio de Cienciay Tecnología, European Union - projectPORTA, Generalitat de Catalunya - Agència deGestió d’Ajuts Universitaris i de Recerca(AGAUR), Instituto Nacional de Investigación yTechnologia Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA),Mediterranean Agronomic Institute ofZaragoza (IAMZ - CIHEAM), FAO-CIHEAMNut Network, Caixa Tarragona, Town councilsof Tarragona, Reus and Constantí and the pri-vate sponsors: Borges, Morella Nuts, IndústriesGarriga, Denomination of Origin “Avellana deReus”, Unió Agrària Cooperativa and Coselva.
Several authorities were represented in theopening session: the Councillor of Agriculture(Mr. Antoni Siurana) of the Generalitat ofCatalonia, the President of the Diputació ofTarragona (Mr. Joan Aregio), the Director of
IRTA Dr. Josep Tarragó, the Chairman of theSection Nuts and Mediterranean Climate Fruitsof the International Society for HorticulturalScience (ISHS) Prof. Carlo Fideghelli, the repre-sentative of the Centre International de HautesEtudes Agronomiques Méditerranéennes(CIHEAM), Dr. Dunixi Gabiña, and other localauthorities.
The meeting was opened with a word of wel-come by the convener, Dr. Joan Tous, whoreferred to the main economic characteristicsof the Spanish hazelnut sector, with 23.000 haand an average production of 9.000 tons ofkernel per year. Ninety-five % of this surface isconcentrated in Catalonia and, mainly inTarragona province (18.000 ha), where thehazelnut is an important source of income. InCatalonia region there are 7.000 small hazel-nut farms with an orchard size of about 1 to 5ha. In addition, most of these small farms needto be modernized. In this scenario, one of themost important aims is to reduce the manage-ment cost and improve nut quality in order toensure greater returns to growers. The hazel-nut sector is grouped in six OPA’s (NutGrowers Associations), all of them located inCatalonia. In Spain, hazelnut commercialisa-tion is mainly focused on the chocolate and“snacks” industries.
Dr. J. Tous also explained the history of thehazelnut Congresses in the world and notedthat the first Colloquium on Hazelnut in Spainwas held in Reus in 1862, organised by theInstitut Agricola of Sant Isidre. There, theintroduction the hazelnut tree was discussed asa possible alternative to grapevine in thecoastal areas of Tarragona, which was suc-cumbing to the problems of ‘powdery mildew’disease. Later on, in the year 1976, the 1stInternational Hazelnut Congress was held inReus (in this case together with the almond).Since then, different cities all over the worldhave hosted the meeting: Avellino, Italy(1983); Alba, Italy (1992); Ordu, Turkey
Carlo Fideghelli, ISHS Section Chair, handing out the “ISHS Medal Award” to the convenerof the Congress.
Opening session (sitting from left to right): Dr. J. Tous (Convener), Dr. J. Tarragó (Directorof IRTA), Mr. Antoni Siurana (Conseller of Agriculture of the Generalitat of Catalonia), Mr.J. Aregio (President of Diputació of Tarragona), Prof. Carlo Fideghelli (Chairman, ISHS-WGNuts and Mediterranean Fruits), and Dr. D. Gabiña (CIHEAM).
CHRONICA HORTICULTURAE •VOL 44 • NUMBER 4 •2004 • 37
Remarks and conclusions
� Current collections should be reviewedwith molecular markers
� International data base of molecular mar-kers is useful
� Phenological data of cultivars differaccording to sites and climatic conditions
� Knowledge about incompatibility (S) alle-les in hazelnut cultivars is required
� Rootstocks could be of great interest tosolve specific problems, such as: improve-ment of agronomic characteristics of‘Negret’ cultivar (IRTA, Spain)
� High N fertilizer doses could have a yielddepressing effect
� Reference of P in leaves should be revisedin some areas
� The irrigation should be adapted to thephysiologic phases of the crop
� The Spanish strategy is to developOrganised Technicians Groups (ADV) tohelp farmers with new EU policy regula-tions (IPM)*
� New technologies of Teledetection (GPS orGIS) to study large growing areas andtheir problems
� The “Eastern Filbert Blight” fungus problemincreases in Oregon hazelnut orchards
� Possibilities for biological control willincrease, such as control of “Zeuzera” inSpain
� More research is needed on food security(aflatoxin)
� Most marketing efforts use the healthystrategy
� Nut kernels improve health and do notseem to increase body weight
� Turkish policy could reduce surface by25%
� Market for organic production seems onthe increase
� High alternate bearing in the crops of themain producing countries
� Consumer studies can give relevant infor-mation to enhance strategies of producers,industries, distribution and research
� There are other alternative nut species(Gevuina avellana, in Chile)
Table 1. Main scientific remarks and conclusions of the VIth International Congress on Hazelnut.
Session(nº of contributions)
1. Germplasm and Genetic Improvement(30)
2. Biology and Physiology (12)
3. Propagation and Rootstocks (6)
4. Orchard Management (24)
5. Pest and Diseases (16)
6. Post Harvest and Quality (7)
7. Health and Nuts (2)
8. Industry, Marketing and Economics (10)
Main aspects
� Behaviour and adaptations of hazelnut cul-tivars to new zones
� Behaviour of several breeding results(limited advances until now)
� Molecular markers� Many presentations focused on table
varieties
� Particular problems vary per country andzone (examples)
� Nut fall in Australia� Selection of pollinizers in Chile� Studies on root distribution in Portugal� Shedding effects on flowering in Italy
� Achievement of hardwood cuttings’method
� Nutrition and pruning� Improvement of harvest facilities
(machinery, pruning, green covers)� Organic production
� Solution for specific problems in specificzone
� General pest and disease studies for wide-spread areas
� Increasing problems with traditional pests(bug species) which affect kernel quality
� Biological control
� Chemical composition of old as well as newcultivars
� Drying to avoid aflatoxin problems, inTurkey
� Nut composition and effects on health� Scientific evidences of disease prevention
by the consumption of nuts
� Crop and international price prediction� Consequences of national policies, mainly
for the main producing country (Turkey)� Organic production
* IPM (Integrated Pest Management)
(1996), Corvallis, USA (2000) and finallyTarragona, Spain (2004), twenty eight yearsafter the first international event. Prof. CarloFideghelli (Chair of the ISHS Section Nuts and
Mediterranean Climate Fruits) gave the “ISHSMedal Award” to the convener to acknow-ledge his effort for the organisation of theCongress.
The Congress was attended by 125 partici-pants from 20 countries: Turkey, Italy, USA(Oregon), Spain (Catalonia), France, Portugal,Australia, China, New Zealand, Poland, Chile,
Section Pome and Stone Fruits
ISHS • 38
CONTACT
Dr. Joan Tous (convener) and Dr. MercèRovira (secretariat), IRTA-Centre MasBové, Apartat 415, 43280 Reus, Spain,email: [email protected];[email protected]
Argentina, Ukraine, India, Albania, Austria,Georgia, Switzerland, The Netherlands andSlovenia. A total number of 107 scientificpapers was presented, 43 as oral communica-tions and 64 as posters. The topics of thisCongress were related to the following issues:1) Germplasm and Genetic Improvement, 2)Biology and Physiology, 3) Propagation andRootstocks, 4) Orchard Management, 5) Pest
Participants of the Congress at the Palace of the Diputació of Tarragona.
and Diseases, 6) Post Harvest and Quality, 7)Health Benefits and 8) Industry, Marketing andEconomics. In Table 1 the main scientificremarks and conclusions are summarized.
Researchers had the opportunity to visit theexperimental fields of IRTA-Mas BovéResearch Centre (collection of hazelnutgermplasm, rootstock- and cultivar trials andseedlings collection of Gevuina avellana
Ullensvang on the west coast of Norwaywas the venue for the 8th InternationalSymposium on Plum and Prune Genetics,Breeding and Pomology between September5-9 2004. Hosting institution was UllensvangResearch Centre of the Norwegian CropResearch Institute (NCRI). The event attracted60 participants from 23 different countries ofthe Northern hemisphere.
The programme contained sessions on gene-tics and breeding, plum pox virus, rootstocks,cultivars, fruit quality, postharvest topics andeconomics. A mid-symposium tour to the fruitbreeding division at Njøs in Sogn, a visit to alocal fruit grower and to the UllensvangResearch Centre was included in the tightly-
Eighth Int’l Symposium on Plumand Prune Genetics, Breeding andPomology
packed programme. Twenty participants alsoattended a post-symposium tour to the fruitdistricts in the eastern part of South Norway.Both symposia tours allowed studies of thebeautiful landscape of South Norway, as didthe Symposium venue itself.
A total of 12 European and American plumbreeding programmes were represented, fromwhich data on recent progress in breedingmethods and cultivar releases were presented.Classical breeding techniques are still domina-ting in the plum breeding reported, butprospects for new breeding techniques werepresented and will probably be adopted incoming years. Several new promising cultivarswere reported. ‘Valor’ seems to be a cultivar
Weisheng Liu from China and Lars Seksefrom Norway discussing plum research.Photo by J. Schärer.
specie), commercial hazelnut orchards, anexhibition of several harvest machines and nutindustries (Borges and Coselva). An Open Dayfor the sector was organised with two work-shops: “World hazelnut situation and perspec-tives in France, USA, Italy, Turkey and Spain”and “Production and commercial aspects onhazelnut”. Also, main scientific conclusions ofthe Congress were presented to the sector.
As suggested by Italian researchers, the 7thISHS International Congress on Hazelnut, willbe held in Viterbo (Italy), probably in summer2008.
The five days of the congress were a friendlycourse of excellent scientific presentations andrelaxed discussions. Moreover, they offeredparticipants a good opportunity to learn newaspects about our region and local habits.
Papers will be published as a volume of ActaHorticulturae in the near future.
J. Tous and M. Rovira
CHRONICA HORTICULTURAE •VOL 44 • NUMBER 4 •2004 • 39
Locally produced apples, pears andplums at Planteforsk Njøs at Leikanger.Photo by J. Schärer.
The participants of the Symposium outside the symposium venue Ullensvang Hotel atLofthus, Norway. Photo by J. Børve.
for the future in European plum production.
Plum Pox Virus (PPV) is regarded as the mostdetrimental disease of plums in Europe. Apresentation of the PPV eradication pro-gramme in Norway was given. In severalcountries in central and southern Europe era-dication is no longer possible. Nevertheless,most programmes focus on breeding for PPVresistance, and considerable progress has beenachieved both on tolerance and resistance. So,the ultimate goal of resistant cultivars seemsto be closer than ever. Data were presentedboth on resistance based on hypersensitivity
Reports were presented from different root-stock trials in Europe aiming to find a moredwarfing and precocious rootstock than St.Julien A. Promising results were obtained withthe Wagenheim and the Russian VVA-1 root-stock to different cultivars.
Organic plum production is being investigatedin several countries in Europe. In spite of thesuitability of the plum to be grown organically,it seems to be difficult for this type of produc-tion to increase.
Overviews of plum production in some coun-tries revealed pronounced differences; Chinaproduces 4.3 million tons (!), mainly of Prunussalicina-cultivars, which is more than 40% ofthe total world production, against Norway’smodest 1000 tons of P. domestica-cultivars.
In Norway the value of the fruit growing is farmore than the value of the crop itself. Thelandscape produced by fruit growing is crucialin the marketing of an increasingly importanttourist industry.
Lars Sekse and Eivind Vangdal
and on resistance based on genetic modifica-tion and posttranscriptional gene silencing.PPV is also an important factor in every effortto evaluate cultivars and rootstocks. Conse-quently PPV was an important topic in severaldiscussions.
Did you renew your ISHS membership?Logon to www.ishs.org/members
and renew online!
ISHS • 40
With the theme of “Answering GlobalDemands: High Quality Fruits from Field toTable,” the Third International Symposium onPersimmon was held from October 5 till 7 inJinju, Korea. The Symposium was followed bya 2-day tour. The Organizing Committeedecided to have the Symposium at one of themajor production areas of sweet persimmon inKorea. The timing was perfect: the fruits werealmost ready to be harvested few weeks later.
A total of 102 participants from 12 countriesattended the Symposium. Prof. Dr. Jae-KyunByun (Chairman of the OrganizingCommittee), Prof. Dr. Jung-Myung Lee(President of the 27th IHC), Prof. Dr. AkiraSugiura (Chairman of the Working Group onPersimmon of IHC), Dr. J.H. Kim (President ofKyungnan-do ARES), Prof. Dr. Elvio Bellini ofItaly, and Drs. J.C. Lee and K.C. Lee (AdvisoryCommittee) presided at the opening ceremo-ny.
The Symposium was organized in six sessions.The first session was an introduction of per-simmon around the world in relation toscience and industry. The efforts to expand theproduction area in subtropical regions inclu-ding India were highlighted. Papers andposters were presented in separate sessions forgenetics and breeding, cultural practices, com-pounds of special interest in persimmon, andpost-harvest technology. A closing lecture wasgiven by Prof. Sugiura of Japan. He summa-rized the research he and his colleagues havebeen doing at Kyoto University in Japan forthe last 36 years. His lecture reminisced about
Section Tropical and Subtropical FruitsThird Int’l Symposium on Persimmon
the changes in persimmon research in fourdecades, mainly from cultural to molecular andbiotechnological aspects, to improve persim-mon. He also gave the participants someinsights into the important areas of research inthe years to come.
Papers and posters presented at the geneticsand breeding session of the Symposiumreceived most attention. Two invited speakers,Dr. Masahiko Yamada of Japan and Dr. ElvioBellini of Italy, summarized the geneticresources of persimmon in the East and Westand their effort and achievement of persim-mon breeding. Highlighted in this summarywas the introduction of several pollination-constant nonastringent (PCNA) type persim-mon in China by Dr. Zhengrong Luo of Chinaand Prof. Keizo Yonemori of Japan. This intro-duction may have significant impact toincrease the potential for the development ofnew PCNA cultivars, since very narrow geneticvariability of this type of persimmon has so farbeen a major obstacle to breeding efforts toimprove PCNA type persimmon. Introductionto native cultivars and strains of Jeju-do islandin Korea by Dr. Hae-Ho Park, as well as thetechnological advances involved in ploidymanipulation of recalcitrant persimmon by Dr.Ryutaro Tao’s group at Kyoto Universityreceived much attention.
All participants had a chance to visit a 4.5-hectare persimmon orchard owned by Mr. Jae-
Mr. Seong explains his way of growingpersimmon at his orchard during a tech-nical visit.
Participants of the Symposium.
CONTACT
Dr. Seong-Mo Kang, Department ofHorticulture, Gyeongsang NationalUniversity, Jinju 660-701, South Korea,email: [email protected]
Hee Seong to get a glimpse of persimmonfruits produced in Korea. Our colleagues wereamazed by Mr. Seong’s painstaking efforts toproduce top of the top-quality fruits in an envi-ronment-friendly way. Field discussions atSweet Persimmon Research Institute continueduntil darkness fell when trees were hardly visi-ble in the field.
At the business meeting, all participantsapproved the proposal presented by Prof.Sugiura to have the fourth Symposium in Italyin 2008. All participants also approved torecommend Prof. Bellini of Italy to be the nextChairperson of the ISHS Working Group onPersimmon.
Seong-Mo Kang
CHRONICA HORTICULTURAE •VOL 44 • NUMBER 4 •2004 • 41
The 10th International Workshop on FireBlight was held in Bologna, Italy from 5th - 9thJuly 2004. The Workshop was organized bythe Department of AgroenvironmentalSciences and Technologies (Di.STA), Faculty ofAgriculture, University of Bologna. AvenueMedia, Bologna, acted as the secretariat. Alarge number of participants, 159, from 27countries attended the Workshop. A total of127 papers was presented, of which 46 wereoral presentations and 81 posters. There weresix main sessions, as well as discussion groupson different topics. A final summarizing discus-sion on each session, on action points andfuture collaborations were facilitated by thechairpersons, Chris Hale (CNH Consulting,New Zealand) and Carlo Bazzi (Di.STA,University of Bologna, Italy). A mid-workshoptour included a visit to apple and pear nurseriesin the Mezzano valleys (Po River Delta) and avisit to the city of art, Ravenna. The workshopwas very successful and allowed the partici-pants to exchange knowledge and to planfuture collaboration in the area of fire blightresearch. The Organizing Committee wouldlike to thank those who contributed to the suc-cess of such event, particularly those involvedin administration and sponsorship.
Commission Plant ProtectionTenth Int’l Workshop on Fire Blight
At a special ceremony, presentations weremade to Eve Billing and Tom van der Zwetacknowledging their important contribu-tions to fire blight research over many years.A presentation was also made to Prof. CarloBazzi by ISHS in recognition of his contribu-tions to both fire blight research and horti-cultural science.
SPREAD, ECONOMICS,DETECTION ANDQUARANTINE
This session was chaired by Maria M. López(IVIA, Valencia, Spain) and AlessandraCalzolari (Regional Phytosanitary Service,Bologna, Italy) who introduced presentationson the present world-wide distribution of fireblight, which has been recorded and reportedin 46 countries. Updates were presented onthe disease on a number of hosts in variouscountries. The standardization of diagnosticprotocols and the development of suitablemethods for early detection and monitoring ofthe pathogen were discussed. The session alsoincluded papers on the economic impact ofdisease outbreaks and management.
EPIDEMIOLOGY ANDPREDICTION
This session, chaired by Timothy J. Smith(Washington State University, USA), includedpapers on important epidemiological aspectsof the disease. Among these were: a) the over-all effects of weather and interlinked events onfire blight incidence and severity; b) Erwiniaamylovora population dynamics in flowers ofsusceptible and tolerant apple cultivars and onapple leaf surfaces, where rapid temperaturechanges can lead to the establishment of thepathogen within the leaf and can favour shootblight development; c) information on the epi-phytic flower populations of E. amylovora inindividual orchards rapidly determined by RealTime PCR; d) the survival capacity and mainte-nance of pathogenicity of the bacterium innatural aquatic environments and the role offresh water as a reservoir and vehicle of inocu-lum; e) the role of blossom infections duringautumn; and f) the influence of nectary struc-ture, nectar characteristics and flower age ondisease susceptibility. The use of epidemiolo-gical information and seasonal adjustments tofire blight warning thresholds of current fore-casting models was discussed in relation to the
Visit to the pear and apple nurseries in the Mezzano valleys (Po River Delta).
ISHS • 42
evaluation and comparison of such modelsand their optimisation to improve spray timingfor disease control. The importance of moni-toring networks, based on forecasting systemsto facilitate identification of risk areas andphytosanitary inspections, was also high-lighted.
FIRE BLIGHT CONTROLSTRATEGIES
Virginia O. Stockwell (Oregon State Univer-sity, USA) and Brion Duffy (Agroscope FAW,Wadenswill, Switzerland) chaired this session,in which papers were presented on chemicaland biological control of fire blight and effortsto optimise disease management throughintegrated control programmes. Present prac-tices and future prospects were reviewed byHerb S. Aldwinckle (NYSAES, CornellUniversity, Geneva N.Y., USA). Results on thedevelopment, performance, commercialisa-tion, potential and limitations of chemicals andbioagents were presented from a number ofcountries. These included different elicitors ofplant defence responses (e.g. dioxygenaseinhibitors) and their mechanisms of action,new bactericides and new copper formulationsagainst E. amylovora cells, and their effective-ness when used alone or in combination withbioagents. The latter included various antago-nist bacterial species and the biosynthesis ofantimicrobial compounds, phage lysozyme,avirulent mutants of E. amylovora, yeast for-mulations, plant extracts, essential/ ethericoils, aromatic compounds, insect-pathogennematodes and fungal elicitor proteins.
Other papers in the session dealt with mecha-nisms of action of different bioagents in thecontrol of fire blight under different environ-mental conditions and with factors affectingmicrobial antagonism. One paper consideredthe pear pollinator Osmia cornuta as an effec-tive means for secondary spread of beneficialbacteria.
BIOLOGY AND GENETICS
The session chaired by Steven V. Beer (CornellUniversity, Ithaca N.Y., USA) focused on E.amylovora gene clusters, which are essentialfor infection, and on cross regulation amongeffectors’ secretion systems under crucialinducing conditions. Contributions dealt withphenetic and genetic traits of E. amylovorastrains and plasmid diversity in virulent strainsfrom different origins, providing additionaltools in the molecular tracking of the bacteriumin nature. Of particular note was the discoveryof conserved gene sequences in E. amylovoraresponsible for the so-called autoinduction(quorum sensing), a density dependent phe-nomenon that enables many plant- andzoopathogenic bacteria to coordinate theexpression of virulence genes through smallsignaling molecules (autoinducers). Regulationof the synthesis of exopolysaccharides in E.amylovora, E. pyrifoliae, and Erwinia strains(Asian pear blight in Korea and Japan, respec-tively), their characterization and role in patho-genicity were described. An exhaustive 20-yearstory of molecular genetics with E. amylovorainvolving EPS synthesis and other virulencefactors was presented by Klaus Geider (Max-
Fire Blight Group in Piazza Maggiore, Bologna.
Planck-Institut für Zellbiologie, Ladenburg,Germany). The intellectual and practicalimportance of sequencing the entire genomeof E. amylovora was highlighted by the chair-man with an on-line demonstration plannedfor the workshop. The project is being carriedout by Cornell University, the Sanger Institute(UK), and the University of Wisconsin.Throughout the sequencing process progresswill be posted on appropriate web sites.
HOST-PATHOGENINTERACTIONS
The session chaired by George W. Sundin(Michigan State University, East Lansing, USA)included papers on expressed effector proteinstravelling through a functional type III secre-tion system in E. amylovora and acting aspathogenicity and avirulence determinants incompatible and incompatible interactions,respectively. The bacterial gene products criti-cal for secretion and translocation of effectorproteins, whether or not certain secretedeffector proteins are translocated into plantcells and their interactions with plant compo-nents were determined, as well as the effectson plant physiology and their critical role forthe development of fire blight. The involve-ment of the phenylpropanoid pathway in theinteraction E. amylovora/apple, the role ofphenolics during the interaction and the abilityof the bacterium to downregulate or inducethe genes of this pathway in susceptible andresistant genotypes, respectively were shown.Marie-N. Brisset (INRA, Angers, France)described plant responses to infection and themechanisms related to resistance and suscepti-ble responses in Malus genotypes undergoinginfection.
BREEDING FOR RESISTANCEAND TRANSGENICS
This session, chaired by David M. Hunter(Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada), includedpapers on breeding programmes from variouscountries. Screening of the reactivity of appleand pear genotypes to E. amylovora bothunder experimental and natural infection con-ditions was a key theme. New pear and applegenotypes with good agronomic performanceshowed low disease susceptibility and someselections are already commercially available.Approaches to elucidate the nature of resis-tance in some apple rootstock clones indicatedthat this may result from a suppressive effecton bacterial multiplication after grafting withscion cultivars. Transgenic apple lines/varietieswith fire blight resistance due to silencingand/or over-expression of native apple gene(s)were considered more acceptable than trans-genics with heterologous genes. Otherpromising ways to improve apple and pearresis-tance including transgenes expressing the
CHRONICA HORTICULTURAE •VOL 44 • NUMBER 4 •2004 • 43
Blighted pear shoot with bacterialexudate.
CONTACT
Prof. Carlo Bazzi, Dpi.di Scienze e Tech.Agroambientali, Univ. of Bologna, Italy,e-mail: [email protected]
human iron-chelating protein lactoferrin andthe protein harpin N from E. amylovora werediscussed. Other papers focused on the deve-lopment of molecular markers (QTLs) linked tofire blight resistance of apple and pear.
Chairpersons presented summaries of keytopics of each session and proposed actionpoints, facilitating the discussion with the par-ticipants. Emphasis was put on researchadvances and on issues such as evaluation ofeconomic impact of fire blight and optimisa-tion/standardization of detection methods.Also highlighted were the importance of:
� an official list of natural hosts of E. amylovo-ra, a world collection of well characterizedstrains and related pathogens;
� perfection of prediction models and a bettertechnology to improve forecasts and theirpractical use;
� the great diversity of tools (agronomic, bio-logical, chemical, etc.) against fire blight thatreally need to be viewed in the frame of eco-friendly integrated control measures suitablefor sustainable production; fundamentalresearch at the molecular level to help prac-tical application of known and novel com-mercial products and biopreparations;
� a better knowledge of biological and gene-tic traits of E. amylovora populations forimproved understanding of pathogen cellcommunication and modulation of geneexpression in the plant niche through signalmolecules;
� the screening of germplasm resistance andthe potential of a series of evaluation toolsfor apple and pear breeding and transgenics;
� a fire blight web site, very rich in links, whichdoes include research results and newinsights.
BUSINESS MEETING
At the Fire Blight Working Group businessmeeting Prof. Carlo Bazzi from the Depart-ment of Agroenvironmental Sciences andTechno-logies, University of Bologna, Italy,was elected as the new Chair. Dr. Virginia O.Stockwell, Oregon State University, Corvallis,USA, was elected as the Convenor of the 11thInternational Workshop on Fire Blight to beheld in 2007 in Portland, Oregon, USA.
Carlo Bazzi
FROM THE SECRETARIATFROM THE SECRETARIAT
New ISHS Members
We are pleased to welcome the fol-lowing new members:
NEW ORGANISATIONMEMBERS:
Netherlands:Corn. Bak bv.
Portugal:ADP Adubos de Portugal sa
NEW INDIVIDUALMEMBERS:
Argentina: Pita, Guillermo Mr.; Plata, Maria-Ines Ms.; Australia: Allen, Rebecca Ms.;Aschcroft, Bill Mr.; Bardon, David Mr.; Barry,Carl; Biggs, Ian Dr.; Fraser, Shaun; Girbon,Damon; Guest, David Prof. Dr.; Harvey, Brad
Mr.; Henderson, Craig Mr.; James, HannahMiss.; Kennedy, John Mr.; Krstic, Mark Mr.;Linehan, Chris Mr.; Liu, Shiming Dr.;Lochhead, Scott; McFadyen, Lisa Ms.;McIntyre, Andrew Mr.; Murray-Prior, Roy Dr.;O’Donoghue, Rachel Ms.; Orzek, Sybille Ms.;Palmer, Sarah Ms.; Ravetti, Leandro Mr.;Rayner, John Mr.; Ritchie, Jarrod Mr.; Rixon,Charissa Ms.; Smith, Douglas John Mr.; Smith,Toby Mr.; Taylor, Sharyn Dr.; Austria: Montri,Nattaya Ms.; Belgium: Maes, Leen; Ndossi,Humphrey Peter Mr.; Benin: Boons, Peter Mr.;Botswana: Wiles, Geoff Dr.; Brazil: Argenta,Luiz Dr.; Castro, Roberto Ms.; Corrêa, PauloProf. Dr.; de Melo, Plínio Mr.; Rahmeier, FabioCristiano; Bulgaria: Krasteva, Lilia Prof. Dr.;Canada: Awad, Husam Eldin; Constabel,Caroline Dr.; Derkacz, Maria Ms.; Dow,
Maurice Dr.; Gieselman, Tanis; Howe, Jeff Mr.;Switzer, Carolyn Ms.; Chile: Araneda, MabelMs.; Lira, Javier Mr.; China: Liu, Wei Dr.; Qin,Ling Prof. Dr.; Shi-Rong, Guo Prof. Dr.; Si,Yaping Prof. Dr.; Wang, Shaohui Dr.; Yao,Yuncong Prof. Dr.; Zhibin, Zhang Prof. Dr.;Costa Rica: Matos, Huber; Ecuador: Torres,Julio Mr.; Finland: Rappe, Erja Ms.; France: deRambures, Pierre; Gachet, Didier Mr.; Pfister,Sophie Ms.; Gambia: Ajakaiye, Ojo-Isheghohime Mr.; Ishola, Irewumi Mr.;Germany: Oenings, Peter; von Fragstein, PeterProf. Dr.; Greece: Kavga, Angeliki Ms.;Tripanagnostopoulos, Yiannis Prof.;Guatemala: Escaler, Luis Mr.; India: Ashok,Doraiswami; Biswas, Siddhartha Mr.; DevaKumar, Thangamalai Mr.; Kanagarajan,Selvaraju Mr.; Indonesia: Dimyati, Ahmad Dr.;
ISHS • 44
Kian, Max; Salameh, Khalid Mr.; Sulistiani,Erina; Iran: Koocheki, Avaz Prof. Dr.; Ireland:Donnelly, Ciaran Mr.; Israel: Gamliel,Abraham Dr.; Hanani, Zohar; Hovev, Alon Mr.;Wolfson, Duby Mr.; Italy: Gambetta, MassimoDr.; Japan: Hirosaki, Osamu Mr.; Kageyama,Setsuo Dr.; Yagi, Toshiaki Mr.; Yamakawa,Osamu Dr.; Kenya: Vandenbosch, Tom Mr.;Korea (Republic of): Lee, Goun Ms.; Lee,Minkee Mr.; Ryu, Kwan-Shig Prof. Dr.;Malaysia: Ahmad, Asiah Dr.; Malta: Curmi,Ruben Mr.; Mexico: Arriaga, Kutzi; James,Andrew Dr.; Parra, Salvador Prof.;Netherlands: Biewinga, Edo; Driessen, Bart;van der Wal, Sanne; van Sambeeck, Theo Mr.;New Zealand: Burgess, Ron Mr.; Green, JoyMs.; Harford, Andrew Mr.; Kaine, Geoff Dr.;Mawson, John Ass. Prof.; Murphy, Robert Dr.;O’Connell, Cherie Ms.; Pathirana, Ranjith Dr.;Watson, Maurice; Nigeria: Egharevba,Rachael Prof.; Ekaette, Idaresit Ms.;Philippines: Balito, Leonor Elizabet Ms.;Tejano, Luciano Mr.; Poland: Andrzej, Janusz;
Pietranek, Anna; Portugal: Abreu, Rui Mr.;Eicher, Irmgard Ms.; Silva, Filipe; Reunion:Strz281bicki, Dariusz Mr.; Romania: Sumalan,Radu Prof. Dr.; Saudi Arabia: Albarih, SamiMs.; Singapore: Rahman M., Mallick F. Dr.;Slovakia: Tóth, László Mr.; South Africa: DeLange, Gerrit Mr.; Stolze, Helene Ms.;Symondson, Guy Mr.; Spain: Barrau, CarmenDr.; Escobar, Calixto; Perez Hernandez, PedroPablo Prof.; Ríos Mesa, Domingo J. Prof. Dr.;Savio, Maria Celeste; Vandoorne, Edward Mr.;Sri Lanka: Institute of Fundamental Studies;Sweden: Fondelius, Mats G.; Gaunitz, PeterMr.; Tonga: Fa’anunu, Haniteli H. Dr.; Turkey:Adisen, Mehmet Dr.; Atli, Erman Mr.; Ercisli,Sezai Prof. Dr.; Feyzullah, Hasan Mr.; Kacar,Oya Dr.; Soylu, Arif Prof. Dr.; Watson, GordonMr.; United Arab Emirates: Rajagopalan,Suresh Mr.; United Kingdom: Cooper, JohnMr.; Denyer-Green, Barry Dr.; Farish, Stephen;Hanna, Rachid Dr.; Lehmann, Karlo Petar Mr.;Pappa, Agathi Valentini Ms.; Ranchhod, AshokProf.; Swarbreck, Crispian Mr.; Thomas, Tracey
Ms.; Warner, Doug Dr.; United States ofAmerica: Almeida, Marialuci Dr.; Andros,Matt; Anglin, Sue; Antrosio, Rebekah;Bowman, Ernie Mr.; Burch, Ronald Dr.;Burrack, Hannah Ms.; Burroughs, Holly Ms.;Campbell, William; Cannon, Scott Mr.; Cox,David; DuBruille, James; Garcia, Rolando;Hansen, James Mr.; Holder, Susan Ms.;Holmes, Alfred; Jones, Jeff Prof.; Kimmel,Mark Mr.; Li, Shuhai Mr.; Long, Glenn;Marquez, Carlos Mr.; McGinnis, Michelle;Mentreddy, Rao Dr.; Mixon, Jr., Jerry Mr.;Mou, Beiquan Dr.; O’Callaghan, Angela Dr.;Omatsu, Toshihide Mr.; Panchul, Yuri; Pereira,Eliseu; Perino, Justin; Popenoe, Juanita;Roberts, Johnnie Mr.; Robinson, M.L. Prof.;Rubin, Patti Ms.; Smith, Barbara; Sutherland,Jeanette; Titus, Leah; Triano, Steven Dr.; Tung,Yuen-Ja Ms.; Van der Staay, Rob Mr.; Xu, XiaDr.; Zerkoune, Mohammed Dr.
MANUEL CARRERAMORALES
Dr. Manuel (“Manolo”) Carrera Moralespassed away last October 16 in Zaragoza atthe age of 63 after a long and painful illness.His solid work, his wide fruit knowledge andhis warm personality will however stay amongus forever.
He was a fruit researcher very well knownboth at the Spanish and international levels,not only in his preferred species, pear andpeach, but also in the wide field of fruitgrowing and gardening, subjects that hetaught at the Agricultural School of LaAlmunia and previously at Lleida. However, healso showed interest in small fruits, publishingone of the first Spanish articles on raspberriesand the first one on Actinidia.
Pear was definitely his preferred species. Hewas not only the Spanish reference researcherfor this species but he was also known all overthe world. He had been Chairman of the ISHSPear Working Group and organized the ISHSPear Symposium in Zaragoza in 1988. Laterhe became a member of the Board ofDirectors of the Fruit Section of the ISHS untilhis death. He was also a founding member ofthe Spanish Society for Horticultural Sciencesand member of the Spanish association AIDA,for which he organized, in 1979, a Workshopon Fruit Storage.
He also had a deep knowledge of peach, avery dynamic species in which intensive
In Memoriam
Manuel Carrera Morales
breeding is changing the cultivar panorama allover the world. It is difficult to undertake anoriginal breeding programme in this species,but he focused his objectives in unusual traits,including white clingstones for fresh use (as hisrelease ‘Montaced’), yellow clingstones forfresh use and specific ripening time(‘Montamar’) or flat peaches (‘Montejota’).
His research was conducted at the FruitGrowing Department of the present CITA deAragón, previously Servicio de InvestigaciónAgraria and CRIDA 03 of INIA, having been itsHead for several years. He showed a generaland complete vision of fruit growing. A fruitgrower himself, he had the rare ability to joinscience and field experience in a perfect sym-biosis which only a few professionals are ableto reach, but showing at the same time theability to transfer his knowledge, fulfilling thetrue mission of a horticultural researcher.During recent years he published several out-standing books on fruit cultivars, the last one afruit catalogue published also in a CD format.
I met him for the first time in November 1975for the rehearsal of his PhD dissertation onflower initiation in pear, whose field work was
carried out in England, in the National FruitTrials at Brogdale and at the ExperimentalStation of East Malling. Shortly after weundertook together a pollination trial of thepear ‘Président Drouard’. Since then we havebeen friends and colleagues, sharing someresearch projects, enjoying his advice andgood friendship. From my point of view, sinceMariano Cambras’s death in 1984, he hasbeen the Spanish researcher with the best viewof Spanish Fruit Growing. Just as with MarianoCambra, it was impossible to find anybodythat had argued with Manolo.
Just one year ago, when I came back from theEucarpia Symposium on Fruit Breeding andGenetics, entrusted with organizing the nextSymposium in Zaragoza, I asked him to givethe first conference on peach breeding forunusual objectives. He replied that he wouldbe retired, although I argued that this was nota problem. Then he said that he was starting tosee very good results in a pear rootstock trialand in the peach breeding programme, rea-sons for which he would like to stay longer atwork. Unfortunately, this has not been possi-ble and he will not be able to see how theresults of his research are efficiently transferredto the field, the only valid measure for a horti-cultural researcher, as Manolo always was andalways continues to be for us.
R. Socias i Company, Head, Fruit Growing Department,CITA de Aragón, Spain
CHRONICA HORTICULTURAE •VOL 44 • NUMBER 4 •2004 • 45
Calendar of ISHS Events
For updates and more logon to www.ishs.org/calendar.Always mention your ISHS membership number or attachcopy of your ISHS membership card when registering. Areduced ISHS members registration fee applies.
YEAR 2005:
� March 13-17, 2005, Bonn (Germany): X International Symposium onTiming of Field Production in Vegetable Crops. Info: Dr. Felix Lippert,Institut für Obstbau und Gemüsebau, Universität Bonn, Auf dem Hügel6, 53121 Bonn, Germany. Phone: (49)228735139, Fax:(49)228735764, email: [email protected]: www.gartenbauwissenschaft.uni-bonn.de/vegcrop2005
� April 11-15, 2005, East London (South Africa): IV InternationalPineapple Symposium. Info: Mr. Allen Graham Duncan, ManagingDirector, Summerpride Foods Ltd., PO Box 507, East London, 5200,South Africa. Phone: (27)2743-7311770, Fax: (27)2743-7311544,email: [email protected] web: www.pinesymp05.org
� May 16-20, 2005, Faro (Portugal): III International Symposium on Figs.Info: Prof. Dr. José Leitão, FERN, University of Algarve, Campus deGambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal. Phone: (351)289800939, Fax:(351)289818419, email: [email protected] or [email protected] web:www.ualg.pt/fig2005
� May 20-26, 2005, Tehran (Iran): IV International Symposium onPistachio and Almond. Info: Dr. A. Javanshah, Iran Pistachio ResearchInstitute, PO Box 77175/435 Rafsanjan, Iran. Phone: (98)3914225202,Fax: (98)3914225208, email: [email protected] web: www.pri.ir
� May 29 - June 2, 2005, Leuven (Belgium): Model-IT 2005. Applicationsof Modelling as an Innovative Technology in the Agri-Food Chain.Info: Prof. Dr. Bart Nicolai, Laboratory of Postharvest Technology, KULeuven, W. Decroylaan 42, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium. Phone:(32)16322375, Fax: (32)16322955, email:[email protected] web: www.model-it-2005.be
� June 6-10, 2005, Bursa (Turkey): V International Cherry Symposium.Info: Prof. Dr. Atilla Eris, Uludag Universitesi, Ziraat Fakültesi, BahceBitkileri Bolumu Baskani, 16059 Bursa, Turkey. Phone: (90)2244428001,Fax: (90)2244428120, email: [email protected] or [email protected] Co-convener Dr. Masum Burak, Ataturk Central HorticulturalResearch Institute, 77102 Yalova, Turkey. Phone: (90)2268142520, Fax:(90)2268141146, email: [email protected]: www.5ics.org
� June 13-17, 2005, Murcia (Spain): XIII International Symposium onApricot Breeding and Culture. Info: Dr. Felix Romojaro and Dr. FedericoDicenta, CEBAS-CSIC, PO Box 164, 30100 Espinardo (Murcia), Spain.Phone: (34)968396328 or (34)968396309, Fax: (34)968396213, email:[email protected] Symposium Secretariat: Viajes CajaMurcia, GranVia Escultor Salzillo 5. Entlo. Dcha., 30004 Murcia, Spain. Phone:(34)968225476, Fax: (34)968223101, email: [email protected] web: apricot.viajescajamurcia.com
� June 14-17, 2005, Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia): II InternationalSymposium on Sweetpotato and Cassava - 2ISSC. Info: Dr. Tan SweeLian, MARDI, Rice & Industrial Crops Research Centre, PO Box 12301,50774 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Phone: (60)389437516, Fax:(60)389425786, email: [email protected] web: http://www.mardi.my
� June 16-19, 2005, Horst/Venlo (Netherlands): XI InternationalAsparagus Symposium. Info: Ir. Pierre Lavrijsen, Asparagus bv, PO Box6219, 5960 AE Horst, Netherlands. Phone: (31)773979900, Fax:(31)773979909, email: [email protected] or [email protected],web: www.ias2005.com
� June 21-24, 2005, Aas (Norway): V International Symposium onArtificial Lighting. Info: Prof. Dr. Hans R. Gislerod, Dept. of Plant andEnvironmental Sciences, Agricultural University of Norway, PO Box5022, 1432 Aas, Norway. Phone: (47)64947800 or (47)64947824, Fax:(47)64947802, email: [email protected] or [email protected]: www.lightsym2005.no
� June 26-30, 2005, Saltillo Coahuila (Mexico): X InternationalSymposium on Plant Bioregulators in Fruit Production. Info: Dr.Homero Ramirez, Salazar 1081, Zona Centro, Saltillo Coahuila 25000,Mexico. Phone: (52)84174167, email: [email protected] web:www.saltillo2005.org
� July 5-10, 2005, East Lansing, MI (USA): IX International ControlledAtmosphere Research Conference. Info: Dr. Randolph M. Beaudry,Michigan State University, Department of Horticulture, A22 Plant& SoilSci. Building, East Lansing, MI 48824-1325, USA. Phone: (1)517 3555191 x303 or x339, Fax: (1)517 353 0890, email: [email protected][email protected]
� July 19-23, 2005, Chiang Mai (Thailand): International Symposium onImproving the Performance of Supply Chains in the TransitionalEconomies. Info: Dr. Peter J. Batt, ISHS Supply Chain ManagementSymposium, Horticulture, Curtin University of Technology, GPO BoxU1987, Perth 6845, WA, Australia. Phone: (61)892667596, Fax:(61)892663063, email: [email protected] web:muresk.curtin.edu.au/conference/ishscm
� August 2005, Québec, (Canada): International Conference on HumanHealth Effects of Fruit and Vegetable Info: Dr. Yves Desjardins,Academic Director, Institute of Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods,Horticultural Research Center, Laval University, Québec City, Canada,email: [email protected]
� September 5-8, 2005, Singapore (Singapore): International Conference& Exhibition on Soilless Culture - Singapore 2005 (ICESC-2005). Info:Dr. Mallick F. Rahman M., Chairman Conference OrganizingCommittee, Block 461 #13-75 Crawford Lane, Singapore 190461.Phone: (65)62918153, Fax: (65)62987978, email: [email protected] web: www.ICESC-2005.com
� September 4-10, 2005, Angers (France): International Symposium onGrowing Media. Info: Dr. Jean-Charles Michel, National Institute ofHorticulture, INH, Research Unit A-462, SAGAH, 2 rue Le Notre, 49045Angers Cedex 01, France. Phone: (33)241225422, Fax:(33)241225553, email: [email protected][email protected] web: ishs-angers.agrena.org
� September 12-16, 2005, Townsville, North QLD (Australia): IIIInternational Symposium on Cucurbits. Info: Joanna Embry, Crowcom,PO Box Bundaberg Old 4670, Australia. Phone: (61)741532555, Fax:(61)741531322, email: [email protected]
� September 15-17, 2005, Venosa (Italy): International Symposium onAdvances in Grapevine and Wine Research. Info: Dr. Vitale Nuzzo,Dipartimento di Scienze dei Sistemi Colturali, Forestali e dell’Ambiente,Viale dell’Ateneo Lucano, 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy. Phone:(39)0971205263 or (39)3293606254, Fax: (39)0971205378, email:[email protected]
� September 18-22, 2005, California (USA): IV International Symposiumon Rose Research and Cultivation. Info: Dr. H. Brent Pemberton, TexasAgricultural Experiment Station, Texas A&M University AgriculturalResearch and Extension Center, PO Box 200, 1710 N. Highway 3053,Overton, TX 75684-0200, USA. Phone: (1)9038346191, Fax:(1)9038347140, email: [email protected] web:http://flowers.tamu.edu/symposium/
NEW
ISHS • 46
ACTA HORTICULTURAEACTA HORTICULTURAE
Available Issues of Acta HorticulturaeAvailable numbers of Acta Horticulturae (in print for-mat). These as well as all other titles are also availablein ActaHort CD-rom format. For detailed informationon price and availability, including tables of content, orto download an Acta Horticulturae order form, pleasecheck out the ‘publications’ page at www.ishs.org orgo to www.ishs.org/acta
Acta Acta Title ActaNumber Price (EUR)
660 V International Congress on Artichoke 119
659 VII International Symposium on Protected Cultivation in Mild WinterClimates: Production, Pest Management and Global Competition(Vol. 1 and 2) 159
658 I International Conference on Rootstocks for Deciduous Fruit TreeSpecies (Vol. 1 and 2) 137
657 XIX International Symposium on Virus and Virus-like Diseases ofTemperate Fruit Crops - Fruit Tree Diseases 117
656 X International Symposium on Small Fruit Virus Diseases 57
655 XV International Symposium on Horticultural Economics andManagement 106
654 International Workshop on Models for Plant Growth and Control ofProduct Quality in Horticultural Production 77
653 IX International Symposium on Plant Bioregulators in Fruit Production 61
652 I International Symposium on Grapevine Growing, Commerce andResearch 108
651 XXI International Symposium on Classical versus Molecular Breedingof Ornamentals - Part II 54
650 I International Symposium on Saffron Biology and Biotechnology 102
649 Euro Berry Symposium - Cost 836 Final Workshop 77
648 South Pacific Soilless Culture Conference - SPSCC 60
647 International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants 55
646 International Symposium on Irrigation and Water Relations inGrapevine and Fruit Trees 54
645 VII International Mango Symposium 136
644 International Symposium on Growing Media and Hydroponics 117
643 International Conference on Urban Horticulture 74
642 XXVI International Horticultural Congress: Horticulture, Art andScience for Life - The Colloquia Presentations 60
641 XXVI International Horticultural Congress: The Knowledge Business:Horticulture Education and Knowledge Transfer 51
640 XXVI International Horticultural Congress: Viticulture - Living withLimitations 86
639 XXVI International Horticultural Congress: Expanding Roles forHorticulture in Improving Human Well-Being and Life Quality 84
638 XXVI International Horticultural Congress: Sustainability ofHorticultural Systems in the 21st Century 105
637 XXVI International Horticultural Congress: Advances in VegetableBreeding 84
636 XXVI International Horticultural Congress: Key Processes in theGrowth and Cropping of Deciduous Fruit and Nut Trees 140
635 XXVI International Horticultural Congress: Managing Soil-BornePathogens: A Sound Rhizosphere to Improve Productivity inIntensive Horticultural Systems 57
634 XXVI International Horticultural Congress: IV InternationalSymposium on Taxonomy of Cultivated Plants 68
633 XXVI International Horticultural Congress: Protected Cultivation2002: In Search of Structures, Systems and Plant Materials forSustainable Greenhouse Production 109
632 XXVI International Horticultural Congress: Citrus and OtherSubtropical and Tropical Fruit Crops: Issues, Advances andOpportunities 81
631 XXVI International Horticultural Congress: Issues and Advances inTransplant Production and Stand Establishment Research 70
630 XXVI International Horticultural Congress: Nursery Crops;Development, Evaluation, Production and Use 78
629 XXVI International Horticultural Congress: The Future for Medicinaland Aromatic Plants 107
628 XXVI International Horticultural Congress: Issues and Advances inPostharvest Horticulture 168
627 XXVI International Horticultural Congress: Toward EcologicallySound Fertilization Strategies for Field Vegetable Production 71
� October 10-14, 2005, Daytona Beach (USA): International Symposiumon Biotechnology of Temperate Fruit Crops and Tropical Species. Info:Dr. Ralph Scorza, USDA-ARS Appalachian Fruit Research Station, 2217Wiltshire Rd., Kearneysville, WV 25430, USA. Phone: (1)3047253451,Fax: (1)3047282340, email: [email protected] or Dr. RichardLitz, University of Florida/IFAS, Horticultural Sciences Department,18905 SW 280 St., Homestead, FL 33031-3314, USA. Phone:(1)3052467001ext310, Fax: (1)3052467003, email: [email protected]: conference.ifas.ufl.edu/ishscrops
� October 20-28, 2005, Lilongwe (Malawi): High Value Indigenous FruitTrees in the Tropics and Subtropics: Production, Utilisation andMarketing. Info: Dr. Festus K. Akinnifesi, SADC-ICRAF AgroforestryProgramme, Makoka Agricultural Research Station, PO Box 134, Zomba,Malawi. Phone: (265)01534203, Fax: (265)01534283,email: [email protected]
� November 2005, Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia): I International Symposium onPapaya. Info: Dr. Abd. Shukor Abd. Rahman, Horticulture ResearchCentre, MARDI, GPO Box 12301, 50774 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Phone:(603)89437263, Fax: (603)89487590, email: [email protected]
� December 5-7, 2005, Santiago (Chile): IX International Rubus and RibesSymposium. Info: Dr. Maria Pilar Banados, Universita Catolica de Chile,Departamento de Fruticultura y Enologia, Casilla 306-22, VicunaMackenna 4860, Santiago, Chile. Phone: (56)26864305, Fax:(56)25534130. email: [email protected]
� December 2005, Lucknow - Uttar Pradesh (India): I International GuavaSymposium. Info: Prof. Dr. R.K. Pathak, Central Institute of SubtropicalHorticulture, Rehmankhera, PO Kalkori, Lucknow 227 107, India. Phone:(91)5222841022, Fax: (91)5222841025, email: [email protected]
Additional information at www.ishs.org/calendar.
NEW
CHRONICA HORTICULTURAE •VOL 44 • NUMBER 4 •2004 • 47
626 XXVI International Horticultural Congress: Berry Crop Breeding,Production and Utilization for a New Century 96
624 XXVI International Horticultural Congress: Elegant Science inFloriculture 110
623 XXVI International Horticultural Congress: Plant Genetic Resources,The Fabric of Horticulture’s Future 80
622 XXVI International Horticultural Congress: Genetics and Breeding ofTree Fruits and Nuts 120
621 XXVI International Horticultural Congress: Horticultural Science inEmerging Economies, Issues and Constraints 46
620 XXVI International Horticultural Congress: Asian Plants with UniqueHorticultural Potential: Genetic Resources, Cultural Practices, andUtilization 99
619 XXVI International Horticultural Congress: Potatoes, Healthy Food forHumanity: International Developments in Breeding, Production,Protection and Utilization 99
618 XXVI International Horticultural Congress: Environmental Stress andHorticulture Crops 107
617 Workshop on Rootstocks’ Performance in Phylloxera InfestedVineyards 51
616 I International Symposium on Acclimatization and Establishment ofMicropropagated Plants 104
615 IV International Conifer Conference 97
613 VIII International Symposium on the Processing Tomato 96
612 XXI International Symposium on Classical versus Molecular Breedingof Ornamentals - Part I 55
611 International Congress on Greenhouse Vegetables. The ProductionChain of Fresh Tomatoes, Peppers and Cucumbers 43
610 V International Symposium on Kiwifruit 109
609 International Symposium on Managing Greenhouse Crops in SalineEnvironment 102
608 International Symposium on The Horizons of Using Organic Matterand Substrates in Horticulture 70
607 IX International Symposium on Timing of Field Production inVegetable Crops 61
606 International Workshop on Characterization of Genetic Resourcesof Temperate Zone Fruits for the Tropics and Subtropics 30
605 II International Symposium on Fig 74
602 VI International Protea Research Symposium 54
601 II International Persimmon Symposium 62
600 VIII International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference 160
599 International Conference: Postharvest Unlimited 146
598 International Symposium on Sustainable Use of Plant Biodiversity toPromote New Opportunities for Horticultural ProductionDevelopment 71
596 VIII International Symposium on Pear 154
595 International Symposium on Apple Breeding for Scab Resistance 52
593 IV International Symposium on Models for Plant Growth and Controlin Greenhouses: Modeling for the 21st Century - Agronomic andGreenhouse Crop Models 60
592 V International Peach Symposium 130
591 III International Symposium on Pistachios and Almonds 107
590 IX International Workshop on Fire Blight 95
589 X International Asparagus Symposium 79
588 II International Symposium on Cucurbits 77
587 International Symposium on Asian Pears, Commemorating the100th Anniversary of Nijisseiki Pear 122
586 IV International Symposium on Olive Growing 160
585 VIII International Rubus and Ribes Symposium 125
584 VI International Symposium on Computer Modelling in FruitResearch and Orchard Management 62
583 I International Conference on Sweetpotato. Food and Health forthe Future 59
582 International Symposium on Mediterranean Horticulture: Issues andProspects 55
581 IV International Congress on Cactus Pear and Cochineal 73
580 IV International ISHS Symposium on Artificial Lighting 63
579 II Balkan Symposium on Vegetables and Potatoes 120
578 International Symposium on Design and Environmental Control ofTropical and Subtropical Greenhouses 80
577 VII International Symposium on Plum and Prune Genetics, Breedingand Pomology 80
576 International Conference on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants.Possibilities and Limitations of Medicinal and Aromatic PlantProduction in the 21st Century 76
575 International Symposium on Tropical and Subtropical Fruits 150
574 VII International Symposium on Vaccinium Culture 82
573 International Symposium on Techniques to Control Salination forHorticultural Productivity 92
572 XX International Eucarpia Symposium Section Ornamentals -Strategies for New Ornamentals II 55
571 Workshop Towards and Ecologically Sound Fertilisation in FieldVegetable Production 61
570 VIII International Symposium on Flowerbulbs 87
569 I Latin-American Symposium on the Production of Medicinal,Aromatic and Condiments Plants 72
568 X International Symposium on Virus Diseases of Ornamental Plants 62
567 IV International Strawberry Symposium 142
566 II International Symposium on Application of Modelling as anInnovative Technology in the Agri-Food Chain; MODEL-IT 93
565 VI International Symposium on Temperate Fruit Growing in theTropics and Subtropics 46
564 IV International Symposium on Mineral Nutrition of Deciduous FruitCrops 82
563 International Conference on Environmental Problems Associatedwith Nitrogen Fertilisation of Field Grown Vegetable Crops 59
562 III International Symposium on Sensors in Horticulture 77
561 VIII International Symposium on Pollination - Pollination: Integratorof Crops and Native Plant Systems 69
560 IV International Symposium on In Vitro Culture and HorticulturalBreeding 96
559 V International Symposium on Protected Cultivation in Mild WinterClimates: Current Trends for Suistainable Technologies 123
558 I International Symposium on Litchi and Longan 79
557 VII International Symposium on Orchard and Plantation Systems 84
556 V International Congress on Hazelnut 96
555 II International Symposium on Edible Alliaceae 62
554 World Congress on Soilless Culture: Agriculture in the ComingMillennium 68
553 IV International Conference on Postharvest Science 123
552 XX International EUCARPIA Symposium, Section Ornamentals,Strategies for New Ornamentals 53
551 IX International Symposium on Small Fruit Virus Diseases 43
550 XVIII International Symposium on Virus and Virus-like Diseases ofTemperate Fruit Crops - Top Fruit Diseases 86
549 International Symposium on Composting of Organic Matter 47
548 International Symposium on Growing Media and Hydroponics 108
547 III International Symposium on Rose Research and Cultivation 75
545 V International Protea Research Symposium 62
544 IV International Walnut Symposium 100
542 VII International Symposium on the Processing Tomato 73
ISHS • 48
Index to Volume 44 of Chronica HorticulturaeSubject Index
Book ReviewsBartholomew, D.P., R.E. Paul and K.G. Rohrbach (eds.), The Pineapple:
Botany, Production and Uses, 44(4):32Bassi, D. (ed.), Growth Habits in Stone-Fruit Trees, 44(2):39Clarke, Ronald J. and Jokie Bakker, WINE Flavour Chemistry, 44(4):32Costa, J.M., E. Heuvelink and N. Botden (eds.), Greenhouse Horticulture in
China: Situation, and Prospects, 44(2):39DeEll, Jennifer R. and Peter M.A. Toivonen (eds.), Practical Applications of
Chlorophyll Fluorescence in Plant Biology, 44(1):32Grubben, G.J.H. and O.A. Denton (eds.), Plant Resources of Tropical Africa 2.
Vegetables, 44(4):32Hancock, J.F., Plant Evolution and the Origin of Crop Species, 44(1):33Jackson, John E., Biology of Apples and Pears. Biology of Horticultural Crops,
44(3):29Janick, Jules, History of Horticulture, 44(2):39-40Kozma, P., J. Nyéki, M. Soltész and Z. Scabó (eds.), Floral Biology, Pollination
and Fertilisation in Temperate Zone Fruit Species and Grape, 44(1):32Mohan Jain, S. and Rony Swennen (eds.), Banana Improvement: Cellular,
Molecular Biology, and Induced Mutations, 44(4):32-33Nath, Prem, P.B. Gaddagimath and O.P. Dutta (eds.), Food Security and
Vegetables: A Global Perspective, 44(3):29Ploetz, R.C. (ed.), Diseases of Tropical Fruit Crops, 44(4):32Reich, Lee, Uncommon Fruits for Every Garden, 44(3):29Roberts, Jonathan, The Origins of Fruits and Vegetables, 44(1):32Staudt, Gunter, Les Dessins d’Antoine Nicolas Duchesne pour son Histoire
Naturelle des Fraisiers, 44(1):32Thirsk, Joan, Alternative Agriculture: A History from the Black Death to the
Present Day, 44(2):39
Horticultural Science FocusAdvances in Seed Treatments for Horticultural Crops, 44(2):11-20Caravaggio’s Fruit: A Mirror on Baroque Horticulture, 44(4):9-15Production and Breeding of Cacti for Grafting in Korea, 44(3):7-10Progress in Breeding and Delivering Improved Plantain and Banana to African
Farmers, 44(1):9-15
Horticultural Science NewsChina’s Energy-Saving Greenhouses, 44(1):15-17Low Carbohydrate Diets and Horticulture, 44(2):21Lychee Production Soars in China, 44(4):16North American Pawpaw, 44(3):11-15Parboiled Fresh Rice Hulls Can Replace Perlite in Horticultural Growing
Medium, 44(1):18The Australian Ginger Industry, 44(4):16-19
IssuesEurope’s Organic Fruit Industry, 44(2):6-11Horticultural Biotechnology: Challenges for Commercial Development,
44(4):4-8Horticulture? For the Love of Life, 44(1):5-8The Art of Horticulture in Public Spaces, 44(3):5-6
Letters to the EditorPineapple Wars Redux, 44(2):5
News from the BoardA Call for Nominations: ISHS Honorary Membership and Fellowship, 44(2):4Access to World Horticulture, 44(1):3-4Feast of Horticultural Science at Coolum, 44(3):4Horticultural Science - the Integrating Factor, 44(4):3-4ISHS Finances: Sound and Safe, 44(2):3-4The Future of Horticultural Science within Academia, 44(3):3
Symposia and WorkshopsCOST836: A European Cooperation on Berry Research - Euro Berry
Symposium, 44(1):21-22Eighth International Symposium on Plum and Prune Genetics, Breeding and
Pomology, 44(4):38-39Eleventh International Symposium on Virus Diseases of Ornamental Plants,
44(3):15-17Eucarpia Symposium on Fruit Breeding and Genetics, 44(1):19-20
Fifth International Postharvest Symposium - Postharvest 2004, 44(3):22-23Fifth International Symposium on New Floricultural Crops, 44(2):22-23First International Rose Hip Conference, 44(4):34-35First International Symposium on Saffron Biology and Biotechnology,
44(1):22-23Fourth International Symposium on Edible Alliaceae, 44(3):17-18Fourth International Symposium on Irrigation of Horticultural Crops, 44(1):26-28International Root and Tuber Symposium - “Food Down Under”, 44(2):25-26International Workshop on Modelling of Plant Growth, Environmental Control,
and Greenhouse Environment, 44(2):27Ninth International Symposium on Pear Growing, 44(2):24-25Seventh International Symposium on Protected Cultivation in Mild-Winter
Climates, 44(3):21-22Seventh International Symposium on Temperate Zone Fruits in the Tropics and
Subtropics, 44(1):24-25Sixth International Congress on Hazelnut, 44(4):36-38Tenth International Workshop on Fire Blight, 44(4):41-43Third International Symposium on Persimmon, 44(4):40Toward Ecologically Sound Fertilisation Strategies for Field Vegetable
Production, 44(3):19-20
The World of HorticultureAsia Pacific Theme at Horticultural Science Conference, 44(2):38Biodiversity of Tropical African Vegetables, 44(4):19-23Cesário Verde: Poet and Fruit Grower, 44(3):28-31Greenhouse Cultivation of Bananas, 44(2):35-37Horticultural Research in the French Agricultural Research Centre (CIRAD),
44(4):28Horticulture in Sri Lanka, 44(4):23-27Horticulture in Turkey, 44(3):24-27Mediterranean Greenhouse Technology, 44(2):28-34Polish Society for Horticultural Science (PSHS), 44(1):28-30Society of American Florists (SAF), 44(1):31The California Seed Growers Isolation Pin Map System, 44(1):31The International Organisation of Vine and Wine, 44(1):31Use Biotechnology to Solve African Problems: Scientists Call for Increased
