Alternative energy powertrains are at the forefront of
potentially the greatest change in personal transport
since the adoption of the internal combustion engine.
As automotive manufacturers are driven by legislation
to reduce fleet emissions, the need for alternative or hybrid energy
sources becomes essential, with motorsport playing a vital leading role
in the development of such systems.
Three core technologies hold sway in this realm at the moment
– electric motors, electric storage devices such as batteries and
supercapacitors, and mechanical storage devices, primarily flywheels.
Electric motorsBrushless permanent magnet motors are the mainstay of electric motor
technology for powertrain applications. Typically the rotor contains
a series of permanent magnets, while the stator has a series of coils
or windings to which the current is switched to generate motion in
the rotor. While the stator can be either external or internal, for the
purposes of cooling and simplicity it is usually housed in the external
casing of the motor.
The most significant variation in motor construction is in the
orientation of the rotor/stator combination, either with the magnetic
flux travelling radially in the case of most armature-type motors,
or with the flux travelling axially and components arranged in a
‘pancake’ or ‘disc’ type configuration.
High-performance radial flux motors are essentially limited by heat
conduction out of the stator assembly, so bar-wound stators, which
have rectangular-section conductor wire rather than circular, are used.
This gives a much higher proportion of slot fill (75% versus 50%) and
a greater contact area. The increase in contact area allows greater heat
transfer out of the windings, enabling the motor to run continuously at
higher power levels. These motors can achieve high power densities of
10 kW/kg, and have proven quite suitable for racing, winning the Isle
of Man TT Zero and posting the first electrically powered lap of the
island at an average speed of more than 100 mph.
44
David Cooper examines the three main alternative energy powertrain technologies and explains some of their
technical challenges and opportunities
Circuit training
Hybrid devices are becoming a common sight
in the garages of many LMP race teams
45
FOCUS : ALTERNATIVE ENERGY
such motors (each containing two individual motor stacks for a total
of four motors) were used in the Drayson Racing LM P1 car to achieve
headline figures of 3000 Nm and 640 kW (about 850 bhp).
While these two motor types are well suited to providing an electric
or hybrid vehicle’s motive force – and indeed regenerative braking –
the potential for electrical energy recovery in other areas can require
quite different motor technology. For example, the potential for turbo-
compounding – that is, the capturing of electrical energy from the
turbocharger’s turbine – creates the need for a motor technology that is
capable not only of very high speeds (120,000 rpm or higher) but also of
withstanding high temperatures, unless adding a larger cooling capacity.
This seems an ideal application for a switched reluctance-type
motor, constructed with a ferromagnetic rotor material rather than
permanent magnets. Historically difficult to control, the problem of
switching current between stator windings is simplified with modern
power electronics, providing opportunities for torque and power-
shaping control.
The particular advantage with this type of motor for turbo-
compounding lies in the simplicity of its rotor. Permanent magnets can
become permanently demagnetised at high temperature, becoming
useless if overheated in extreme conditions. A switched reluctance
motor doesn’t have this problem though – so long as the rotor’s
material limits are not exceeded – while the stator and casing are more
easily cooled.
The ultimate limit for all motor technologies is currently
temperature; if sufficient heat transfer can be achieved, motors can be
pushed harder with higher peak and continuous running current.
Electric storageLithium ion batteries are certainly a talking point in electric racing
powertrains and the wider automotive industry, as they are capable
of achieving high power and energy densities. There is a myriad of
lithium chemistries competing for mainstream use, and no-one is quite
sure yet which will emerge as the technology of choice – if, indeed,
any of them will. At the moment, lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4)
would appear to be a favoured chemistry for energy-limited hybrid
racing applications (such as Formula One), particularly in a nano-
particulate based form.
An alternative to LiFePO4 is to use a nickel manganese cobalt oxide
anode material, which is heavier but achieves a more advantageous
power-to-energy ratio for continuous hybrid running. An example here
is the Zytek system powering the Honda CR-Z GT300 car; running as
a continuous hybrid, the batteries must constantly charge or discharge
rather than being allowed significant breaks to cool down, as in
Formula One where only a few seconds of activity are demanded.
However, with massive demand for lighter, more energy- and power-
dense solutions coming from all quarters, rapid development of new
chemistries can be expected.
Most end-users of battery packs treat the entire pack as a sealed
module, with a finite lifetime – in the case of a Formula One KERS
battery pack, for example, about five race weekends – but each
pack consists of multiple individual cells that must be designed and
managed on a smaller scale.
The alternative axial flux configuration stacks a disc of magnets
next to a disc of electromagnetic coils to achieve a rotational force,
enabling a very compact motor solution. This ‘pancake’ shape is ideal
for packaging between IC engines and gearboxes, or as individual
drive motors for electric vehicles (EVs), while a radial flux motor
is advantageous because of its smaller diameter. Achieving a high
enough winding fill factor for the stator has been difficult historically,
but new technologies using soft magnetic composites have realised
their potential. These motors achieve a comparable 10 kW/kg power
density, but at much lower speeds than radial flux motors (3000 rpm
rather than 20,000-plus rpm). Axial flux motors are able to provide
a massive torque density of up to 30-40 Nm/kg, minimising or
eliminating the need for any transmission ratios between motor and
wheel speeds, coupled with their efficiency at low speeds, making
them ideal drive motors.
Some companies are also pushing the development of higher
power axial flux motors that are optimised for higher speeds (7500
rpm and 400 Nm rather than 3000 rpm and 750 Nm). This requires a
transmission ratio, enabling high torque levels at the rear wheel, but
optimising motor speeds for efficiency. Indeed, a new electric record
was set at the Pikes Peak hillclimb by Toyota Motorsport’s TMG EV
P002, using two axial flux motors with a single-ratio transmission to
deliver 900 Nm to the wheels.
While a multispeed transmission may enable the motor to remain
in its most efficient speed/torque range, this has to be traded against
the efficiency losses of a more complex transmission, and the loss of
potential for torque vectoring. On the other hand, running with a fixed
transmission ratio will require a slightly larger motor to begin with,
with an estimated net weight increase of a multi-speed transmission
being around 10-20 kg. Initially the Formula E powertrain will operate
a single motor through a multi-speed transmission, it will be interesting
to see how this could change with individual constructors in 2015.
As reported in RET 68 (February 2013), a further benefit of the axial
flux motor is its ability to stack motor discs together. For example, two
t
High-voltage hairpin (bar wound) stator-
type motor used with great success for EV
motorcycle racing (Courtesy of Remy)
FOCUS : ALTERNATIVE ENERGY
Each cell is individually managed by an onboard controller that
monitors its state of charge, voltage and temperature. The most critical
factor for both the individual cells and battery pack as a whole is
probably operating temperature, with a performance/lifetime trade-off
to be made. Automotive battery packs tend to run between 20 and
40 C, to ensure longevity, while racing batteries are typically kept
between 70 and 90 C.
For low temperatures, the freezing point and expansion of the
electrolyte places both chemical and physical limits on a cell’s
operation, with efficiency falling with temperature. While warmer
ambient temperatures decrease the electrolyte’s viscosity and electrical
resistance, permitting faster ionic transfer, so increasing efficiency.
Typically polymeric materials are used to form many of the insulators
and laminates within cells, having softening points in the region of
100 C, so limiting temperatures. Temperature rises caused by internal
chemistry can also cause an increase in volume, straining some of the
materials involved and leading to rupture, or affecting operation.
Although pouch-type cells are suggested as a preferred solution to
minimise this effect – as expansion is allowed without interference
with adjacent cells – they too have their own issues. For example,
cyclic loading or movement can risk damage to the materials used at
the terminals and for conductors. Typically, rigid cell designs are used,
with the most popular hybrid racing designs based on a cylindrical
cell. These provide a self-contained pressure vessel, requiring minimal
external packaging for a very power-dense solution. For roadcars or EV
racing a prismatic cell shape is preferred to enable more efficient use
of the battery pack volume; however, their shape is not as rigid as a
cylindrical cell. For a continuously operated hybrid such as the Zytek
system, pouch cells were selected as the most efficient use of material
weight, as metallic cells have a higher proportion of material which is
not actively providing energy storage.
So the successful implementation of lithium ion batteries is
essentially a mechanical problem, requiring sufficient cooling
alongside a robust packaging and arrangement of the batteries’ cells.
Choosing which type of lithium
ion battery is an important factor –
some chemistries and constructions
are energy-dense, others power-
dense. For example, a conventional
automotive EV requires a high
energy density, storing as much
energy as possible, with relatively
modest charge and discharge rates.
On the other hand a hybrid racecar,
doesn’t actually need a great deal
of energy storage, just the ability
to deliver and recover that energy
very quickly during acceleration
and braking phases, leading to the
choice of a power-dense format.
Given that an acceleration
event usually follows immediately
after a braking event, and that the
window to collect energy during braking lasts only 3 s at most, it is
the ability to collect and release energy rapidly, rather than store it,
which is important. Although precise figures are hard to come by, a
supercapacitor solution such as that used in Toyota’s Le Mans hybrid
could be lighter than a battery pack for a similar power delivery.
The benefits of such a system are readily apparent on short circuits
with numerous braking events but low top speeds. In fact the Toyota
system was estimated to give a 1.7 s per lap benefit around Sao Paulo,
enabling it to finish ahead of the Audi entries. Notably the lap time
difference between Audi’s hybrid and conventional cars was minimal,
although it must be remembered that the regulations on when four-
wheel-drive cars can use their hybrid energy also play a part in that.
Installation is a significant factor for electrical hardware, as ideally
it needs to be situated to give adequate cooling as well as protection
from impact in a crash, and have no negative effect on vehicle
handling. For LM P1 hybrids, the preferred location is within the driver
safety cell, putting the weight centrally in the car, in a position that is
also temperature controlled. By contrast, the Drayson electric
LM P1 car stores its 200kg of batteries within the chassis at the front
and within a 30 g crash-proof safety cell in place of the fuel tank. Every
manufacturer queried for this article emphasised electrical safety, with
failsafe systems monitoring batteries, preventing thermal runaway and
automatically disconnecting contactors if anything untoward were to
occur, as well as internally discharging capacitors in the inverters.
The term ‘high voltage’ is relative, with motorsport powertrains
operating at voltages from 300 to 1000 V, – certainly hazardous, but
by no means exceptional. Every team and company dealing with
such systems has rigorous safety procedures in place, and these will
become more widespread as the skills are transferred across the
motorsport industry.
If large scale EV racing is to take place, lithium ion battery
technology has a little way to go yet, but doubtless a greater EV racing
presence will soon be established, further driving the technology. In
the meantime, significant consideration also needs to be given to the
46
Toyota WEC supercapacitor energy storage
mounted in passenger seat (Courtesy of TMG)t
RET_ADTEMP.indd 1 15/03/2013 14:12
48
infrastructure for EV racing, to ensure adequate charging facilities and
safe procedures in the pit lane.
To combat the problems of energy storage and recharging for EV
powertrains, various solutions have been proposed. The upcoming
Formula E series will be structured around two 20-minute races, with
drivers swapping to a second fully charged car. Developments in
inductive charging will focus initially on static pit garage solutions,
but the potential for charging moving vehicles would allow battery
pack sizes to be reduced as charging rates rise. Off-board dc charging
uses a second battery pack, which is charged slowly overnight; this
can then be connected to the pack on the car, transferring charge at a
higher rate (currently around 10 minutes). The potential to exchange
battery packs physically has also been mentioned, although the need
to connect and disconnect electrical and cooling connections, along
with 300 kg battery weights, has pretty much put paid to this idea.
Mechanical and electromechanical storageThe flywheel is possibly one of the earliest forms of mechanical
energy storage used in the industrialised world, the word bringing to
mind great cast-iron wheels and steam engines. These days there is
carbon fibre involved, but the principles remain the same. The energy
contained in a flywheel is proportional to its mass, its radius squared
and the square of its angular velocity. A flywheel for a lightweight
compact racing solution will therefore favour a higher angular velocity
to achieve the desired low mass and radius.
This desire for high rotational speeds brings its own challenges,
requiring high strength within the flywheel rim to prevent
disintegration. To achieve this, a uni-directional filament-wound
carbon fibre wheel is used for greatest specific strength. Some
flywheels are fully composite, while others use steel spokes.
A typical example of a contemporary flywheel achieves an energy
storage of about 540 kJ with a 5 kg flywheel, and therefore requires a
rotational speed of about 60,000 rpm, depending upon radial weight
distribution (although the potential for 90,000 rpm flywheels was
suggested by one manufacturer). At these high speeds, the surrounding
air would cause problems – not just significant aerodynamic losses,
but if the flywheel were tightly packaged in an enclosure then
localised supersonic effects could cause issues.
All the manufacturers involved in this field operate their flywheels
within a sealed and evacuated enclosure. When run with low-friction
bearings, this provides a system with a spin-down time from 60,000
rpm to zero of the order of 30-60 minutes. However, complete spin-
down is a relatively useless measurement, as most of the energy is lost
early on, as the rate of energy loss is proportional to the square of the
angular velocity. The half-life of energy in the flywheel is a more useful
measurement, with half the stored energy dissipating to losses within
about 5-20 minutes – not a problem if you are braking several times a
minute to top it back up!
The significant differences between the flywheel systems currently
available lie in the method of coupling them to the drivetrain, with
three solutions currently being explored by the major players – using
either direct mechanical drive, magnetic gearing or electric drive.
Direct mechanical drive to the gearbox or differential is one
option, using conventional gearbox technology that is well refined
and understood. While in the past CVT (continuously variable
transmission) systems were proposed, now three clutches engage one
of three potential gear ratios depending on the car’s speed; the use of
an additional epicyclic reduction gearset between the flywheel system
and the rest of the powertrain provides a total of six possible ratios.
The clutch packs are hydraulically controlled, allowing very small
diameters and near-instantaneous engagement, from zero to 100% torque
transfer in 12 ms and back to zero in 9 ms. The system fails completely
safe by cutting hydraulic pressure, without which the clutches cannot
engage. The use of a direct mechanical drive requires some clever design
in the seals used to withstand not only atmospheric pressure but very high
rotational speeds, and the ingress of dirt, oil and debris.
An alternative to a direct mechanical coupling is to drive the
flywheel magnetically, using an ‘harmonic magnetic gear’ system.
Here, permanent magnets are placed in the flywheel rotor, as well as
in the external casing (otherwise magnetically permeable) and then
a set of magnets in an external rotor that is directly coupled to the
drivetrain. The external rotor can then drive the flywheel through the
interaction of the various magnetic fields. With careful design of the
number and location of the different magnets, magnetic gearing can
provide a gearing reduction from the flywheel’s 60,000 rpm down to
about 6,000 rpm, to match a gearbox input shaft. While some eddy
current losses are present in such a system, with a well thought-out
design it is possible to arrange the magnetic fields such that the heat
generated is easily accessible for cooling.
The third option for driving the flywheel is an electromagnetic
solution, using a motor/generator in the drivetrain to harvest and deliver
power to the wheels. This electrical power can then be transferred to
and from the electromechanical flywheel, which is essentially an electric
motor with a composite rotor. In the system available at present, this
consists of an electromagnetic coil stator in the centre of the flywheel
Mechanically linked flywheel, with three clutched
gear ratios at the top right, along with power take-
off for the hydraulic system (Courtesy of Flybrid)
49
FOCUS : ALTERNATIVE ENERGY
electrically coupled flywheels can avoid the need for a vacuum
pump through hermetic sealing of the flywheel at the factory, but
may need additional cooling (magnetic) or heavy electric cabling
(electromechanical). An approximate weight for a completely
installed mechanically coupled flywheel system is around 40 kg, with
about 10 kg of that attributable to ancillaries.
The next step in the development of these systems is therefore in
the design of their installation, with all manufacturers anticipating
significant weight savings when systems are designed into the car
from scratch, rather than retrofitted. Indeed, completely integrating
the flywheel within the gearbox may soon permit a 60 kW system
weighing only 25 kg.
The combination of an energy-dense battery with a power-dense
flywheel is an attractive thought to provide a ‘best of both worlds’
solution, although the weight penalty would be considerable.
Hydrogen fuelThe Mazda RX-8 Hydrogen RE demonstrates the potential for hydrogen
as a fuel for internal combustion. Burning hydrogen with oxygen to
form water vapour is a low-emission solution, although undesirable
NOx emissions are still present when air is used as the oxygen source.
The Mazda can also burn gasoline from a port fuel injector, enabling a
versatile dual-fuel powertrain.
For the commercial vehicle market, a more recent contender is the
H2ICED by Revolve, using a conventional piston diesel engine for
a dual-fuel powertrain. The design retains its original diesel system,
while adding a second hydrogen fuel system, with small quantities
of diesel injected at precise points to ignite the hydrogen. The higher
compression of a diesel-based engine means that thermal efficiencies
of more than 40% are possible, alongside a significant NOx reduction
compared to the diesel baseline when exhaust gas recirculation is used
with hydrogen fuel.
Hydrogen fuel cellsHydrogen can also be used in an electricity generating fuel cell,
known as a proton exchange or polymer electrolyte membrane
fuel cell (PEMFC), whose low operating temperature (60-120 C)
offers particular benefits for motorsport applications. The cell is
supplied with both hydrogen and air; hydrogen is oxidised on one
electrode while oxygen is reduced on the other. Fundamentally this is
electrolysis in reverse, producing electricity, water (as steam) and heat.
In addition to the challenges of operating a fuel cell are the
problems associated with storing hydrogen gas in sufficient quantities
to provide adequate range. To achieve this, high-pressure tanks
(about 350 bar) are required to carry 320 litres or 8 kg of hydrogen
(equivalent to 50 litres of gasoline).
Currently the GreenGT H2, has been confirmed as a 2013 Le Mans
competitor under the Garage 56 rules (although Formula Student has
already seen the successful use of hydrogen electric powertrains).
The GreenGT H2 is powered by a 340 kW fuel cell consisting of 18 x
20 kW stacks and driven by a pair of three-phase permanent magnet
motors with a maximum speed of 13,500 rpm generating up to 544 hp
and 4000 Nm at the rear wheels.
axis, which drives the carbon fibre rotor by virtue of embedded magnetic
particles. This permits an incredibly versatile solution in terms of
packaging and flywheel location in the car – for example, the Audi R18
e-tron has the flywheel in the driver’s cockpit.
While processional torque from these flywheels is relatively low
– one manufacturer quotes a maximum of 130 Nm – the ability to
position the flywheel axis vertically rather than horizontally further
minimises its effects on the car’s dynamics.
In terms of round-trip efficiency, you might imagine initially that the
mechanically coupled device would have the fewest losses. However,
considering the difference in rotational speeds (a factor of ten) that
the gearing must accommodate, the electrical system may actually
be more competitive than at first glance. Although there are more
energy conversions, both of the motor/generator units in the system
(at the wheels and flywheel) can be optimised for efficiency at their
respective speed ranges. Electricity is simply the medium between two
very different motors optimised for their task. With actual round-trip
efficiencies depending largely on the specific installation, it is of course
very difficult to choose an absolute winner at this stage.
The electrically driven flywheel does present an advantage in terms
of versatility though, as it can collect energy from any electrical source
on the car, for example both the wheels and the turbocharger. Both
the electromechanically and purely mechanically driven system have
rapid responses (about 12 ms), and can apply a higher braking torque
in the initial moments of a braking event than conventional hydraulic
brakes, providing the potential for ABS or brake bias changes (were
any series to allow this in its regulations). Reacting the braking torque
in the transmission rather than at the wheel can also aid in reducing
dive under braking, again offering a potential performance and set-up
benefit to be exploited.
In terms of absolute added weight, this is installation-specific,
with cooling requirements and other ancillaries comprising a
significant proportion of the system weight. The magnetically and
Illustration of an
harmonic magnetic
gearing system and
hermetically sealed
flywheel (Courtesy
of Ricardo)
t
50
FOCUS : ALTERNATIVE ENERGY
Pneumatic-hydraulic hybridsThe current desire to find alternative energy sources or reduce fuel
consumption or emissions has spawned a vast range of concepts. The
idea of pneumatic or hydraulic hybrids is one such concept, using
braking energy to compress air or pressurise an hydraulic accumulator.
PSA Peugeot Citroen has embraced such a concept for a new
roadcar hybrid, dubbed Hybrid Air. While a pneumatic system may
not be any lighter than using batteries – once you consider the heavy
high-pressure cylinders, along with pumps, control systems, valves and
heat exchangers to prevent icing – it could offer an advantage in terms
of longevity, as the energy storage capacity will remain constant, while
the capacity of batteries may degrade in long-term service.
As with a mechanically driven flywheel solution, it also has the benefit
of using readily available conventional technology. It could provide a
convenient stop-gap solution for the roadcar market while battery and
fuel cell technologies mature within the arena of motorsport.
ConclusionWhile alternative powertrains are still very much in their infancy, their
track record so far is impressive. However, many of these systems are
designed to fit specific regulations, which for better or worse have
driven development in certain directions, as in lithium ion batteries
in Formula One. Their future development holds significant promise
though, with hybrid powertrains looking set to form a significant
proportion of mainstream motorsport, certainly in Europe.
AcknowledgementsThe author would like to thank David Greenwood and Anthony Smith
of Ricardo, Gordon Day of Williams Hybrid Power, Kirsty Andrew of
Williams Applied Engineering, James Francis of Williams F1, Larry
Kubes of Remy International, Laurent Chetrit of GreenGT, Angus Lyon
and Graham Moore of Drayson Racing, Tobias Knichel of Flybrid,
Jonah Myerberg of A123 Systems, Alastair Moffitt of Toyota Motorsport,
David Claxton of DMS Technologies, Pete May of Zytec and Dr Tim
Woolmer of YASA Motors for their invaluable insight and assistance.
Some exampleS of alternative energy SupplierS & manufacturerS
Electrical energy storage – batteries & supercapacitors
FRANCESaft Batteries +33 1 49 93 19 22 www.saftbatteries.com
SWITZERLANDBRUSA Elektronik +41 81 758 1900 www.brusa.biz
UKGoodwolfe Energy +44 (0)1702 527 883 www.goodwolfe.com Williams Advanced Engineering +44 (0)1235 777000 www.williamsf1.com Zytek +44 (0)1543 412 789 www.zytek.co.uk
USAA123 Systems +1 734 772 0300 www.a123systems.com
Flywheel energy storage systems
GERMANYBosch+49 7062 911 79101 www.bosch-motorsport.com
UKFlybrid Systems +44 (0)1327 855190 www.flybrid.co.uk Ricardo+44 (0)1273 455611 www.ricardo.comWilliams Advanced Engineering +44 (0)1235 777000 www.williamsf1.com Williams Hybrid Power +44 (0)1235 777000 www.williamshybridpower.com
Delivering stored electrical energy – electric motors
GERMANYBosch+49 7062 911 79101 www.bosch-motorsport.com
Rational Motion +49 2234 9791200 www.rationalmotion.de
SWITZERLANDBRUSA Elektronik +41 81 758 1900 www.brusa.biz
UKYASA +44 (0)1235 442007 www.yasamotors.com Zytek +44 (0)1543 412 789 www.zytek.co.uk
USARemy Inc +1 765 778 6499 www.remyinc.com
Mechanically coupled flywheel hybrid
system retrofitted to a Lola B12/66 LM
P1 gearbox and raced in the 2012 ALMS
by Dyson Racing (Courtesy of Flybrid)
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CHARGE BACK TO THE FRONT
PLUS
Clutch tech to win
The Grand Prix paddock
Suspension state of the art
F1 race
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They still use Truck arm suspension and rev counter dials but some of the best engineers in all of racing are employed by today’s teams and for them the archaic elements of the car are a great challenge. Blending today and yesterday’s technology provides a fascinating engineering puzzle.
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OFF-TRACK TESTING SECRETS
AERO-ELASTICITY IN FORMULA ONE
NEW LOTUS: ENSTONE’S CHARGE BACK TO THE FRONT
PLUSClutch tech to win
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F1 race
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v6 2012
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This technical report looks in depth at the cars that compete in the 24 Hour race at Le Mans. Published every July by High Power Media under official licence with the ACO, this report shows you the amazing engineering and technology required to race non-stop twice around the clock.
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RACING THE CLOCKThe challenge of competing at Le Mans
TECHNOLOGY FOCUSLMP manufacturing and electronics investigated
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NEXT GENERATIONToyota Hybrid uncovered
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Engineering a Top Fuel car that exploits 8000 bhp for just a few vital seconds is one of the toughest challenges in racing. This report explores in depth the engineering of all forms of professional drag racing, providing a fascinating insight into a surprisingly complex technological endeavour.
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Rally cars compete on everyday road tarmac, gravel, dirt, even ice and snow so the rally car has to be very versatile. It’s a 300 bhp missile that accelerates from 0-100 kph in under 3 seconds. The design and development of these cars has never been more deeply analysed.
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RALLY ROCKETS WRC challengers from Ford and Mini profi led
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