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7/31/2019 CI-PAF Project Technical Report
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Population survey of the
Bengal Slow LorisNycticebus bengalensis in
Meghalaya, northeastern India
Sindhu Radhakrishna,1 Anirban Datta-Roy2, Swapna N3 and Anindya Sinha1,4
1 National Institute of Advanced Studies, Bangalore, India2 Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and Environment3 242, 18th C main, 6th block, Koramangala, Bangalore4Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore, India
Correspondence: Sindhu Radhakrishna,
National Institute of Advanced Studies,
Indian Institute of Science Campus,
Bangalore 560 012, India,
Tel: +91-80-22185115,
Fax: +91-80-22185028,
Email: [email protected]
Ecology, Behaviour and
Conservation Group
National Institute of Advanced
Studies
Bangalore 560 012, India.
Submitted to:
Primate Action Fund
Conservation International
Foundation, USA
Technical Report 4-09
National Institute of
Advanced Studies
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Population survey of Bengal Slow Loris in Meghalaya, northeastern India 2
Abstract
The Bengal slow loris Nycticebus bengalensis is a nocturnal prosimian primate that inhabits
the forests of northeastern India. As with many nocturnal prosimian species, little is knownabout its behaviour or ecology; even less information is available on its distribution and
population status in northeastern India. The primary aim of this project was to survey forest
patches in Meghalaya, a state in northeastern India, in order to assess distribution patterns of
the species in the state. A secondary aim was to estimate the severity of survival threats that
may affect the long-term survival of the slow loris in Meghalaya. We conducted surveys in
sixteen sites in six districts of Meghalaya. Slow lorises were sighted in only two sites;
however, information obtained through secondary sources indicated that the animal waspresent in some of the forest patches across the state. Many of the surveyed locations were
severely affected by logging, poaching and forest fires; it is imperative that conservation
measures, aimed at strictly protecting existing forest patches, be urgently implemented in
order to ensure the long-term survival of the slow loris and other mammals in the state.
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Table of Contents
Abstract | 2
Acknowledgements| 5
6 | Project Objectives
Introduction | 6
Aims | 7
8 | Methodology
Areas Surveyed | 8
Field Methods | 11
Field Surveys | 11
Secondary Information | 12
13 | Results
Survey Findings | 13
Animal Sightings | 13
Secondary Information | 14
Slow Loris Distribution in Meghalaya | 15
Habitat Disturbance | 16
Threats to the Slow Loris | 19
20 | Conclusions and Recommendations
References | 22
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List of Tables
& Figures
Figures
Figure 1: Map of Meghalaya and its position
within India | 8
Figure 2: Forest cover and state
administered forest lands in
Meghalaya | 10
Figure 3: Slow Loris distribution in
Meghalaya | 16
Tables
Table 1: Relative abundance of Slow Loris
and Flying Squirrels | 14
Table 2: Secondary information on presenceof Slow Loris | 15
Table 3: Threat levels and severity of fires in
survey locations | 18
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Population survey of Bengal Slow Loris in Meghalaya, northeastern India 5
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by funds received from Margot Marsh Biodiversity Foundation
Conservation International and we thank Dr Anthony Rylands and Ms Ella Outlaw for theirsupport and aid during this project. We also thank the forest department of Meghalaya,
particularly the Chief Conservator of Forests (RT & WL), for research permits to conduct this
study. Very little of this work would have been possible without the help and guidance of
innumerable friends and acquaintances in the field our sincere gratitude to all those who
generously came forward to help us out in all the ways they could. As ever, we owe our family
members much, for their remarkable patience and unstinting support of our journeys to find
the beast!
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Population survey of Bengal Slow Loris in Meghalaya, northeastern India 6
Project Objectives
Introduction
The Bengal slow loris (Nycticebus bengalensis) is one of the two nocturnal primates species
found in India - even among the relatively less-studied nocturnal prosimians, it remains the
least known of them (Nekaris and Bearder 2006). A telling illustration of this is that until
2007, the IUCN Red List had listed the species as data deficient, pointing out the lack of
adequate informationbased on its distribution and/or population status. The IUCN Red
List (2009) now classifies the species as Vulnerable and notes that the species is predicted to
decline by more than 30% in the next three generations over its entire range due to
continuing hunting pressures and loss of habitat.
In India, until a few years ago, distributional and behavioral information on the status of the
slow loris was, for the most part, unknown. Preliminary population surveys had reported the
presence of the species in the northeastern states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram,
Nagaland, Meghalaya, Manipur and Tripura in India (Choudhury 1992, 1996; Srivastava 1999).
Such studies also indicated that the existence of the species was seriously threatened by
hunting and deforestation, and that it had become locally extinct in some forest areas in the
region (Srivastava 1999, Choudhury 2001). However, the lack of specific and detailed
information on population densities and habitat variables of the species in these areas
impedes the development of any conservation strategies to protect the Bengal slow loris.
This project is part of a long-term study begun in 2004 aimed towards documenting
distributional and ecological information about the Bengal slow loris in northeastern India. Its
objectives are to map the distribution of the species in India, estimate abundances in different
habitats, assess conservation threats to the long-term survival of the species and collect
ecological and behavioral data through long-term studies on wild populations of the species.
Surveys have been conducted in the states of Assam, Meghalaya and Tripura in northeastern
India; slow lorises were sighted in less than 20% of the surveyed sites (Radhakrishna et al
2006, Swapna et al 2008) Death caused by speeding vehicles, disturbance caused by tree
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felling, trapping and hunting were identified as crucial survival threats to the species
(Radhakrishna et al 2006). A recent study on the feeding ecology of the species in Tripura,
northeastern India indicates that Bengal slow lorises feed largely on tree exudates, thereby
making them more vulnerable to habitat losses (Swapna et al, in press). These resultsunderline the need for more intensive surveys in the other states of northeastern India in
order to understand local conservation threats to the species and assess distributional limits
of the species in India.
Aims
The primary aim of this study was to conduct a rapid preliminary assessment of the
distribution and relative abundance ofNycticebus bengalensis in the forest areas of Meghalaya
state in northeastern India. An important secondary objective of the study was to assess the
nature and extent of potential threats that may affect the long survival of slow loris
populations in the state.
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Population survey of Bengal Slow Loris in Meghalaya, northeastern India 8
Figure 1 Map of Meghalaya and its position within India
Methodology
Areas Surveyed
Initially, we had planned to conduct the survey for slow lorises in the forested areas of
Meghalaya and Mizoram, two states in northeastern India. However prolonged drought
conditions and vast stretches of dried bamboo culms following gregarious flowering of the
plant species caused serious wildfire outbreaks in many parts of Mizoram. Due to this, entry
was restricted into protected forest areas and it was not possible to obtain research permits
for a field survey in Mizoram. Hence the study was only conducted in the state of Meghalaya
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Meghalaya (2458N to 2603N and 8951E to 9249E) is a small state in the southern part
of northeastern India, bounded by the state of Assam on the north and east and Bangladesh
on the south (Figure 1). The terrain is largely hilly and nearly 70% of the geographical area of
the state is under forest cover (http://megforest.gov.in.). Temperatures range from about38C in June to about 2C in January the western part of the state is warmer, while the
central uplands remain cool throughout the year (FSI 2005). The average rainfall in the state
varies from 4000mm to 11, 436mm rain tends to begin towards the end of May and
continues until early October. The southern slopes of the Khasi hills receive the highest
rainfall in Meghalaya (http://megipr.gov.in)
The major forest types found in the state have been identified as Tropical Wet Evergreen,
Tropical Moist Deciduous, Tropical Semi Evergreen Forest, and Assam Sub Tropical Pine
Forests (FSI 2005). Districtwise, West Khasi Hills and West Garo Hills have the largest forest
cover, amounting to almost 4,029 and 2,974 sq km respectively (FSI 2005). More than 90% of
the total forest area of the State is either private or clan /community owned and falls under
the control and management of the Autonomous District Councils (http://megforest.gov.in).
Notified forest land that is administered by the State Forest Department comprises two
National Parks, three Wildlife Sanctuaries and more than 24 Reserved Forest patches
scattered across six districts in the state (Figure 2).
.
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PopulationsurveyofBengalSlowLorisinMeghalaya,northeasternIndia
10
Figure2
ForestC
overandStateAdministeredForestLandsinMeghala
ya
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Field Methods
Information on the presence of Bengal slow loris (Nycticebus bengalensis) was collected
through field surveys and secondary sources of information. Field surveys also provided
information on disturbance levels and habitat types of the survey locations. Secondary
information on the presence of slow loris was sourced from forest department personnel and
local experts.
Field Surveys
Presence of slow loris and other nocturnal mammals were detected in the field during night
transects. Transects were conducted along established human and animal trails, roads,
streams, and rivers. In the case of metalled roads passing through the forest, slow moving
four wheeler vehicles were used to survey the roads. This was usually applied in areas with
high number of rogue elephant incidents. On one occasion a boat was used to survey forests
along the river as it provided the best access in that terrain.
Line transects were not feasible in most of the survey sites due to limited time, lack of
existing transects and steep terrain. Hence we employed an encounter rate survey, using
recce sampling (Walsh and White, 1999) and based on direct sightings of the animals. This
was done to maximise coverage of forest areas and to eliminate methodological constraints
of the traditional line transect method used for distance sampling (Burnham et al 1980.). Slow
loris encounter rates were calculated based on the total number of sightings and the distance
surveyed. This was used as an index of Relative Abundance of the species.
Nocturnal surveys were conducted between 1900 to 2300 hrs. Two to four observers walked
slowly and silently, flashing torches and headlamps to detect the characteristic orange eye-
shine emitted by Nycticebus. Whenever an eye-shine was detected, a high powered spotting
light was used in conjunction with binoculars to confirm the identity of the species. We
recorded details of all animal sightings such as identity of species, numbers and age-sex
composition. Calls and sounds were also used to detect animals in the field.
We traversed nightly survey routes during the day to record information on habitat and
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disturbance parameters. We evaluated disturbance levels in surveyed sites, with particular
reference to certain factors that may prove to be significant threats to the long-term survival
of the slow loris. These factors were hunting pressure, habitat destruction through logging or
conversion to agricultural land, habitat disturbance through people/cattle movement,collection of firewood/NTFP products and occurrence of forest fires. In addition, we also
collected information on more direct survival threats to the slow loris such as electrocution,
road kills, and instances of capture as pets. During these walks, information on diurnal
mammals and birds through opportunistic sightings/calls were also recorded.
Secondary Information
Secondary information on the presence ofNycticebus bengalensis was sourced from State
Forest Department records wherever maintained. This consisted of details of seizures or
rescues of captured animals. When available, this provided us with the locality of origin of the
animal as well as the number of animals, age and sex.
Additional information on Loris presence was obtained through informal, semi-structured
interviews with local experts, hunters and knowledgeable elders living in the vicinity of
forests. Locals were shown photographs of the slow loris to identify, and to questioned to
provide information on slow loris sightings within the last five years in that area.
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Results
Survey Findings
The survey was conducted from February 2009 to April 2009. A total of 144.45 kilometres
were covered during the course of the survey, of which 96.45 kilometres were covered on
foot, 39 kilometres on four wheeled vehicles and 9 kilometres by a non motorised boat. We
surveyed a total of 16 locations in 6 districts of Meghalaya (Table 1). The survey sites included
11 forest areas under the control of the State Forest Department (National Park, Wildlife
Sanctuary, Reserve Forest) and 5 areas that were Community controlled forest lands.
Animal SightingsNocturnal Animals
Slow Loris: We sighted slow loris individuals on two occasions in two different field sites.
Both individuals were adult males. One individual was seen in Nongkhyllem Wildlife
Sanctuary in Khasi Hills and the other sighting occurred in the Narpuh Reserve Forest of
Jaintia Hills. The relative abundance based on sightings in the two field sites was calculated to
be 0.04 (Narpuh RF) and 0.1 (Nongkhyllem WLS ).
Flying Squirrels: We sighted two species of flying squirrels on eight occasions in three
different field sites. The Red Giant Flying Squirrel (Petaurista petaurista) was sighted in
Dambu RF in East Garo Hills and Narpuh RF in Jaintia Hills, while the smaller and rarer
Particoloured Flying Squirrel (Hylopetes alboniger) was sighted in Balpakram NP in South Garo
Hills and Dambu RF in East Garo Hills (Table 2).
Viverrids: Four species of Viverrids were sighted on ten different occasions in six of the field
sites. These were the Common Palm Civet Paradoxurus hermaphrodites (four sites), the Small
Indian Civet Viverricula indica (one site), the Large Indian Civet Viverra zibetha (one site) and
the Masked Palm Civet Paguma larvata (one site).
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Table 1 Relative abundance of Slow Loris and Flying Squirrels
Location
Distance
Covered in
Km
Slow Loris Flying Squirrel
Total
Sighted
Relative
Abundance
Total
Sighted
Relative
Abun-
dance
1Dambu RF,
East Garo Hills District14 0 - 4 0.29
2Balpakram NP,
South Garo Hills District19 0 - 1 0.05
3Dalengittim CRF,
South Garo Hills District3 0 - 1 0.33
4Nongkhyllem WLS,
Ri Bhoi District10.25 1 0.1 0 -
5Narpuh RF,
Jaintia Hills District26 1 0.04 3 0.12
Chiropterans: Two species of bats were sighted during the nocturnal transects. The Indian
Flying Fox (Pteropus giganteus) was sighted in Garo Hills and Jaintia Hills, while the Fulvous
Fruit Bat (Rousettus leschenaulti) was sighted in Garo Hills. Various other Microchiropterans
were sighted, but it was not possible to positively identify them.
Diurnal Animals:
We detected twelve species of mammals and >60 species of birds during the course of our
survey. These detections were based entirely on direct evidence such as sightings or calls.
Animals were detected during diurnal walks to evaluate the habitat for signs of disturbance.
Secondary Information
Apart from direct sightings during transects, we also collected information on the presence oflorises in forest patches from secondary sources such as forest department personnel and
local people living beside forest areas. Details of the location and year of loris sighting by
these secondary sources are provided in Table 2.
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Table 2Secondary information on presence of Slow Loris
Year Location Sightings Age/Sex Details
1 1996
Angratoli RF, South Garo
Hills District 2 Adults Reported by forest beat officer
2 2002Darugiri RF, East Garo Hills
District1
Adult
maleReported by forest beat officer
3 2008Angratoli RF, South Garo
Hills District3 Adults Reported by forest guards
4 2007-08Sibbari-Jacksongram CRF,
South Garo Hills District4
2 Adults,
2 InfantsReported by local
5 2008
Dambuk adingre CRF,
South Garo Hills District 1 - Reported by local
6 2004Siju Dobakol caves, South
Garo Hills District1 Adult Reported by forest guard
7 2008Siju Forest complex, South
Garo Hills District1 Adult
Reported by forest guard, was
electrocuted on overhead wires
8 2005Matcha nokpante CRF ,
South Garo Hills District1 Juvenile Reported by local
9 2007 Jowai vicinity, Jaintia Hills 1 Adult Forest department seizure
10 2008Baghmara, South Garo
Hills District1 Adult
Crossing road near the Bagh-
mara town
Slow Loris Distribution in Meghalaya
Data gathered during the study attests that slow loris populations are present in fragmented
forest patches at the southern end of South Garo Hills district, in the northern parts of Ri-Bhoi
district around the Nongkhyllem Wildlife Sanctuary, and in the southern parts of Jaintia Hills
district (Figure 3). Slow loris populations may also be present in the forest patches of central
East Garo Hills. However repeated enquiries did not elicit any information on the presence of
slow lorises in the southern parts of East Khasi Hills. Indigenous people living in these areas
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Figure 3 Slow Loris distribution in Meghalaya
also appeared quite unfamiliar with the species, which argues that slow lorises, if present
earlier, may have become locally extinct from these parts.
Habitat Disturbance
Habitat destruction or large scale changes in the natural vegetation structure of the area was
clearly visible across all the study sites (Table 3). We also encountered evidence of wildlife
hunting across most of the study sites. In large parts of Meghalaya, community controlled
forests are rapidly being converted to monoculture stands of cashew, rubber and areca nut.We did not detect slow lorises in patches of such monocultures; our observations tally with
those of local people who observed that they had never observed slow lorises in such
monoculture plantations. Most of the Reserved Forests that were surveyed showed very high
levels of disturbance and evidence of logging. In addition, clear felling was seen in some
places where mining has taken over the landscape. The clear felling was done in the mining
locations as well as to make roads through forests to assist in the transportation of mined
products. Open dumping of coal on the roadsides and river banks have also led to pollution inthe rivers, which has seen a drastic reduction in the fish fauna. Habitat destruction in the form
of jhum or slash-and-burn cultivation has increased in magnitude due to the paucity of land
and increase in human population. Clear felling and eventual burning of patches of forests
have a serious detrimental effect on slow lorises local people reported that during the jhum
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fires, lorises are occasionally found moving towards human habitation for protection.
Man-made fires: This is distinguished from the jhum fires that are typically encountered in
hilly community controlled forest areas. Low lying areas in Meghalaya, as exists in parts of
Garo Hills are extremely susceptible to fires in the dry season. These areas are predominantly
plantations of teak (Tectona grandis) or sal (Shorea robusta) that were later accorded the
status of Reserve Forests and have remained as the only wildlife refuges in those areas. These
forests are primarily deciduous. During the summer, the forest floor is completely covered
with dry leaves which can ignite at the slightest spark. Fires are common during this season
and are almost entirely deliberate and man-made. As such forest patches are usually
surrounded by human habitation or agricultural fields, there is no place for the animals to flee
to, and these fires typically prove fatal for the wildlife in these areas.
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Survey LocationDisturbance
ranking
Fire
rankingPrimary threats
1Ringsangre/SelbalgreCRF, West Garo Hills Dis-
trict
+++ -Small size, NTFP and bamboo extraction bysurrounding habitations, jhum cultivation in
the vicinity
2Dariwokgre (Nokrek NP),
West Garo Hills District++ - Jhum cultivation, firewood extraction
3 Rongrengiri RF, East ++ **** Illegal logging, poaching, fire
4Darugiri RF, East Garo
Hills District+++ ***
Surrounded by human habitation and crop
fields, extensive firewood and NTFP extrac-
tion, highway, fire
5 Dambu RF, East Garo +++ ** Incursion of cultivation and coffee plantation,
6 Baghmara RF, South ++ ** Illegal logging, poaching, highway, electric
7 Angratoli RF, South Garo +++ *** Highway, human presence, electric lines, ille-
8Chambilgiri CRF, West
Garo Hills District++++ -
Small size, orchards and jhum cultivation,
highway
9 Siju WLS, South Garo + **** Small size, fire, coal mining
10 Rewak RF, South Garo +++ *** Highway, illegal logging, human presence
11Balpakram NP, South
Garo Hills District+ **
Fire, jhum cultivation, encroachment, coal
mining
12 Matcha nokpante CRF +++ *Jhum cultivation, plantations, highway, small
size, illegal logging
13 Dalengittim CRF, South +++ ** Poaching, illegal logging, firewood extraction
14Umblai, East Khasi Hills
District+++ **
Jhum cultivation, NTFP and firewood extrac-
tion, poaching, trapping
15Nongkhylem WLS, Ri
Bhoi District+ * Fire, encroachment of plantations
Table 3 Threat levels and severity of fires in survey locations
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Survey LocationDisturbance
ranking
Fire
rankingPrimary threats
16
Narpuh RF, Jaintia Hills
District +++ **
Highway, encroachment, human presence,
fire, water pollution
Table 3 Threat levels and severity of fires in survey locations [...continued]
Threats to the Slow Loris
Information collected from forest department personnel and local people, during the course
of the survey, clearly indicated that hunting and capture of slow lorises is a common practice
in many parts of the state.
Hunting: Interviews with local people indicated that slow lorises were hunted for its meat.
However because of its small size, hunters were not interested in the species specifically as a
regular source of meat. Instead slow loris hunting appeared to be opportunistic, and individu-
als were killed only when encountered accidentally, or during hunts for other mammals.
There also did not appear to be a commercial trade of loris body parts, and people did not re-
port hunting slow lorises for reasons other than for its meat.
Capture as pets: Capture of slow lorises and other primates to be kept as pets is a widespread
custom in many parts of the state. This was especially evident in the Garo Hills which has re-
tained a large amount of the original fauna in comparison to the Khasi and Jaintia hills. Hunt-
ers and local people indicated that the slow loris was a preferred pet and whenever encoun-
tered, was captured to be kept as a pet in their houses. Sometimes, such loris pets were
seized by the forest department and released in adjacent forest patches, while in the larger
majority of the cases such loris pets typically remained/died in captivity.
Electrocution and Road kills: We did not encounter any evidence of slow loris road kills dur-
ing our study; there was one report of a slow loris being electrocuted on overhead power lines
near the Siju WLS in Garo Hills.
CRF=Community Reserve Forest, RF=Reserve Forest, NP=National Park, WLS=Wildlife Sanctuary)
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Conclusions and Recommendations
Despite the low encounter rates ofNycticebus bengalensis during this study (detected in only
two out of sixteen sites), secondary information collected during the course of the surveydoes indicate the presence of Bengal slow lorises in many of the forest patches in Meghalaya.
However, it would appear that the species is generally present in very low densities in
Meghalaya. That this is not an artefact of the sampling methodology is borne out by the
finding that surveys for slow lorises, in the northeastern states of Tripura and Assam, using
similar methodology, have resulted in low/nil encounter rates in many sites but high
encounter rates in certain sites. Nekaris and Nijman (2007) report that encounter rates for
Nycticebus bengalensis are 5-15 lower than for Nycticebus coucang; the results of this surveyunderline the need to investigate in more detail the factors affecting slow loris abundance in
different parts of northeastern India.
Indigenous people living in settlements near forest areas reported many instances of slow
lorises wandering out of the forest and into the houses or the village areas. To some extent,
these statements may be attributed to the fact that the slow loris is a popular pet and this is a
safer explanation for the presence of lorises in their homes rather than having captured it
from the forests. However, higher encounter rates of slow lorises at forest edges has been
reported earlier (Johns 1986, Radhakrishna et al 2006, Swapna pers comm.). A more detailed
investigation into this aspect of slow loris behaviour will provide a deeper insight into factors
affecting the long-term survival of the species.
An important factor affecting the distribution and abundance of Nycticebus bengalensis in
Meghalaya may be attributed to the severe disturbance affecting most of the forest patches
in the state. Apart from age-old threats such as logging and hunting, newer threats such man-
made fires and mining has virtually decimated forest cover across the state. Man-made forest
fires were encountered in 13 (81.25%) of the survey sites in different levels of severity. Forest
fires are especially fatal for slow moving animals such as slow lorises and were undoubtedly a
critical reason for the low encounter rate of slow lorises and flying squirrels during this survey.
2009 has seen exceptionally severe fires across northeastern India.
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Rampant and illegal coal and limestone mining in many parts of Meghalaya, in the past, has
led to large-scale destruction of forest cover in the Khasi Hills and Jaintia Hills, and irreversible
damage to the environment in the form of polluted water bodies. This threat is now rapidly
spreading in the Garo Hills district which still possesses large stretches of communitycontrolled as well as protected areas. The lack of a mining policy in the state has made sure
that there is wanton destruction of community forests for mining and building of access
roads. Unless conservation measures that focus on ending such habitat destruction are
implemented urgently, it may well mean the end for the few remaining populations of slow
lorises and other mammals that still remain here.
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References
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Choudhury, AU (1996). Primates in Bherjan, Borajan and Podumoni Reserved Forests of
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Choudhury, A.U. (2001) Primates in northeast India: An overview of their distribution and
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Radhakrishna, S., Goswami, B.A. and Sinha, A. (2006) Distribution and conservation of
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Srivastava, A. (1999). Primates of Northeast India, Megadiversity Press, Bikaner, India.
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Electronic sources
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