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Classification Classification , , nosology nosology in in psychiatry psychiatry Sandor Sandor Fekete Fekete Dept.of Dept.of Psychiatry Psychiatry, , University University of of Pecs Pecs http http:// :// psychiatry.pote.hu psychiatry.pote.hu Are Are the the diagnosis diagnosis, , and and classification classification really really necessary necessary in in psychiatry psychiatry? What What is is „normal normal” or or „pathological pathological” human human behaviour behaviour Can Can the the „pathological pathological”, , the the diagnosis diagnosis be be just just a a label label or or stigma? ( stigma? (social social deviancy deviancy model model ) ) - / / see see antipsychiatry antipsychiatry/ / symptoms symptoms, , outcome outcome, , family family clustering clustering are are different different in in these these disorders disorders/ syndroms syndroms also also the the biological biological background background, , specific specific responses responses in in treatment treatment The The Fundamental Fundamental Purpose Purpose of of Diagnosis Diagnosis and and Classification Classification The The purpose purpose of of diagnosis diagnosis and and classification classification is is to to isolate isolate a a group group of of discrete discrete disease disease entities entities, , each each of of which which is is characterized characterized by by a a distinct distinct pathophysiology pathophysiology and and/ or or etiology etiology. . Ideally Ideally, , all all diseases diseases in in medicine medicine would would be be defined defined in in terms terms of of etiology etiology. . For For most most illnesses illnesses, , however however , , we we do do not not know know or or understand understand exactly exactly the the specific specific etiology etiology For For most most diseases diseases, , however however , , our our understanding understanding is is at at the the level level of of pathophysiology pathophysiology rather rather than than etiology etiology. . Most Most of of the the disorders disorders or or diseases diseases diagnosed diagnosed in in psychiatry psychiatry are are syndromes syndromes: : collections collections of of symptoms symptoms that that tend tend to to occur occur together together . . Diagnosis Diagnosis, , classification classification in in psychiatry psychiatry Psychiatry Psychiatry tries tries consistently consistently and and comprehensively comprehensively formalize formalize the the diagnostic diagnostic processes processes for for the the disorders disorders within within its its domain domain. . This This precision precision and and structure structure are are particularly particularly important important in in psychiatry psychiatry because because it it lacks lacks recognized recognized etiologies etiologies for for many many disorders disorders and and lack lack specific specific laboratory laboratory diagnostic diagnostic tests tests as as well well . . diagnosis diagnosis relies relies largely largely on on the the patient patient’s presenting presenting symptoms symptoms and and history history. Without Without such such structure structure, , the the diagnostic diagnostic process process could could become become confused confused and and fuzzy fuzzy. . Purposes Purposes of of Diagnosis Diagnosis in in Psychiatry Psychiatry Diagnosis Diagnosis helps helps to to simplify simplify our our thinking thinking and and reduce reduce the the complexity complexity of of clinical clinical Psychiatric Psychiatric diagnoses diagnoses facilitate facilitate communica communica- tion tion between between clinicians clinicians. . Diagnoses Diagnoses help help to to predict predict the the outcome outcome of of the the disorder disorder Diagnoses Diagnoses are are often often used used to to decide decide on on an an appropriate appropriate treatment treatment. Diagnosis Diagnosis are are used used to to assist assist in in the the search search for for pathophysiology pathophysiology and and etiology etiology Other Other Purposes Purposes of of Diagnosis Diagnosis Diagnoses Diagnoses are are used used to to monitor monitor treatment treatment and and to to make make decisions decisions about about reimbursement reimbursement Diagnoses Diagnoses are are used used by by attorneys attorneys in in malpractice malpractice suits suits and and in in other other litigation litigation. Diagnoses Diagnoses are are used used by by health health care care epidemiologists epidemiologists to to determine determine the the incidence incidence and and prevalence prevalence of of various various diseases diseases throughout throughout the the world world. Diagnoses Diagnoses are are used used to to make make decisions decisions about about insurance insurance coverage coverage.
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ClassificationClassification, , nosologynosologyinin psychiatrypsychiatry

SandorSandor FeketeFekete

Dept.ofDept.of PsychiatryPsychiatry, , UniversityUniversity ofof PecsPecs

httphttp://://psychiatry.pote.hupsychiatry.pote.hu

AreAre thethe diagnosisdiagnosis, , andand classificationclassificationreallyreally necessarynecessary inin psychiatrypsychiatry??

WhatWhat is is „„normalnormal”” oror „„pathologicalpathological”” humanhumanbehaviourbehaviour

CanCan thethe „„pathologicalpathological””, , thethe diagnosisdiagnosis be be justjusta a labellabel oror stigma? (stigma? (socialsocial deviancydeviancy modelmodel) ) -- / / seesee antipsychiatryantipsychiatry/ /

symptomssymptoms, , outcomeoutcome, , familyfamily clusteringclustering arearedifferentdifferent inin thesethese disordersdisorders//syndromssyndroms alsoalsothethe biologicalbiological backgroundbackground, , specificspecificresponsesresponses inin treatmenttreatment

The The FundamentalFundamental PurposePurpose ofof DiagnosisDiagnosisandand ClassificationClassification

The The purposepurpose ofof diagnosisdiagnosis andand classificationclassification is is totoisolateisolate a a groupgroup ofof discretediscrete diseasedisease entitiesentities, , eacheach ofofwhichwhich is is characterizedcharacterized byby a a distinctdistinct pathophysiologypathophysiologyandand//oror etiologyetiology. . IdeallyIdeally, , allall diseasesdiseases inin medicinemedicinewouldwould be be defineddefined inin termsterms ofof etiologyetiology. . ForFor most most illnessesillnesses, , howeverhowever, , wewe dodo notnot knowknow oror understandunderstandexactlyexactly thethe specificspecific etiologyetiology

ForFor most most diseasesdiseases, , howeverhowever, , ourour understandingunderstandingis is atat thethe levellevel ofof pathophysiologypathophysiology ratherrather thanthanetiologyetiology. .

Most Most ofof thethe disordersdisorders oror diseasesdiseases diagnoseddiagnosed ininpsychiatrypsychiatry areare syndromessyndromes: : collectionscollections ofof symptomssymptomsthatthat tendtend toto occuroccur togethertogether. .

DiagnosisDiagnosis, , classificationclassification ininpsychiatrypsychiatry

PsychiatryPsychiatry triestries consistentlyconsistently andandcomprehensivelycomprehensively formalizeformalize thethe diagnosticdiagnosticprocessesprocesses forfor thethe disordersdisorders withinwithin itsits domaindomain. .

ThisThis precisionprecision andand structurestructure areare particularlyparticularlyimportantimportant inin psychiatrypsychiatry becausebecause itit lackslacksrecognizedrecognized etiologiesetiologies forfor manymany disordersdisorders andandlacklack specificspecific laboratorylaboratory diagnosticdiagnostic teststests asaswellwell. .

diagnosisdiagnosis reliesrelies largelylargely onon thethepatientpatient’’ss presentingpresenting symptomssymptoms andand historyhistory..WithoutWithout suchsuch structurestructure, , thethe diagnosticdiagnosticprocessprocess couldcould becomebecome confusedconfused andand fuzzyfuzzy. .

PurposesPurposes ofof DiagnosisDiagnosis inin PsychiatryPsychiatry

DiagnosisDiagnosis helpshelps toto simplifysimplify ourour thinkingthinking andandreducereduce thethe complexitycomplexity ofof clinicalclinical

PsychiatricPsychiatric diagnosesdiagnoses facilitatefacilitate communicacommunica--tiontion betweenbetween cliniciansclinicians. .

DiagnosesDiagnoses helphelp toto predictpredict thethe outcomeoutcome ofof thethedisorderdisorder

DiagnosesDiagnoses areare oftenoften usedused toto decidedecide onon ananappropriateappropriate treatmenttreatment..

DiagnosisDiagnosis areare usedused toto assistassist inin thethe searchsearch forforpathophysiologypathophysiology andand etiologyetiology

OtherOther PurposesPurposes ofof DiagnosisDiagnosis

DiagnosesDiagnoses areare usedused toto monitor monitor treatmenttreatment andand totomakemake decisionsdecisions aboutabout reimbursementreimbursement

DiagnosesDiagnoses areare usedused byby attorneysattorneys inin malpracticemalpracticesuitssuits andand inin otherother litigationlitigation..

DiagnosesDiagnoses areare usedused byby healthhealth carecareepidemiologistsepidemiologists toto determinedetermine thethe incidenceincidenceandand prevalenceprevalence ofof variousvarious diseasesdiseasesthroughoutthroughout thethe worldworld..

DiagnosesDiagnoses areare usedused toto makemake decisionsdecisions aboutaboutinsuranceinsurance coveragecoverage..

fMRIfMRI –– AnteriorAnterior CingulCingulaarr CortexCortex(ACC)(ACC)

DSM IV APA (1994) DSM IV APA (1994) classifiesclassifiesmentalmental disordersdisorders

The The AmericanAmerican PsychiatricPsychiatric AssociationAssociationhas has formulatedformulated a a manualmanual thatthat summarizessummarizesallall thethe diagnosesdiagnoses usedused inin psychiatrypsychiatry, , specfiesspecfies thethe symptomssymptoms thatthat must be must be presentpresent toto makemake a a givengiven diagnosisdiagnosis andandorganizesorganizes thesethese diagtnosisdiagtnosis togethertogether intointo a a classificationclassification systemsystem -- DiagnDiagn. . AndAnd StatistStatistManualManual forfor mentalmental DisordersDisorders (DSM)(DSM)

DSM IV APA (1994) DSM IV APA (1994) classifiesclassifiesmentalmental disordersdisorders

DSMDSM--IV is IV is largelylargely descriptivedescriptive andandatheoreticalatheoreticalDSMDSM--IV IV makesmakes useuse ofof a a novelnovel multiaxicalmultiaxicalsystemsystem forfor recordingrecording diagnosesdiagnoses-- ((characterizingcharacterizing patientspatients inin multiplemultiple waysways-- evaluatingevaluating allall aspectsaspects ofof patientpatient’’ss healthhealth

andand socialsocial backgroundbackgroundThe The fivefive axesaxes onon whichwhich informationinformation shouldshouldbe be recordedrecorded areare asas followsfollows: :

ParalellyParalelly -- thethe ICD ICD systemsysteminternationalinternational, WHO , WHO supportedsupported, ,

ratherrather usedused inin EuropeEurope -- ICD10ICD10

-- notnot multiaxialmultiaxial systemsystem

-- more more formalformal diagnosticdiagnostic categoriescategories

-- listlist certaincertain categoriescategories preferedprefered byby oneone ororanotheranother nationalnational schoolschool. .

-- More More forfor statisticalstatistical reasonsreasons

DiagnosticDiagnostic criteriacriteria forfor DysthymicDysthymic DisorderDisorder

DepressedDepressed moodmood -- forfor atat leastleast 2 2 yearsyears -- thethe mildmild, , chronicchronic depressiondepression, , lowlow moodmood, , anhedoniaanhedoniaPresencePresence ofof twotwo ((oror more) more) ofof thethe followingfollowing::(1) (1) poorpoor appetiteappetite oror overeatingovereating(2) (2) insomniainsomnia oror hypersomniahypersomnia(3) (3) lowlow energyenergy oror fatiguefatigue(4) (4) lowlow selfself--esteemesteem(5) (5) poorpoor concentrationconcentration oror makingmaking decisionsdecisions(6) (6) feelingfeeling ofof hopelessnesshopelessness

SymptomlessSymptomless periodsperiods less less thanthan twotwo monthsmonthsNo major No major depressivedepressive, no , no manicmanic episodeepisode, , notnot otherother psychoticpsychotic

conditionsconditionsDistressDistress oror impairmentimpairment inin socialsocial, , occupationaloccupational functioningfunctioning

AxisAxis II is is forfor thethe major major clinicalclinical syndromessyndromes..

AxisAxis IIII is is forfor specificspecific developmentaldevelopmentaldisordersdisorders ((forfor childrenchildren andand adolescentsadolescents andand, , inin somesome casescases, , forfor adultsadults), ), andand personalitypersonalitydisordersdisorders ((forfor adultsadults, , andand occasionallyoccasionally forforchildrenchildren andand adolescentsadolescents). ).

AxisAxis IIIIII is is forfor physicalphysical disordersdisorders ororconditionsconditions thatthat thethe clinicanclinican considersconsiderspotentiallypotentially relevantrelevant toto understandingunderstanding orormanagementmanagement ofof thethe patientpatient..

AxisAxis IVIV, , maymay be be usedused toto recordrecord thethe degreedegree ofofseverityseverity ofof psychosocialpsychosocial stressorsstressors thatthat thetheclinicianclinician considersconsiders significantsignificant inin precipititatingprecipititating ororexacerbatingexacerbating, , thethe patientpatient’’ss disorderdisorder..

AxisAxis VV maymay be be usedused toto recordrecord thethe clinicanclinican’’ssjudgmentjudgment regardingregarding thethe highesthighest levellevel ofof adaptiveadaptivefunctioningfunctioning demonstrateddemonstrated byby thethe patientpatient duringduringthethe pastpast yearyear. .

AxisAxis I: I: ClinicalClinical DisordersDisorders andand OtherOtherConditionsConditions ThatThat MayMay Be a Be a FocusFocus ofof

ClinicalClinical AttentionAttention-- DisordersDisorders usuallyusually firstfirst diagnoseddiagnosed inin infancyinfancy, ,

childhoodchildhood, , oror adolescenceadolescence-- DeliriumDelirium, , dementiadementia, , andand amnesticamnestic andand otherother

cognitivecognitive disordersdisorders-- MentalMental disordersdisorders duedue toto a a generalgeneral medicalmedical

conditioncondition-- SubstanceSubstance--relatedrelated disordersdisorders-- SchizophreniaSchizophrenia andand otherother psychoticpsychotic disordersdisorders-- MoodMood disordersdisorders-- AnxietyAnxiety disordersdisorders

AxisAxis I: I: ClinicalClinical DisordersDisorders andand OtherOtherConditionsConditions ThatThat MayMay Be a Be a FocusFocus ofof

ClinicalClinical AttentionAttention

-- SomatoformSomatoform disordersdisorders-- FactitiousFactitious disordersdisorders-- DissociativeDissociative disordersdisorders-- SexualSexual andand gendergender identityidentity disordersdisorders-- EatingEating disordersdisorders-- SleepSleep disordersdisorders-- ImpulseImpulse--controlcontrol disordersdisorders notnot elsewhereelsewhere classifiedclassified-- AdjustmentAdjustment disordersdisorders-- OtherOther conditionsconditions thatthat maymay be a be a focusfocus ofof clinicalclinical

attentionattention

AxisAxis II: II: PersonalityPersonality DisordersDisorders andandMentalMental RetardationRetardation

ParanoidParanoid personalitypersonality disorderdisorderSchizoidSchizoid personalitypersonality disorderdisorder AASchizotypalSchizotypal personalitypersonality disorderdisorder

AntisocialAntisocial personalitypersonality disorderdisorderBorderlineBorderline personalitypersonality disorderdisorder BBHistrionicHistrionic personalitypersonality disorderdisorderNarcissisticNarcissistic personalitypersonality disorderdisorder

AvoidantAvoidant personalitypersonality disorderdisorderDependentDependent personalitypersonality disorderdisorder CCObsessiveObsessive--compulsivecompulsive personalitypersonality disorderdisorder

MentalMental retardationretardation

Personality:Personality: a repertoire of coping devices ora repertoire of coping devices ordefenses that defenses that allows allows us to us to maintain an equilibrium maintain an equilibrium between our internal drives and the world aroundbetween our internal drives and the world aroundusus

Personality traits:Personality traits: results of development thatresults of development thathas been influencedhas been influencedby culture and societyby culture and societyby the childby the child--rearing practices of the familyrearing practices of the familyby genetically determined temperamental by genetically determined temperamental

factorsfactorsPersonality disorders :Personality disorders : the the personality traits arepersonality traits are

inflexible and inflexible and madaptivemadaptive, causing significant , causing significant impairmentimpairment in social or occupational functioningin social or occupational functioningand/and/orsubjectiveorsubjective distressdistress

Pathological personality Pathological personality structuresstructures

NEUROTIC:NEUROTIC: integrated identityintegrated identityhighhigh--level defensive operations level defensive operations (repression) (repression) maintained reality testingmaintained reality testing

BORDERLINE:BORDERLINE: identity diffusionidentity diffusionprimitive defensive operations primitive defensive operations maintained reality testingmaintained reality testing

PSYCHOTIC:PSYCHOTIC: diffusion or lack of integration of diffusion or lack of integration of identityidentity primitive defensive primitive defensive operations (depersonalization) operations (depersonalization) (denial) (denial) impaired reality testingimpaired reality testing

AxisAxis IV: IV: PsychosocialPsychosocial andandEnvironmentalEnvironmental ProblemsProblems

ProblemsProblems withwith primaryprimary supportsupport groupgroupProblemsProblems relatedrelated toto thethe socialsocial environmentenvironmentEducationalEducational problemsproblemsOccupationalOccupational problemsproblemsHousingHousing problemsproblemsEconomicEconomic problemsproblemsProblemsProblems withwith accessaccess toto healthhealth carecare servicesservicesProblemsProblems relatedrelated toto interactioninteraction withwith thethe legallegal

systemsystem//crimecrimeOtherOther psychosocialpsychosocial andand environmentalenvironmental problemsproblems

AdvantagesAdvantages andand DisadvantagesDisadvantages ofof thetheDSM DSM 2828III/IV III/IV ApproachApproach I.I.

DSM IV DSM IV substantiallysubstantially improvedimproved thethe reliabilityreliabilityofof diagnosisdiagnosis. . ReliabilityReliability, a , a biometricbiometric conceptconcept, , refersreferstoto thethe abilityability ofof twotwo observersobservers toto agreeagree onon whatwhat theytheyseesee. .

The DSM IV The DSM IV approachapproach has has clarifiedclarified thethediagnosticdiagnostic processprocess andand facilitatedfacilitated historyhistory takingtaking. .

DSM IV DSM IV alsoalso clarifiedclarified andand facilitatedfacilitated thetheprocessprocess ofof differenctialdifferenctial diagnosisdiagnosis. .

AdvantagesAdvantages andand DisadvantagesDisadvantages ofof thetheDSM IV DSM IV ApproachApproach II.II.

DSM IV DSM IV maymay sacrificesacrifice validityvalidity forfor reliabilityreliability. . WhereasWhereasreliabilityreliability refersrefers toto thethe capacitycapacity ofof individualsindividuals toto agreeagree ononwhatwhat theythey seesee, , validityvalidity refersrefers toto thethe capacirtycapacirty toto makemakeusefuluseful predictionspredictions. .

InIn particularparticular, , thethe validityvalidity ofof a a medicalmedical diagnosticdiagnostic systemsystemrefersrefers toto itsits abilityability toto predictpredict prognosisprognosis andand outcomeoutcome, , responseresponse toto treatmenttreatment, , andand ultimatelyultimately etiologyetiology..

The The increasedincreased precisionprecision sometimessometimes givesgives clinicansclinicansandand researchersresearchers a a falsefalse sensesense ofof certaintycertainty aboutabout whatwhattheythey areare doingdoing. .

ComparisonComparison ofof BNOBNO--10 10 andand DSMDSM--IVIV

criteriacriteria BNOBNO--1010 DSMDSM--IVIV

originorigin EuropeanEuropean NorthNorth AmericanAmerican

MainMain purposepurpose StatisticsStatistics ResearchResearch, , clinicalclinical

axisaxis NonNon--multiaxialmultiaxial MultiaxialMultiaxial

EmpiricalEmpirical basisbasis moderatemoderate StrongStrong

categoriescategories NotNot veryvery exactexact QuiteQuite clearclear, , somesome categoriescategoriesareare arbitraryarbitrary

BPRS - Bief Psychiatrc Rating Scale


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