CLATutor RC 1

CLATutor RC 2

CLATutor RC 3

INDEX

Part I

1. Set -1 4 - 11

2. Set -2 12 - 18

3. Set-3 19 – 25

Part II

4. Synonyms 26 – 27

Antonyms 28 - 29

5. Spelling Test & One Word Substitution 30 - 33

6. Idioms and Phrases & Double Filler & Close Test 34 - 40

7. Common Errors (I) 41 - 44

Common Errors (II) 45 - 47

8. Sentence Improvement 48 - 53

9. Reading Comprehension (I) & (II) 54 - 60

10. Critical Reasoning (I) & (II) 61 - 71

11. Para-jumbles (I) & (II) 72 - 77

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Set 1 1. If history doesn’t follow any stable rules, and if we cannot

predict its future course, why study it? It often seems that the chief aim of science is to predict the future - meteorologists are expected to forecast whether tomorrow will bring rain or sunshine; economists should know whether devaluing the currency will avert or precipitate an economic crisis; good doctors foresee whether chemotherapy or radiation therapy will be more successful in curing lung cancer. Similarly, historians are asked to examine the actions of our ancestors so that we can repeat their wise decisions and avoid their mistakes. But it never works like that because the present is just too different from the past. It is a waste of time to study Hannibal’s tactics in the Second Punic War so as to copy them in the Third World War. What worked well in cavalry battles will not necessarily be of much benefit in cyber warfare. Science is not just about predicting the future, though. Scholars in all fields often seek to broaden our horizons, thereby opening before us new and unknown futures. This is especially true of history. Though historians occasionally try their hand at prophecy (without notable success), the study of history aims above all to make us aware of possibilities we don’t normally consider. Historians study the past not in order to repeat it, but in order to be liberated from it. Each and every one of us has been born into a given historical reality, ruled by particular norms and values, and managed by a unique economic and political system. We take this reality for granted, thinking it is natural, inevitable and immutable. We forget that our world was created by an accidental chain of events, and that history shaped not only our technology, politics and society, but also our thoughts, fears and dreams. The cold hand of the past emerges from the grave of our ancestors, grips us by the neck and directs our gaze towards a single future. We have felt that grip from the moment we were born, so we assume that it is a natural and inescapable part of who we are. Therefore we seldom try to shake ourselves free, and envision alternative futures. Studying history aims to loosen the grip of the past. It enables us to turn our head this way and that, and begin to notice possibilities that our ancestors could not imagine, or didn’t want us to imagine. By observing the accidental chain of events that led us here, we realise how our very thoughts and dreams took shape - and we can begin to think and dream differently. Studying history will not tell us what to choose, but at least it gives us more options.

1. Based on the passage, which of the following options would be the most appropriate for citizens to learn history? A. British names of streets in India should not be changed. B. Every street in India should display a plaque that lists all its previous names. C. British names of streets in India should be changed to Indian names along with an explanation of their history.

D. Names of Indian streets should be based on suggestions generated through an opinion poll. E. Names of Indian streets should be periodically changed. 2. Which of the following options is the closest to the essence of the passage? A. History, unlike Physics, does not help predict future. B. History deals with long time periods. C. History documents the past events related to specific people. D. There is no strict cause and effect relationship in history. E. History has the potential to make us eclectic. 3. Read the following sentences: 1. A historian successfully predicted a political crisis based on similar events of the last century. 2. Using the latest technology, doctors could decipher the microbe causing the disease. 3. Students who prepared for an examination by perusing past 10 years' question papers did not do well in the examination. 4. A tribe in Andaman learns to predict epidemic outbreaks by listening to the stories of how their ancestors predicted the past outbreaks. Which of the statement(s) above, if true would contradict the view of the author? A. 1 and 2 only B. 3 and 4 only C. 2 and 3 only D. 1 and 4 only E. 1, 2 and 4 only 2. Rene Descartes’ assertion that ideas may be held true with

certainty if they are “clear and distinct” provides the context for Peirce’s title, “How to Make Our Ideas Clear.” Peirce argued that an idea may seem clear if it is familiar. Distinctness depends on having good definitions, and while definitions are desirable they do not yield any new knowledge or certainty of the truth of empirical propositions. Peirce argues that thought needs more than a sense of clarity; it also needs a method for making ideas clear. Once we have made an idea clear, then we can begin the task of determining its truth. The method that Peirce offers came to be known as the pragmatic method and the epistemology on which it depends is pragmatism. Peirce rejected Descartes’ method of doubt. We cannot doubt something, for the sake of method, that we do not doubt in fact. In a later essay, he would state as his rule “Dismiss make-believes.” This refers to Descartes’ method of doubting things, in the safety of his study, such things as the existence of the material world, which he did not doubt when he went out on the street. Peirce proposed that a philosophical investigation can begin from only one state of mind, namely, the state of mind in which we find ourselves when we begin. If any of us examines our state

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of mind, we find two kinds of thoughts: beliefs and doubts. Peirce had presented the interaction of doubt and belief in an earlier essay “The Fixation of Belief”. Beliefs and doubts are distinct. Beliefs consist of states of mind in which we would make a statement; doubts are states in which we would ask a question. We experience a doubt as a sense of uneasiness and hesitation. Doubt serves as an irritant that causes us to appease it by answering a question and thereby fixing a belief and putting the mind to rest on that issue. A common example of a doubt would be arriving in an unfamiliar city and not being sure of the location of our destination address in relation to our present location. We overcome this doubt and fix a belief by getting the directions. Once we achieve a belief, we can take the necessary action to reach our destination. Peirce defines a belief subjectively as something of which we are aware and which appeases the doubt. Objectively, a belief is a rule of action. The whole purpose of thought consists in overcoming a doubt and attaining a belief. Peirce acknowledges that some people like to think about things or argue about them without caring to find a true belief, but he asserts that such dilettantism does not constitute thought. The beliefs that we hold determine how we will act. If we believe, rightly or wrongly, that the building that we are trying to reach sits one block to our north, we will walk in that direction. We have beliefs about matters of fact, near and far. For example, we believe in the real objects in front of us and we believe generally accepted historical statements. We also believe in relations of ideas such as that seven and five equal twelve. In addition to these we have many beliefs about science, politics, economics, religion and so on. Some of our beliefs may be false since we are capable of error. To believe something means to think that it is true.

4. According to Peirce, for a particular thought, which of the following statements will be correct? A. A belief always leads to a doubt. B. A doubt always leads to a belief. C. A doubt and a belief may co-exist. D. A belief and a doubt are not related. E. A doubt may lead to a belief. 5. "A candidate has applied for CLAT". According to Peirce, it indicates that: A. The candidate has a belief in the CLAT application process. B. The candidate has a belief that CLAT is a good test of ability. C. The candidate is doubtful about her/his performance in CLAT. D. The candidate believes that s/he will perform well in CLAT. E. The candidate has a doubt about her/his performance in other Legal entrance examinations.

6. Which of the following words is the closest in meaning to "dilettantism"? A. Belief B. Doubtfulness C. Guesswork D. Surety E Unlikelihood 7. A person thinks that s/he has to keep awake for twenty hours in a day to score well in an examination, but is awake for only fifteen hours. For the above statement, which of the following options will be right, according to Peirce? A. This person believes in a minimum sleep of 10 hours. B. This person does not have a true belief. C. It is a counter-argument of Pierce theory. D. It is only a thought, a pure thought, nothing to do with action. E. The person does not have a doubt. 3. It is sometimes said that consciousness is a mystery in the

sense that we have no idea what it is. This is clearly not true. What could be better known to us than our own feelings and experiences? The mystery of consciousness is not what consciousness is, but why it is. Modern brain imaging techniques have provided us with a rich body of correlations between physical processes in the brain and the experiences had by the person whose brain it is. We know, for example, that a person undergoing stimulation in her or his ventromedial hypothalamus feels hunger. The problem is that no one knows why these correlations hold. It seems perfectly conceivable that ventromedial hypothalamus stimulation could do its job in the brain without giving rise to any kind of feeling at all. No one has even the beginnings of an explanation of why some physical systems, such as the human brain, have experiences. This is the difficulty David Chalmers famously called ‘the hard problem of consciousness’. Materialists hope that we will one day be able to explain consciousness in purely physical terms. But this project now has a long history of failure. The problem with materialist approaches to the hard problem is that they always end up avoiding the issue by redefining what we mean by ‘consciousness’. They start off by declaring that they are going to solve the hard problem, to explain experience; but somewhere along the way they start using the word ‘consciousness’ to refer not to experience but to some complex behavioural functioning associated with experience, such as the ability of a person to monitor their internal states or to process information about the environment. Explaining complex behaviours is an important scientific endeavour. But the hard problem of consciousness cannot be solved by changing the subject. In spite of these difficulties, many scientists and philosophers maintain optimism that materialism will prevail. At every point in this glorious history, it is claimed, philosophers have declared that certain phenomena are too special to be explained by physical science - light, chemistry, life - only to be subsequently

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proven wrong by the relentless march of scientific progress. Before Galileo it was generally assumed that matter had sensory qualities: tomatoes were red, paprika was spicy, flowers were sweet smelling. How could an equation capture the taste of spicy paprika? And if sensory qualities can’t be captured in a mathematical vocabulary, it seemed to follow that a mathematical vocabulary could never capture the complete nature of matter. Galileo’s solution was to strip matter of its sensory qualities and put them in the soul (as we might put it, in the mind). The sweet smell isn’t really in the flowers, but in the soul (mind) of the person smelling them … Even colours for Galileo aren’t on the surfaces of the objects themselves, but in the soul of the person observing them. And if matter in itself has no sensory qualities, then it’s possible in principle to describe the material world in the purely quantitative vocabulary of mathematics. This was the birth of mathematical physics. But of course Galileo didn’t deny the existence of the sensory qualities. If Galileo were to time travel to the present day and be told that scientific materialists are having a problem explaining consciousness in purely physical terms, he would no doubt reply, “Of course they do, I created physical science by taking consciousness out of the physical world!”

8. Which of the following statements captures the essence of the passage? A. Materialists redefine the hard problem by changing the issues. B. The hard problem cannot be solved by materialists. C. Materialists can explain the reasons humans see a particular colour. D. Materialists and philosophers agree on the concept of consciousness. E. The hard problem can best be solved by segregation. 9. Which of the following options would most likely be an example of the hard problem? A. Feeling the heat while holding a glass of hot water B. Experiencing joy after doing well in an examination C. What makes us tired after walking for 20 kilometres? D. Why we prostrate in front of a deity? E. Why do humans take birth? 10. Which of the following statements can be inferred from the passage? A. The passage argues that science could uncover all mysteries of the world. B. The passage argues that science could uncover all mysteries of the world by giving alternative explanations. C. The passage argues that science could never uncover all the mysteries of nature. D. The passage argues that science and consciousness are two different domains.

E. The passage argues that nature is so mysterious that humans are not even aware of the phenomena that can be researched 4. Does having a mood disorder make you more creative?

That’s the most frequent question I hear about the relationship. But because we cannot control the instance of a mood disorder (that is, we can’t turn it on and off, and measure that person’s creativity under both conditions), the question should really be: Do individuals with a mood disorder exhibit greater creativity than those without? Studies that attempt to answer this question by comparing the creativity of individuals with a mood disorder against those without, have been well, mixed. Studies that ask participants to complete surveys of creative personality, behavior or accomplishment, or to complete divergent thinking measures (where they are asked to generate lots of ideas) often find that individuals with mood disorders do not differ from those without. However, studies using “creative occupation” as an indicator of creativity (based on the assumption that those employed in these occupations are relatively more creative than others) have found that people with bipolar disorders are over-represented in these occupations. These studies do not measure the creativity of participants directly, rather they use external records (such as censuses and medical registries) to tally the number of people with a history of mood disorders (compared with those without) who report being employed in a creative occupation at some time. These studies incorporate an enormous number of people and provide solid evidence that people who have sought treatment for mood disorders are engaged in creative occupations to a greater extent than those who have not. But can creative occupations serve as a proxy for creative ability? The creative occupations considered in these studies are overwhelmingly in the arts, which frequently provide greater autonomy and less rigid structure than the average nine-to-five job. This makes these jobs more conducive to the success of individuals who struggle with performance consistency as the result of a mood disorder. The American psychiatrist Arnold Ludwig has suggested that the level of emotional expressiveness required to be successful in various occupations creates an occupational drift and demonstrated that the pattern of expressive occupations being associated with a greater incidence of psychopathology is a self-repeating pattern. For example, professions in the creative arts are associated with greater psychopathology than professions in the sciences whereas, within creative arts professions, architects exhibit a lower lifetime prevalence rate of psychopathology than visual artists and, within the visual arts, abstract artists exhibit lower rates of psychopathology than expressive artists. Therefore, it is possible that many people who suffer from mood disorders gravitate towards these types of professions, regardless of creative ability or inclination.

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11. Go through the following statements: 1.Mood disorders do not lead to creativity 2.The flexibility of creative occupations makes them more appealing to people with mood disorder 3.Mood swings in creative professions is less prevalent than in non-creative professions Which of the following would undermine the passage’s main argument? A 2 & 3 B 1 & 2 C 3 only D 2 only E 1, 2 & 3 A. 2 & 3 B. 1 & 2 C. 3 only D. 2 only E. 1, 2 & 3 12. All of the following can be inferred from the passage except: A. Individuals with mood disorder often do better in creative job profiles than in regular nine-to-five jobs. B. In creative professions, people with mood disorder are more creative than those without mood disorder. C. Mood disorder is more prevalent among people in creative occupations than in non-creative occupations. D. An architect is more likely to have mood disorder than a botanist. E. An abstract painter is less likely to have mood disorder than an interpretive dance performer. 13. Which of the following will make the authors contention in the passage fallacious? A. Everyone in a mental asylum is potentially a great artist. B. Patients in mental asylums prefer time-bound repetitive jobs. C. Creative geniuses never end up in mental asylum. D. Those with a creative spark will land up in a mental asylum. E. Creativity is a form of bipolar disorder 5. Lately it seems everyone’s got an opinion about women’s

speech. Everybody has been getting his two cents in about vocal fry, up-speak, and women’s allegedly over-liberal use of apologies. The ways women live and move in the world are subject to relentless scrutiny, their modes of speech are assessed against a (usually) masculine standard. This is increasingly true as women have entered previously male-dominated fields like industry and politics. In his essay “On Speech and Public Release,” Joshua Gunn highlights the field of public address as an important arena where social roles and norms are contested, reshaped, and upheld. Gunn argues that the field of public address is an important symbolic arena where we harbor an “[ideological] bias against the feminine voice,” a bias, that is rooted in positive primal associations with masculinity (and the corresponding devaluation of femininity, the voice that constrains and nags—the mother, the droning Charlie Brown schoolteacher, the wife). Gunn contends that masculine speech is the cultural standard. It’s what we value and respect. The low pitch and assertive demeanor

that characterize the adult male voice signify reason, control, and authority, suitable for the public domain. Women’s voices are higher pitched, like those of immature boys, and their characteristic speech patterns have a distinctive cadence that exhibits a wider range of emotional expression. In Western cultures, this is bad because it comes across as uncontrolled. We associate uncontrolled speech - “the cry, the grunt, the scream, and the yawp” - with things that happen in the private, domestic spheres (both coded as feminine). Men are expected to repress passionate, emotional speech, Gunn explains, precisely because it threatens norms of masculine control and order. The notion of control also relates to the cultural ideal of eloquence. Language ideologies in the U.S. are complex and highly prescriptive, but not formal or explicit. They are internalized by osmosis, from early observations of adult language use, criticism from teachers (i.e., telling little girls not to “be so bossy” and boys to “act like gentlemen”), and sanctions imposed by peers. These norms become most obvious when they are violated. When men fall off the “control and reason” wagon, they suffer for it. Gunn recalls Howard Dean’s infamous 2004 “I Have a Scream” speech, in which Dean emitted a spontaneous high-pitched screech of joy after he rattled off a list of planned campaign stops. The rest, as they say, is history. Women face a different dilemma—how to please like a woman and impress like a man. Women in the public sphere have, historically, been expected to “perform” femininity and they usually do this by adopting a personal tone, giving anecdotal evidence, using domestic metaphors, and making emotional appeals to ideals of wifely virtue and motherhood. Gunn arrives at the conclusion that “eloquence” is, essentially, code for values associated with masculinity, saying, “Performances of femininity are principally vocal and related, not to arguments, but to tone; not to appearance, but to speech; not to good reasons, but to sound. This implies that the ideology of sexism is much more insidious, much more deeply ingrained than many might suppose.”

14. Which of the following statements if true, is contrary to the ideas developed in the passage? A. Women in their communicative behavior are said to prefer a high-involvement style and men a high-considerate style. B. Women who use the lowest frequency of women's vocal traits have an unusually high status and are well educated professionals with middle class backgrounds. C. In certain hierarchically organized Indian political parties, women can participate in discussions as long as they appeal, persuade, and support others, and not initiate new ones. D. The linguistic ideology in vogue in ancient North India allowed only men of higher-castes and ruling dynasties to use Sanskrit; women and servants spoke Prakrit or Pali. E. Studies show that male followers of powerful women political leaders in Indian states imitate their leaders’ cadence, rhetoric and rhythm.

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15. An American female politician might not be expected to exhibit the features of public discourse discussed in the passage while ______. A. addressing her colleagues B. chatting with intimate colleagues C. speaking to members of a congregation D. giving testimony E. conversing with members of her community 16. Which one of the following, if true, would make the core argument of the passage irrelevant? A. Men seek to gain upper hand in conversation as they consider themselves competitive, while women use them as a way to gain confirmation and support. B. When a wife tells her husband that she's unwell, he normally offers to take her to a doctor. Invariably, she is disappointed, as what she looks for is sympathy. C. Unlike men who use and prefer to hear direct imperatives, women prefer 'indirections.' D. Where a management decision seems unattractive, men will often resist it vocally, while women may appear to accede, but complain subsequently. E. Today, sharing of emotions and elaborations is more important than sharing information and being brief. 6. There are no Commandments in art and no easy axioms for

art appreciation. “Do I like this?” is the question anyone should ask themselves at the moment of confrontation with the picture. But if “yes,” why “yes”? and if “no,” why “no”? The obvious direct emotional response is never simple, and ninety-nine times out of a hundred, the “yes” or “no” has nothing at all to do with the picture in its own right. “I don’t understand this poem” and “I don’t like this picture” are statements that tell us something about the speaker. That should be obvious, but in fact, such statements are offered as criticisms of art, as evidence against, not least because the ignorant, the lazy, or the plain confused are not likely to want to admit themselves as such. We hear a lot about the arrogance of the artist but nothing about the arrogance of the audience. The audience, who have given no thought to the medium or the method, will glance up, flick through, chatter over the opening chords, then snap their fingers and walk away like some monstrous Roman tyrant. This is not arrogance; of course, they can absorb in a few moments, and without any effort, the sum of the artist and the art. Admire me is the sub-text of so much of our looking; the demand put on art that it should reflect the reality of the viewer. The true painting, in its stubborn independence, cannot do this, except coincidentally. Its reality is imaginative not mundane.

When the thick curtain of protection is taken away; protection of prejudice, protection of authority, protection of trivia, even the most familiar of paintings can begin to work its power. There are very few people who could

manage an hour alone with the Mona Lisa. Our poor art-lover in his aesthetic laboratory has not succeeded in freeing himself from the protection of assumption. What he has found is that the painting objects to his lack of concentration; his failure to meet intensity with intensity. He still has not discovered anything about the painting, but the painting has discovered a lot about him. He is inadequate, and the painting has told him so. When you say “This work is boring/ pointless/silly/obscure/élitist etc.,” you might be right, because you are looking at a fad, or you might be wrong because the work falls so outside of the safety of your own experience that in order to keep your own world intact, you must deny the other world of the painting. This denial of imaginative experience happens at a deeper level than our affirmation of our daily world. Every day, in countless ways, you and I convince ourselves about ourselves. True art, when it happens to us, challenges the “I” that we are and you say, “This work has nothing to do with me.” Art is not a little bit of evolution that late-twentieth-century city dwellers can safely do without. Strictly, art does not belong to our evolutionary pattern at all. It has no biological necessity. Time taken up with it was time lost to hunting, gathering, mating, exploring, building, surviving, thriving. We say we have no time for art. If we say that art, all art. is no longer relevant to our lives, then we might at least risk the question “What has happened to our lives?” The usual question, “What has happened to art?” is too easy an escape route.

17. A young man visits a critically acclaimed modern art exhibition in his city and finds that he doesn’t like any of the exhibits. If he were to share his experience with the author of the passage, which of the following is most likely to be the author’s response? A. “Your feelings about art are totally insignificant because they are definitely prejudiced.” B. “Don’t deny the other world of art to hide your inadequacies." C. “You are as arrogant as the artists who produced those modern art exhibits.” D. “Modern art is, indeed, distasteful because of its abstract nature, and because it shows us up.” E. “You didn’t like modern art, that’s fine, but maybe you will like classical art forms 18. What according to the passage is the prerequisite to appreciate art? A. Prior knowledge of the art in question B. Participation with an open-mind C. Protection of assumption D. Preconceived notions of how we would be affected E. Participation of the artist

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19. When the writer observes, ‘This is not arrogance; of course, they can absorb in a few moments, and without any effort, the sum of the artist and the art’, he is being _____. A. ironical B. sarcastic C. objective D. hyperbolic E. naive 7. Elevation has always existed but has just moved out of the

realm of philosophy and religion and been recognized as a distinct emotional state and a subject for psychological study. Psychology has long focused on what goes wrong, but in the past decade there has been an explosion of interest in “positive psychology”—what makes us feel good and why. University of Virginia moral psychologist Jonathan Haidt, who coined the term elevation, writes, “Powerful moments of elevation sometimes seem to push a mental ‘reset button,’ wiping out feelings of cynicism and replacing them with feelings of hope, love, and optimism, and a sense of moral inspiration.” Haidt quotes first-century Greek philosopher Longinus on great oratory: “The effect of elevated language upon an audience is not persuasion but transport.” Such feeling was once a part of our public discourse. After hearing Abraham Lincoln’s second inaugural address, former slave Frederick Douglass said it was a “sacred effort.” But uplifting rhetoric came to sound anachronistic, except as practiced by the occasional master like Martin Luther King Jr. It was while looking through the letters of Thomas Jefferson that Haidt first found a description of elevation. Jefferson wrote of the physical sensation that comes from witnessing goodness in others: It is to “dilate [the] breast and elevate [the] sentiments … and privately covenant to copy the fair example.” Haidt took this description as a mandate. Elevation can so often give us chills or a tingling feeling in the chest. This noticeable, physiological response is important. In fact, this physical reaction is what can tell us most surely that we have been moved. This reaction, and the prosocial inclinations it seems to inspire, has been linked with a specific hormone, oxytocin, emitted from Vagus nerve which works with oxytocin, the hormone of connection. The nerve’s activities can only be studied indirectly. Elevation is part of a family of self-transcending emotions. Some others are awe, that sense of the vastness of the universe and smallness of self that is often invoked by nature; another is admiration, that goose-bump-making thrill that comes from seeing exceptional skill in action. While there is very little lab work on the elevating emotions, there is quite a bit on its counterpart, disgust. It started as a survival strategy: Early humans needed to figure out when food was spoiled by contact with bacteria or parasites. From there disgust expanded to the social realm—people became repelled by the idea of contact with the defiled or by behaviours that seemed to belong to lower people. “Disgust is probably the most powerful emotion that separates your group from other groups.” Haidt says disgust is the bottom floor of a vertical continuum of emotion; hit the up button, and you arrive at elevation.

Another response to something extraordinary in another person can be envy, with all its downsides. Envy is unlikely, however, when the extraordinary aspect of another person is a moral virtue (such as acting in a just way, bravery and self-sacrifice, and caring for others).

20. Which of the options below is false according to the passage? A. Elevated language is highly persuasive. B. Elevation results in a sense of moral inspiration of and purges us of negative emotions. C. Reactions to extraordinary external stimuli inevitably purge us of evil. D. Admiration is a more appropriate antonym of disgust than elevation. E. Elevation is admiration of virtue; admiration for skill is known as admiration: awe inheres in admiration and is generally caused by the majesty of nature 21. Which of the options will complete the statement given below meaningfully and appropriately, according to the passage? Disgust is not a self-transcending emotion because it ________. A. is the antonym of elevation B. springs from love C. is linked to invocation of nature D. it creates 'us versus them' divide based on group identities E. is about experiencing a moment when the ‘self’ reigns supreme 22. Which of the options below correctly identifies the function of elevation? A. It helps us in creating national identities. B. It helps leaders to attract followers. C. It helps us become religious. D. It helps to enforce moral and ethical values in a society. E. It helps transcendence to a higher plane. 23. Which of the statements below is least fallacious? A. Cheating in examinations is wrong because God will punish you. B. Mitigating risks often comes with costs. C. The snake in the temple likes milk because devotees offer it milk. D. Educated people do not oppose sale of hard drinks by governments. So drinking cannot be illegal. E. Marlon Brando was such a great actor because everyone liked him 24. Which option does not reflect the relationship implicit in ‘Emendation : Editor’? A. Injunction: Judge B. Examination: Doctor C. Discipline: Coach D. Illumination: Usher E. Renunciation: Saint

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8. Once, during a concert of cathedral organ music, as I sat getting gooseflesh amid that tsunami of sound, I was struck with a thought: for a medieval peasant, this must have been the loudest human-made sound they ever experienced, awe-inspiring in now-unimaginable ways. No wonder they signed up for the religion being proffered. And now we are constantly pummelled with sounds that dwarf quaint organs. Once, hunter-gatherers might chance upon honey from a beehive and thus briefly satisfy a hardwired food craving. And now we have hundreds of carefully designed commercial foods that supply a burst of sensation unmatched by some lowly natural food. Once, we had lives that, amid considerable privation, also offered numerous subtle, hard-won pleasures. And now we have drugs that cause spasms of pleasure and dopamine release a thousand fold higher than anything stimulated in our old drug-free world. An emptiness comes from this combination of over-the-top unnatural sources of reward and the inevitability of habituation; this is because unnaturally strong explosions of synthetic experience and sensation and pleasure evoke unnaturally strong degrees of habituation. This has two consequences. First, soon we barely notice the fleeting whispers of pleasure caused by leaves in autumn, or by the lingering glance of the right person, or by the promise of reward following a difficult, worthy task. And the other consequence is that we eventually habituate to even those artificial deluges of intensity. If we were designed by engineers, as we consumed more, we’d desire less. But our frequent human tragedy is that the more we consume, the hungrier we get. More and faster and stronger. What was an unexpected pleasure yesterday is what we feel entitled to today, and what won’t be enough tomorrow.

25. Which of the following options BEST reflects the author’s understanding of human perception of pleasure? A. Pleasure comes from whatever we are exposed to for the first time B. Pleasure comes from what we are deprived of C. Pleasure comes from what appears to be a valuable discovery or invention D. Pleasure comes from what is perceived to be extraordinary E. Pleasure comes from what we are accustomed to 26. Going by the author, which of the following options BEST answers the question “how can one sustain the pleasure derived from any experience?" A. Training to appreciate sweet whispers and fleeting moments of joy to sustain pleasure B. Periodic displeasure with synthetic experiences leads to sustaining pleasure C. The harder to replicate, the more sustainable the pleasure from that experience D. The closer the experience is to nature, the more sustainable it is E. Awareness of a habituation moment helps sustain pleasure

27. Which of the following options BEST describes “emptiness” as described in the passage? A. A feeling, evoked by the carefully designed commercial foods, alluring us to them B. A feeling of absence of sources of pleasure when extant sources are in abundance C. Yearning for newer sources of pleasure when extant sources are in abundance D. A feeling of weariness around extant sources of pleasure that are in abundance E. The inevitability of habituation that one gets from repeated consumption of man-made foods or drugs 9. There is nothing spectacularly new in the situation. Most

old-societies-turned-young-nation-states learn to live in a world dominated by the psychology and culture of exile. For some, the twentieth century has been a century of refugees. Others like Hannah Arendt have identified refugees as virtually a new species of human being who have come to symbolize the distinctive violence of our time. Refugees as contemporary symbols, however, proclaim something more than a pathology of a global nation-state system. They also represent a state of mind, a form of psychological displacement that has become endemic to modernizing societies. One does not even have to cross national frontiers to become a refugee; one can choose to be seduced by the ‘pull’ of self-induced displacement rather than be ‘pushed’ by an oppressive or violent system at home. It is this changed status of territoriality in human life that explains why, in immigrant societies like the United States, the metaphor of exile is now jaded. Some have already begun to argue that human beings need not have a ‘home’ as it has been traditionally understood in large parts of the world, that the idea itself is a red herring. While the idea of exile begins to appear trite in intellectual circles, an increasingly large proportion of the world is getting reconciled to living with the labile sense of self. Exile no longer seems a pathology or an affliction. Displacement and the psychology of exile are in; cultural continuities and settled communities are out; there is a touch of ennui about them.

28. Which of the following options is CLOSEST to the meaning of the phrase “labile sense of self”? A. History that does not confine itself to the self. B. Humans are not meant to be shunted around. C. The self adapts to a new geography. D. Geography does not imprison the self. E. The self does not belong to a particular geography. 29. Based on the passage, which of the following will the author DISAGREE the MOST with? A. One does not have to cross frontiers to become a refugee. B. Intellectuals find the notion of exile irrelevant.

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C. Refugees symbolize exploitation and abuse of our times. D. Being a refugee is a state of mind. E. A feeling of alienation in modernizing societies is a common phenomenon. 30. Project Affected Families (PAF) are those that are physically displaced due to construction of a large project (dam, factory etc.) in an area where the PAF traditionally resided. With insights from the passage, what would a project proponent, dealing with PAF, reading the following options agree the MOST with? A. PAF as a concept is irrelevant since human displacement is a historical phenomenon. B. Industry and government should care equally about profits and people. C. Don’t worry about PAF, they will eventually resettle and rehabilitate. D. Emotional estrangement of PAF is not an area of concern. E. PAF do not have a labile sense of self.

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Set - 2

1. The nature of knowledge cannot survive unchanged within

this context of general transformation. It can fit into the new channels, and become operational, only if learning is translated into quantities of information. We can predict that anything in the constituted body of knowledge that is not translatable in this way will be abandoned and that the direction of new research will be dictated by the possibility of its eventual results being translatable into computer language. The “producers” and users of knowledge must know, and will have to, possess the means of translating into these languages whatever they want to invent or learn. Research on translating machines is already well advanced. Along with the hegemony of computers comes a certain logic, and therefore a certain set of prescriptions determining which statements are accepted as “knowledge” statements. We may thus expect a thorough exteriorisation of knowledge with respect to the “knower,” at whatever point he or she may occupy in the knowledge process. The old principle that the acquisition of knowledge is indissociable from the training (Bildung) of minds, or even of individuals, is becoming obsolete and will become ever more so. The relationships of the suppliers and users of knowledge to the knowledge they supply and use is now tending, and will increasingly tend, to assume the form already taken by the relationship of commodity producers and consumers to the commodities they produce and consume - that is, the form of value. Knowledge is and will be produced in order to be sold, it is and will be consumed in order to be valorised in a new production: in both cases, the goal is exchange. Knowledge ceases to be an end in itself, it loses its “use-value.”

1. Which of the following statements BEST captures the essence of the passage? A. Knowledge shall no longer be evaluated by its truth but its commercial value. B. Translation of knowledge into machine language exteriorises it. C. Suppliers and users of knowledge have become its producers and consumers. D. Knowledge shall be exclusively produced to be sold. E. Market forces have taken over the process of knowledge production. 2. Based on the passage, which of the following statements can be BEST inferred? A. For knowledge to acquire an exchange-value, it should cease to have a use-value. B. Acquisition of knowledge need no longer transform its recipient. C. The locus of creation and accumulation of knowledge has shifted.

D. Knowledge as a transactional commodity is indispensable to productive power. E. Mental discipline is not necessary for learning anymore. 3. Which of the following options will the author agree the MOST with? A. A daughter of a lawyer must become a lawyer. B. A person with no passion for singing, if trained, will sing perfectly. C. To get promoted, an unempathetic manager can learn to display empathy. D. To teach poetry, one must not be a poet. E. MBA program has a high exchange-value but zero use-value. 2. It’s as if someone were out there making up pointless jobs

just for the sake of keeping us all working. And here, precisely, lies the mystery. In capitalism, this is precisely what is not supposed to happen. Sure, in the old inefficient socialist states like the Soviet Union, where employment was considered both a right and a sacred duty, the system made up as many jobs as it had to. (This is why in Soviet department stores it took three clerks to sell a piece of meat.) But, of course, this is the very sort of problem market competition is supposed to fix. According to economic theory, at least, the last thing a profit-seeking firm is going to do is shell out money to workers they don’t really need to employ. Still, somehow, it happens. While corporations may engage in ruthless downsizing, the layoffs and speed-ups invariably fall on that class of people who are actually making, moving, fixing, and maintaining things. Through some strange alchemy no one can quite explain, the number of salaried paper pushers ultimately seems to expand, and more and more employees find themselves—not unlike Soviet workers, actually—working forty- or even fifty-hour weeks on paper but effectively working fifteen hours just as Keynes predicted, since the rest of their time is spent organizing or attending motivational seminars, updating their Facebook profiles, or downloading TV box sets. The answer clearly isn’t economic: it’s moral and political. The ruling class has figured out that a happy and productive population with free time on their hands is a mortal danger. (Think of what started to happen when this even began to be approximated in the sixties.) And, on the other hand, the feeling that work is a moral value in itself, and that anyone not willing to submit themselves to some kind of intense work discipline for most of their waking hours deserves nothing, is extraordinarily convenient for them.

4. Which of the following options, if true, BEST makes the author’s assertion on pointless jobs erroneous? A. Workers who carry out pointless jobs are more loyal to the organization than others.

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B. Pointless jobs add less value to the organization than the jobs of those who are making or fixing things. C. Pointless jobs decrease the efficiency of the organization since they replace those who are making, fixing and moving things. D. Organizations with a higher number of pointless jobs are more profitable than those with less. E. Even though the rate of increase in pointless jobs is higher, their absolute number on an average is lower than that of meaningful jobs. 5. Which of the following can be BEST inferred from the passage? A. The ruling class abhors leisure so much that they encourage organizations to create unwanted jobs. B. Keeping people employed for longer hours serves the plans of the ruling class. C. Work as a moral right is the design of the ruling class to cut down on leisure. D. For political reasons, profit-making firms sometimes indulge in non-profitable decisions. E. Pointless jobs are here to stay, regardless of whether they are necessary or not. 6. Which of the following statements will BEST explain the principle underlying the theme of the passage? A. Organizations that create more jobs are rewarded by the government for protecting political values. B Work is a moral value in itself. C. People unwilling to submit to an intense work discipline deserve nothing. D. Keynes predicted that a happy and productive workforce is a force for the good. E. Peace and order in society require humans to be engaged in some activity most of the time, regardless of its meaninglessness. 3. The assumption of rationality puts an economist in a

position to "explain" some features of market behavior, such as the dispersion of prices of psycho-physically identical goods such as beer according to the amount spent on advertising them (no doubt, the fact that most beer is bought by individuals rather than as a raw material by firms, which could be expected to be more rational than individuals, is part of the explanation). Clearly, something is wrong somewhere with the usual model of a competitive market with perfect information, for the virtually content-less advertising cannot be considered as increasing the utility of beer in an obvious way. But if one can keep the assumption of rational actors, one need not get into the intellectual swamp of sentiment nor of preferences that depend on price. If one agrees, for example, that consumers use advertising as an index of the effort a producer will put into protecting its reputation and so as a predictor of quality control efforts, one can combine it with the

standard mechanism and derive testable consequences from it. But why, logically speaking, does it not matter that any of us, with a few years' training, could disprove the assumptions? It is for the same reason that the statistical mechanics of gases is not undermined when Rutherford teaches a lot of only moderately bright physicists to use X-ray diffraction to disprove the assumption that molecules are little hard elastic balls. The point is, departures that Rutherford teaches us to find from the mechanism built into statistical mechanics are small and hardly ever systematic at the level of gases. Ignorance and error about the quality of beer is also, unlikely to be systematic at the level of the consumers' beer market, though it would become systematic if buyers imposed quality control procedures on sellers in contracts of sale (as corporations very often do in their contracts with suppliers). So, when we find beers that arc aniarently psycho-physically identical selling for prices that depend on their advertising budgets, we have a dull alternative hypothesis and an interesting one. The dull one is that advertising can make the ignorance and error systematic at the level of markets, just as lasers with wavelengths resonant with the internal structures and the sizes of molecules can make molecular motions in gases systematic. The interesting one is that virtually content-less advertising is nevertheless information to a rational actor.

7. Which of the following statements would be the closest to the arguments in the passage? A. Individuals are more rational than firms. B. Firms are rational. C. Firms are more rational than individuals. D. Firms are, most of the times, more rational than individuals. E. Market behavior of psychophysical goods would be the same as that of physical goods. 8. Why has the author referred to Rutherford in the passage? A. To prove that molecules are elastic. B. To highlight that we should not compare apples and oranges. C. To hint that only very good students understood Physics taught by Rutherford. D. To equate beer with little hard elastic balls. E. l'o state that Mechanics is more amenable to application of Statistics than gasses. 9. Which of the following, as per author, are psychophysical goods? 1. Concrete 2. Car 3. Mobile Phone A. I and 2 B. 2 and 3 C. I and 3 D. I. 2 and 3 E. None of these 4. Ideas involving the theory of probability play a decisive

part in modern physics. Yet we still lack a satisfactory,

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consistent definition of probability; or, what amounts to much the same, we still lack a satisfactory axiomatic system for the calculus of probability. The relations between probability and experience are also still in need of clarification. In investigating this problem we shall discover what will at first seem an almost insuperable objection to my methodological 6 views. For although probability statements play such a vitally important role in empirical science, they turn out to be in principle impervious to strict falsification. Yet this very stumbling block will become a touchstone upon which to test my theory, in order to find out what it is worth. Thus we are confronted with two tasks. The first is to provide new foundations for the calculus of probability. This I shall try to do by developing the theory of probability as a frequency theory, along the lines followed by Richard von Mises, but without the use of what he calls the 'axiom of convergence' (or 'limit axiom'), and with a somewhat weakened 'axiom of randomness'. The second task is to elucidate the relations between probability and experience. This means solving what I call the problem of decidability of probability statements. My hope is that these investigations will help to relieve the present unsatisfactory situation in which physicists make much use of probabilities without being able to say, consistently, what they mean by 'probability'.

10. The statement, "The relations between probability and experience are still in need of clarification'', implies that: A. probability of an event can always be checked with experience. B. probability of an event can only be gauged historically. C. probability is mathematical while experience is real. D. probability statements can become difficult to disprove without experience. E. probability is futuristic. 11. Author has talked about the two tasks in the above passage. Choose the best option from the following statements relevant to the tasks. A. The first task is sufficient to become the touchstone for the author to test his theory. B. The second task is sufficient to become the touchstone for the author to test his theory. C. Either of the tasks is sufficient for the author to test his theory. D. None of the tasks is sufficient for the author to test his theory. E. Both the tasks would be important for the author to test his theory. 12. Which one of the following statements can be inferred from the passage? A. Physics is the only subject that borrows from the theory of probability.

B. Physics is the only subject where the theory of probability is inaccurately applied. C. The theory of probability may be inaccurately applied in other subjects. D. Physics is highly mathematical. E. Experience relates to physical objects only. Analyze the following passage and provide appropriate answers for the questions 5. The ways by which you may get money almost without

exception lead downward. To have done anything by which you earned money merely is to have been truly idle or worse. If the laborer gets no more than the wages which his employer pays him, he is cheated, he cheats himself. If you would get money as a writer or lecturer, you must be popular, which is to go down perpendicularly. Those services which the community will most readily pay for, it is most disagreeable to render. You are paid for being something less than a man. The State does not commonly reward a genius any more wisely. Even the poet laureate would rather not have to celebrate the accidents of royalty. He must be bribed with a pipe of wine; and perhaps another poet is called away from his muse to gauge that vet-) pipe. The aim of the laborer should be, not to get his living, to get "a good job," but to perform well a certain work: and, even in a pecuniary sense, it would be economy for a town to pay its laborers so well that they would not feel that they were working for low ends, as for a livelihood merely, but for scientific, or even moral ends. Do not hire a man who does your work for money. but him who does it for love of it. The community has no bribe that will tempt a wise man. You may raise money enough to tunnel a mountain, but you cannot raise money enough to hire a man who is minding his own business. An efficient and valuable man does what he can, whether the community pays him for it or not. The inefficient offer their inefficiency to the highest bidder, and are forever expecting to be put into office. One would suppose that they were sarely disappointed. God gave the righteous man a certificate entitling him to food and raiment, but the unrighteous man found a facsimile of the same in God's coffers, and appropriated it, and obtained food and raiment like the former. It is one of the most extensive systems of counterfeiting that the world has seen. I did not know that mankind was suffering for want of gold. I have seen a little of it. I know that it is very malleable, but not so malleable as wit. A grain of gold will gild a great surface, but not so much as a grain of wisdom.

13. Which of the following would the author disagree most with? A. Setting up a factory in a rural area B. Advertising for tooth paste C. Studying in a business school D. Betting in a casino

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E. Working for an investment bank 14. Which of the following could be a good title for the above passage? A. Money and Work B. God Rush C. Work is Worship D. In Search for God E. God is Gold 15. The author of the passage went on to say: "We are provincial, because we do not find at home our standards: because we do not worship truth, but the reflection of truth; because we are warped and narrowed by an exclusive devotion to trade and commerce and manufactures and agriculture and the like, which are but means, and not the end - Which of the following, as per author, could have been the end (last words in the lines above)? A. Economic growth of society 8 B. Realization of self C. Happy family life D. Strong and powerful nation E. Distribution of wealth

6. Opponents of compulsory national service claim that such a program is not in keeping with the liberal principles upon which Western democracies are founded. This reasoning is reminiscent of the argument that a tax on one’s income is undemocratic because it violates one’s right to property. Such conceptions of the liberal state fail to take into account the intricate character of the social agreement that undergirds our liberties. It is only in the context of a community that the notion of individual rights has any application; individual rights are meant to define the limits of people’s actions with respect to other people. Implicit in such a context is the concept of shared sacrifice. Were no taxes paid, there could be no law enforcement, and the enforcement of law is of benefit to everyone in society. Thus, each of us must bear a share of the burden to ensure that the community is protected. The responsibility to defend one’s nation against outside aggression is surely no less than the responsibility to help pay for law enforcement within the nation. Therefore, the state is certainly within its rights to compel citizens to perform national service when it is needed for the benefit of society. It might be objected that the cases of taxation and national service are not analogous: While taxation must be coerced, the military is quite able to find recruits without resorting to conscription. Furthermore, proponents of national service do not limit its scope to only those duties absolutely necessary to the defense of the nation. Therefore, it may be contended, compulsory national service oversteps the acceptable boundaries of governmental interference in the lives of its citizens.

By responding thus, the opponent of national service has already allowed that it is a right of government to demand service when it is needed. But what is the true scope of the term “need”? If it is granted, say, that present tax policies are legitimate intrusions on the right to property, then it must also be granted that need involves more than just what is necessary for a sound national defense. Even the most conservative of politicians admits that tax money is rightly spent on programs that, while not necessary for the survival of the state, are nevertheless of great benefit to society. Can the opponent of national service truly claim that activities of the military such as quelling civil disorders, rebuilding dams and bridges, or assisting the victims of natural disasters—all extraneous to the defense of society against outside aggression—do not provide a similar benefit to the nation? Upon reflection, opponents of national service must concede that such a broadened conception of what is necessary is in keeping with the ideas of shared sacrifice and community benefit that are essential to the functioning of a liberal democratic state.

16. Which one of the following most accurately describes the author’s attitude toward the relationship between citizenship and individual rights in a democracy? A. confidence that individual rights are citizens’ most important guarantees of personal freedom B. satisfaction at how individual rights have protected citizens from unwarranted government intrusion C. alarm that so many citizens use individual rights as an excuse to take advantage of one another D. concern that individual rights represent citizens’ only defense against government interference E. dissatisfaction at how some citizens cite individual rights as a way of avoiding certain obligations to their government

17. The author indicates all politicians agree about the A. legitimacy of funding certain programs that serve the national good B. use of the military to prevent domestic disorders C. similarity of conscription and compulsory taxation D. importance of broadening the definition of necessity E. compatibility of compulsion with democratic principles

18. Which one of the following most accurately characterizes what the author means by the term “social agreement” (line 8)? (A) an agreement among members of a community that the scope of their individual liberties is limited somewhat by their obligations to one another (B) an agreement among members of a community that they will not act in ways that infringe upon each other’s pursuit of individual liberty (C) an agreement among members of a community that they will petition the government for redress when government actions limit their rights (D) an agreement between citizens and their government

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detailing which government actions do or do not infringe upon citizen’s personal freedoms

(E) an agreement between citizens and their government stating that the government has right to suspend individual liberties whenever it sees fit

19. According to the author, national service and taxation are analogous in the sense that both (A) do not require that citizens be compelled to help bring them about (B) are at odds with the notion of individual rights in a democracy (C) require different degrees of sacrifice from different citizens (D) allow the government to overstep its boundaries and interfere in the lives of citizens (E) serve ends beyond those related to the basic survival of the state

20. Based on the information in the passage, which one of the following would most likely be found objectionable by those who oppose compulsory national service? (A) The use of tax revenues to prevent the theft of national secrets by foreign agents (B) The use of tax revenues to fund relief efforts for victims of natural disasters in other nations (C) The use of tax revenues to support the upkeep of the nation’s standing army (D) The use of tax revenues to fund programs for the maintenance of domestic dams and bridges (E) The use of tax revenues to aid citizens who are victims of natural disasters

7. James Porter (1905-1970) was the first scholar to identify the African influence on visual art in the Americans, and much of what is known about the cultural legacy that African-American artists inherited from their African forebears has come to us by way of his work. Porter, a painter and art historian, began by studying African-American crafts of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. This research revealed that many of the household items created by African-American men and women—walking sticks, jugs, and textiles—displayed characteristics that linked them iconographically to artifacts of West Africa. Porter then went on to establish clearly the range of the cultural territory inherited by later African-American artists. An example of this aspect of Porter’s research occurs in his essay “Robert S. Duncanson, Midwestern Romantic-Realist.” The work of Duncanson, a nineteenth-century painter of the Hudson River school, like that of his predecessor in the movement, Joshua Johnston, was commonly thought to have been created by a Euro-American artist. Porter proved definitively that both Duncanson and Johnston were of African ancestry. Porter published this finding and thousands of others in a

comprehensive volume tracing the history of African-American art. At the time of its first printing in 1943, only two other books devoted exclusively to the accomplishments of African-American artists existed. Both of these books were written by Alain LeRoy Locke, a professor at the university where Porter also taught. While these earlier studies by Locke are interesting for being the first to survey the field, neither addressed the critical issue of African precursors; Porter’s book addressed this issue, painstakingly integrating the history of African-American art into the larger history of art in the Americas without separating it from those qualities that gave it its unique ties to African artisanship. Porter may have been especially attuned to these ties because of his conscious effort to maintain them in his own paintings, many of which combine the style of the genre portrait with evidence of an extensive knowledge of the cultural history of various African peoples. In his later years, Porter wrote additional chapters for later editions of his book, constantly revising and correcting his findings, some of which had been based of necessity on fragmentary evidence. Among his later achievements were his definitive reckoning of the birth year of the painter Patrick Reason, long a point of scholarly uncertainty, and his identification of an unmarked grave in San Francisco as that of the sculptor Edmonia Lewis. At his death, Porter left extensive notes for unfinished project aimed at exploring the influence of African art on the art of the Western world generally, a body of research whose riches scholars still have not exhausted.

21. Which one of the following most accurately states the main idea of the passage? (A) Because the connections between African-American art and other art in the Americas had been established by earlier scholars, Porter’s work focused on showing African-American art’s connections to African artisanship. (B) In addition to showing the connections between African-American art and African artisanship, Porter’s most important achievement was illustrating the links between African-American art and other art in Americas. (C) Despite the fact that his last book remains unfinished, Porter’s work was the first to devote its attention exclusively to the accomplishments of African-American artists. (D) Although showing the connections between African-American art and African artisanship, Porter’s work concentrated primarily on placing African-American art

in the context of Western art in general.（E）

(E) While not the first body of scholarship to treat the subject of African-American art, Porter’s work was the first to show the connections between African-American art and African artisanship.

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22. The discussion of Locke’s books is intended primarily to (A) argue that Porte’s book depended upon Locke’s pioneering scholarship (B) highlight an important way in which Porter’s work differed from previous work in his field (C) suggest an explanation for why Porter’s book was little known outside academic circles (D) support the claim that Porter was not the first to notice African influences in African-American art (E )argue that Locke’s example was a major influence o Porter’s decision to publish his findings

23. The passage states which one of the following about the 1943 edition of Porter’s book on African-American art? (A) It received little scholarly attention at first. (B) It was revised and improved upon in later editions. (C) It took issue with several of Locke’s conclusions. (D) It is considered the definitive version of Porter’s work. (E) It explored the influence of African art on western art in general.

24. Given the information in the passage, Porter’s identification of the ancestry of Duncanson and Johnston provides conclusive evidence for which one of the following statements? (A) Some of the characteristics defining the Hudson River school are iconographically linked to Weston African artisanship. (B) Some of the works of Duncanson and Johnston are not in the style of the Hudson River school. (C) Some of the work of Euro-American painters displays similarities to African-American crafts of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. (D) Some of the works of the Hudson River school were done by African-American painters. (E) Some of the works of Duncanson and Johnston were influenced by West African artifacts.

25. Which one of the following can most reasonably be inferred from the passage about the study that Porter left unfinished at his death? (A) If completed, it would have contradicted some of the conclusions contained in his earlier book. (B) If completed, it would have amended some of the conclusions contained in his earlier book. (C) If completed, it would have brought up to date the comprehensive history of African-American art begun in his earlier book. (D) If completed, it would have expanded upon the project of his earlier book by broadening the scope of

inquiry found in the earlier book.（D）

(E) If completed, it would have supported some of the theories put forth by Porter’s contemporaries since the publication of his earlier book.

26. Which of the following hypothetical observations is most closely analogous to the discoveries Porter made about African-American crafts of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries? (A) Contemporary Haitian social customs have a unique character dependent on but different from both their African and French origins. (B) Popular music in the United States, some of which is based on African musical traditions, often influences music being composed on the African continent. (C) Many novels written in Canada by Chinese immigrants exhibit narrative themes very similar to those found in Chinese folktales. (D) Extensive Indian immigration to England has made traditional Indian foods nearly as popular there as the traditional English foods that had been popular there before Indian immigration. (E) Some Mexican muralists of the early twentieth century consciously imitated the art of native peoples as a response to the Spanish influences that had predominated in Mexican art.

27. The passage most strongly supports which one of the following inferences about Porter’s own paintings? (A) They often contained figures or images derived from the work of African artisans. (B) They fueled his interest in pursuing a career in art history. (C) They were used in Porter’s book to show the extent of African influence on African-American art. (D) They were a deliberate attempt to prove his theories about art history. (E) They were done after all of his academic work had been completed.

28. Based on the passage, which one of the following, if true, would have been most relevant to the project Porter was working on at the time of his death? (A) African-American crafts of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries have certain resemblances to European folk crafts of earlier periods. (B) The paintings of some twentieth-century European artists prefigured certain stylistic developments in North African graphic art. (C) The designs of many of the quilts made by African-American women in the nineteenth century reflect designs of European trade goods. (D) After the movement of large numbers of African-Americans to cities, the African influences in the work of

many African-American painters increased.（E）

(E) Several portraits by certain twentieth-century European painters were modeled after examples of Central African ceremonial masks.

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8. Between June 1987 and May 1988, the bodies of at least 740 bottlenose dolphins out of a total coastal population of 3,000 to 5,000 washed ashore on the Atlantic coast of the United States. Since some of the dead animals never washed ashore, the overall disaster was presumably worse; perhaps 50 percent of the population died. A dolphin die-off of this character and magnitude had never before been observed; furthermore, the dolphins exhibited a startling range of symptoms. The research team that examined the die-off noted the presence of both skin lesions and internal lesions in the liver, lung, pancreas and heart, which suggested a massive opportunistic bacterial infection of already weakened animals. Tissues from the stricken dolphins were analyzed for a variety of toxins. Brevetoxin, a toxin produced by the blooming of the alga Ptychodiscus brevis, was present in

eight out of seventeen dolphins tested. Tests for synthetic pollutants revealed that polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were present in almost all animals tested. The research team concluded that brevetoxin poisoning was the most likely cause of the illnesses that killed the dolphins. Although P. brevis is ordinarily not found along

the Atlantic coast, an unusual bloom of this organism—such blooms are called “red tides” because of the reddish color imparted by the blooming algae—did occur in the middle of the affected coastline in October 1987. These researchers believe the toxin accumulated in the tissue of fish and then was ingested by dolphins that preyed on them. The emaciated appearance of many dolphins indicated that they were metabolizing their blubber reserves, thereby reducing their buoyancy and insulation (and adding to overall stress) as well as releasing stores of previously accumulated synthetic pollutants, such as PCBs, which further exacerbated their condition. The combined impact made the dolphins vulnerable to opportunistic bacterial infection, the ultimate cause of death. For several reasons, however, this explanation is not entirely plausible. First, bottlenose dolphins and P. brevis

red tides are both common in the Gulf of Mexico, yet no dolphin die-off of a similar magnitude has been noted there. Second, dolphins began dying in June, hundreds of miles north of and some months earlier than the October red tide bloom. Finally, the specific effects of brevetoxin on dolphins are unknown, whereas PCB poisoning is known to impair functioning of the immune system and liver and to cause skin lesions; all of these problems are observed in the diseased animals. An alternative hypothesis, which accounts for these facts, is that a sudden influx of pollutants, perhaps from offshore dumping, triggered a cascade of disorders in animals whose systems were already heavily laden with pollutants. Although brevetoxin may have been a contributing factor, the event that actually precipitated the die-off was a sharp increase in the dolphins’ exposure to synthetic pollutants.

29. The passage is primarily concerned with assessing A. the effects of a devastating bacterial infection in Atlantic coast bottlenose dolphins B. the progress by which illnesses in Atlantic coast bottlenose dolphins were correctly diagnosed C. the weaknesses in the research methodology used to explore the dolphin die-off D. possible alternative explanations for the massive dolphin die-off E. relative effects of various marine pollutants on dolphin mortality

30. Which one of the following is mentioned in the passage as evidence for the explanation of the dolphin die-off offered in the final paragraph? A. the release of stored brevetoxins from the dolphins’ blubber reserves B. the date on which offshore dumping was known to have occurred nearby C. the presence of dumping sites for PCBs in the area D. the synthetic pollutants that were present in the fish eaten by the dolphins E. the effects of PCBs on liver function in dolphins

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