ClllPftl - I

POLl tiCAL PAilTIIS AlW POLl TICAL DIV&LOPKDfl

A &MD OP TBI LlfBUTURI

Political partiea b~e co•• to pl., aa

1noreaa1n&l1 taportant role 1n aodern political

lite, and aaay obaerYer• reaard tbea •• eaaential

qenta in ibe aooial, poll tical, and econoaio

developaent of a •••• aooiety. The purpoae of thia

chapter 1a to indicate that a poll tical ayatea con­

alate of aeveral parta od that one of 1 ta aoat

iaportaDt parta is political parttea. !be chapter

alao focuaaea on tbe pro-1 .. of political develop­

aent, for tn tbe literature on political ayat .. ,

tbe role of political partie• has been differentia­

ted on the basta of the developed and 4evelop1DJ

countries.

Segtlog Aa Poll tical Srat•• Defini tiop and Conctpt

Before gotnc toto the defiaitioa and the

concept of •political parties and political deve-"

lopaent"1n c•neral, let ua underatan4 what the

concept of •political ayatea• ia. the tera'politt­

cal aystea' refers to the study of governaent ia ita

eapirical dlaenaiona and fro• a strictly lnter­

d1ac1pl1nary approach. A political ayatea is,

therefore, •a set of interrelated Tariable conceived

to be politically relevant and treated as it they

could be separated fro• other variables not iame­

diately relevant to politics•. 1

The concept has certainly acquired wide curre­

ncy, for the reason tbat it "directs attention to

the entire scope of political activities within a

society, regardless of where in the society such

actiVities may be located". 2

1. David M. Wood, "Comparative Government and Politics•, in Stephen L. Wasby, ed., Political Science: The Discipline and Its Dimensions (Calcuttaz Scientific Book Agency, 1970), p. lt91.

2. Defining the tera, Al•ond and Powell write: "When we speak of the political systea, we include all the interactions which affect the use or threat of the use of legitimate physi­cal coercion. The political systea includes not only governaental institutions such as legislatures, courts, and adBiinistrative agen­cies, but all the structures in their political aspects. Aaong these are traditional structu­res •uch as kinship ties, and caste groupings; and anoaic phenoaena such as assassinations, riots and deaonatrations; as well as foraal organisations like parties, interest groups and aedia of coamunications". G.A. Alaond and B. Powell, Coaparative Poli­tics: A Developmental Approach (Boston, Mass: Little Brown, 1966), p. 111.

lbe i•portant authors on this subject are

Gabriel A. Alaon41 and DaYld &aaton. 1 A political

syatea, in 'brief, ls tbe atruoture which pertenaa

certain :fUDctlona tor a aoct•tr. It alao coatr1-

ltutea to the to~lation of le&itlaate policy deol•

alone, whlcb aeabera o:f the aoctety accept aa being

in colt:fol'lllty ld.th their oonoeptlona of authority

and purpoae.3

Alaond naaea three pro perU ea, rt •. coapre­

bensiYeneae, interdependence and the existence o:f

boun4ariea, aa eaaenUal to a poll tical ayat ...

!be five character1at1oa of a pollUcal ayatea,

accordln& to A1aoa4, ares

1.

'·

G.A. Alllond, •Iatroductloa•, in Alaoad and Coleaaa, e4a, 'l'be Poll tic • of the Df!elg-~.fr:ifr(~~!:::t~9&o~:J.a Princeton

DaYld Baatoa, "e Political Sfateaa A9 flgut~ into tbt State oi Pjlltioal sclenot

ew oris lllre• liipf, 19 j). Allload vl1. teaa "Vhat we propoae le- that poll tical aya t• la that ayat• of iatera­ctlona to be :found in all independent aocietiea vhlcb ,.rtora the :function• of lntearation atd adap.:tatlon (ltotb internally aud Yia-a-Yla other aoc1etiea) ..,_ ae&Da o:f the eapio)"JJent, or ibreat of •ployaent, ot ~r• or lea• le&iilaate, order-aa1aiainin& or tranatorain& ayatea in the eociety •••••• operatioa. • ~Ddt Op.oit,, PP• 7-8.

(1) ua1Yeraal1ty of political ayat .. l

(2) uaiveraality ot political atruotareaa

( ') ' Ul11veraa11 ty of poll tical tunctiona;

(') aultt-tunctlonallty ot pollttcal atructure; and

(5) culturally .tsed character of political ayatea. 1

Alaond tbua propound• a theory tbich explaina

how poll tical aysteaa cban&e troa one type to another,

particularly fro• tbe traditional to the aodern. 2

1. SpeaJd.q ot llixed character ot polt tical •yatea Al•ond Sayaa "Vbat ia useful in these concepta of ault1-tUJlct1onal1 .. , cultural dualt ... and political accGituratlon la tbat they aet aa14e once and tor all tile aeoaraphto, oul tare.l aad analrttoal polariaationa wnlob baYe plaaue4 our ettorta at •clal and poll tical ceapartaoa we have -••n talklq ot "'lodera• and ilpre­~d•raf d~eloped and under-developed•, •tadu­atrlal • and • qrartau •, •weatei'D and aoD­weatern' or ihe PareoDian SJDdro••• of un1 ver­aall• - apec1t1c1ty ... acbieveaent attectin 1:. neutrality. !be UD!Yerse of political ayat .. ta leas tractable to staple contraeta than ve have auppoae4. We need duallatic •odela rather than 110ntsttc onea, and •eYelopaeat aa well as equ111briu. •odela, if we are to uader­ataad d1tterencea precisely and arapple etfe­ct1Yely with the proceaa ot political ebaqe•. Al~nd, Op.clt,, p. 25.

a. Be believed atnoerely tbat he had auoceeded ln ela~rattna a theory whereby the theor.y ot etaa•• would u.l Uaatel7 be possible through atatiatical aad perhaps aatheaatioal toraula­tlona. See; Alaond aad Coleaan, the Pol& tfiif ot Developtaa At•alo(Prineetoa, Pr1nceton­¥erai iy Preaa: , 19 ), p. 59.

lihile de.tillin& the concept of political •JBt•,

be hae obY1oualy bad oerta1n baeic aasuaptloaa

ln bis ldnd. Firat, be aasu.aea tbat poll tical

change oan be paroetved in teras ot developaent

alone - tradi ttonal, tranai tional aDd aodern.

Secondly, being a atruotural-tunctionallat, ••

prefers to identify the tQDct1on of the polity

in aodern Weatern ayateaa and then to· pursue bla

analysis of political aoderniaatlon in non-Western

areas by 1DYeat1gat1ng how tbeae tunct1ona, which

are aaaociated 1d. tb d1st1nctlve poll ticAl aottvt­

ties in We a tern sy steaa ,1 are pertoraed elsewhere.

Thirdly, be reaards the political -.yatea aa a set

of lnteracttona between the roles adopted by the

individuals in a 1110ciety. Yet another assuaption

la that political systeas are •open pbeuoaeaa•

in that they interact w1 th, and are lnflueDo•d

by, entities and ~stems beyond their boundaries

and environaenta. 1

A poll tical ayat• ot each country ahould

be described in reterenoe to a partiou.lar figure

1. Haston a. Davia and Vauahan A. Lewis, Hodel a o.t Poli ttcal Sf•!e• (Delh1t Vikaa, 1971), p. )4.

of atructurea and tunctlona in which eaoh eleaent

would be ahoWD to lte 'invelvecl' lty pertoratng ia

part a naber of tunc tiona •1 Alaond preaenta a

aeven-tolcl claasitloation of the functional varia­

bles ln kla lnput-eutput aoclel. 1

The n .. e of David Eaa'&on also needs special

attention vi tb l"egard to the concept ot po11 Uoal

syetea aa well as •odel of input-output analyata.

Bia lnput-output analyeia baa three vartablea in

tile tor• ot de11anda• aupPOrta and feeilltacka. In

other word.e, he laya streaa en the point that a

political syat .. la operated by the forces of

enY1roJlllent. These .foroea appear in the fora o.f

de~~anda 011 -the syatea and tbe deciaiona of the

.aen in power who take deoi aiona in order to allo•

oa te binding value a to thea. He calla input-output

1.

a.

Jean Blondel1 ~Intrgductioj to CpappEft­ilve Governaent · ondon, 196§ , P• &5. Alaond oateaorizea tour input-output tuno­tion•u ( 1) pol1 tical socialisation and recruitaent; (2) intereat art1oulat1onaJ (l) intereat aggreaation; and (4) political eowaunlcation. The three output tunctlona area (1) rule-aakingJ (2) rule application, and (3) rule a4Jad1cat1oa.

LWeidenfield and Nicholson ,

analyli • "a Llow aodel of the poll U. cal aya t ... • 1

aelevanoe of Poll tical DeTelopaent Approaob to

study Political Szatt•l

However, we are not concerned here with the

concept ot political ayst .. in any apecific way.

The focus of our attention la on tbe apeotttc role

that political partiea play in the political aysteB

of the developing eocletiea. The political develop­

ment approach to the atudy ot poll tical syst••

baa becoae qld. te popular in recent years. In

ltriet, the tera •poll Ucal deTelopaent" retera to

a 4yn~1c proceaa of nation-building, aodernisatton,

1. He say at "fhua, a qs tea a aa lysis ot poll• tical lite reata on tbe idea of a ayat .. tabedeA in an environaent au4 aubJect to possible envtroJlllental 1Dfluooea that thre­aten to drive the eaaential variables of the syate• beyond their or1t1oal ranae. Such an an.alyai a augaeata tba t, to peratat tbe s;yet• auat be capable of reapondin& vitb •eaaurea that alleYiate tbat atreaa. The actiona ot the adtboritiea are particu­larly critical in this respect. But, 11 tbey are able to reapond, they auat be in a poai tion to obtain 1n:toraat1on about what 1 a haweniq ao that tbey aay react 1a­aofar as tbey desire, or are ooapelled, to do eo. With 1ntoraat1on they ••Y be able to aa1nta1n ld.Diaal level of suppor1 for tbe ayatea". Da'rid Baston, •Syat .. s Analysis: An Bxaaple of Functionalia•"• 1a Jaaea A. Gould end Vincent V. Thuraby eds., Cont-uorarz Political !hou4bt (•ev York, 19 ), p.2t0.

an4 .octal chan&• ia the newly eaer&iD& ooUDtrlea. 1

'l'he prooesa of decoloD1ut1on and utloa­

bu1141ng wbich 1uvo1Ye4 botb dia:l.ntearation and

re-1nte&ration of political ayateaa atarted after

the Second World War. It led to the rapid eaergenoe

of a aer:l.ea of new atatea in the Afro-AaiaD aDd

Latin Allertcan reatona. A auaber of aobolara were

autticiently attracted 'T it to undertake .. p1rical

and social tnvesti&at:l.on. Aa a reault, aeYeral

1. Oae School of fboupt aaaociate4 priaarily id til the work of Karl w. Deuatch and Dan! el Lerner, aau&ed aodern:l.ty in teraa of 1nd1• cee aucb •• 11 teracy, ur1taD1aat1on and acceaa to aaaa aed1a, with' the level ef political developaent or aoderniaat:l.oa bein& conceived aa a functional oonooa1tant of tbe acorea of a ,given 10oiety would rece­ive on thea• 1nd1cea. Another claas o1 !bought, pipneered bT Weber and Durkheta, conoe:I.Yed aoderntaation in teraa of iacre­aainc atructural ditterentiation and fun­ctional epec1tic1 ty of rolea in a &:I. Yea aociety. !bird approach ltaaed on ParaoDiu aodel, distlnguiabea tradi tioaal and IIOder­Di ty 'by u aiD& a • eri • a of pat tern Yari ables aa ori teria. fllere are other approache• to the concept of political developaent too.

worka were pu•ltsbed, ptnpotnttaa the concept of

political deTelopaent. 1 V.at is, howeTer, eapecia­

lly noticeable about the aaaa1Ye literature that

was prodaoed is that it "illiUlinatea a situation

of aeaantlc confusion•, and behind tbi& •contusion" ~

there ts a aoltd basta of arauaent.

1. fbeae atudiea centred around aaauapt1ona ran&in& tro• tbe "1aperat1Tes" of d.-ocra­Uc faith to the •lo&lc" ot authorltatian necessl ty. 'l'hey plnpolnted ou ibe taport­aDOe ot aeTeral aodela like the ao'bl11aa­t1on, tunotloual aodela, etc. It placed political -.rat .. in a three-fold con"nuua of polt~cal deTelopaent, traditional, tranaitional and .odern. ror a useful aarvey aod crit1quea of thta 11 tera ture 1 ••••

tc.l. Black, !be ~naaio~ of Kodfrgtaattfl' lA s~u4Y in ciai.r&ttvstatotyNew Tor ; t96 ) • lobert Packenhaa, "Approaches to tbe Stud7 of Poll tlcal D.,.elopamt"1 vor14 Pol& tic a, 171 (October, t96,}, pp. tOI-126. ADD lnth Willner, "!be Under-developed StuGT ot Poll tical DeTelopaent" 1 Vor14 Poll Me 1 1 16 (Apri 1, 196'!), PP• o\68-lt~2. All A. Hazrut, "Pro• Social Darw1D1• to Current Theoriea of HodernlsaUona A tradition of Analyats•, World Politict, 21 (Oo~ober, 1968), PP• 69-13.

Section Ba Political DeYelopaentt HeanlDI• •aturt

and Scoe!

Luo1&D w. Pye' a oontrl •uuon to the ooaoept

of political deYelopaent is clear-out and v1Y14. 1

SeYeral poll tical tbeoriata baYe tried to equate

poll tical de'f'elop~~ent wi tb only one aapeot of tile

deYelopaental p11)c•••. Por aa•ple, eoonollista

like Paul A. Baran, BenJaa1n Btuina, aa.d otltera

haYe tried to equate poll~oal developaent •• a

prerequisite of econolllo deYelep~ent. 8 Ju tbdr

1.

s.

Be defines the coDCept of "Poll tical :O.Yelop­aent• in tenas of cultural dlffullions, and of adaptina, tusinc and adJuatin& old patterna of life to new deaanda. Be .. pbaaized t-.t the tirat atep tovarda political deYelopaent waa tbe tbe eYolut1on·ot nation-atate -.rate•• which he treated as a •baaic concept aupportina the cradual diffusloa tbrouahou'l all societiea o1 what we mlgbt call a world culture". Lucian w. Pye, t•feota ot Poli~ioal »r;f.•R• aent (loaton, L t le Ji!own, 19 6}, P• • See alaot Luciau w. Pye, CoaaunlcaUoa ad politlotl R!Yeloeaent (Princeton, 1963), ,.19. Por aucb a view, •••• Paul A. aaran, lb~ Pol&• ~al Boonoar ot GJiwtb (5ew Yorks Mont iy

lew Preaa, 19S7 ; Jformaa S. Buollanan ud Boward s. &111a, Appreaohsf to KcoiPj!C PJ::• lo~a,gt ( Wew Yorks fte Gen tie iii Cen ury d1

19 S ; BenJaaln Bi&&ina • foon.fatc r.;e1o"gt 1 Princ1elea1 P£0'bleaa and POlio ij (ev fora v.v. Xor'lon, 1959); Allteri; o. Hirechaan, Stratear of Boono81c Develoeaent (Yale UDlYer­il£7' Preaa, i§58)J and Barbara Ward, Th~JU.cll uona and the Potr •attona (Londons ~iii

lion, 1962).

view. a nua•er of political and aocial condition•

coae into play in tbe process of econoaic crowtb,

and some of them can play a role dect.tve enouab

either to iapede or to tac111tate ecoao.tc arovt~.

Soae theoriea seek to eatabliab a liak between

political deYelopaeat and the pace of industriali­

sation because the toraer ianorea ••••ral factor•

auch aa 1oreea that threaten tbe bold of tbe vested

1ntereata, an appreciation of the value ot orderl7

leaal and adminiatrattve prooedurea, etc.1

the concept of political 4eYelopaent la

alao often linked to the operatton of nat1oD-atatea.2

1. For the developaent ot aucb a concept, aee, w.w. Restow, !he ItA&•! of lcgnoatc Grgwth (Caabrld&ea Ca.,r14&e Vn1Yera1iy Preaa, t96o). See a110, v.w. &o1tow, Tbt Procea; of Jcon2•1! Gro w'th ( lfew York: W. v. Horton, 19 2) •

a. la tbia rept•t, Poll tical DeYelopaent is OOD• 1ldered to be conaiattng ot the oraaniaatlon of political life and the pertoraance of poll­tical functioa in accordance with tbe atandar4• expected by a aodern nation-atate. Sucb idea tbat po11 ti eal deYelopaent 1a identified w1 th the pol1t1ca of nat1onal1SI within the context ot aocio-political inat1tutiona in a aodera state baa been developed -Y in the vorka ota JC.H. Stlvert, ax ectaat· Peo le · Bnttonal • and Duelofaent New York& aaadoa Boaae, 19 ) , !award sbt ., Follt\jal Develoe••nf tg •eJ tate (The Baaue, 62) J and iii aa Ro ord, • r1 lin t rre doa olutio of D -J PI sqeilt !I How Yor a Ox ord

reaa, t95) •

·Zl

Pye, reJectiq thia Yiew, vrl tea:

•DeYelopaent entails the translation of -.ittuae and UD.organtaed aentl.•ents of aat1on into a spirit of oitizenablp, and equallT t• creation of atate 1nsti tu.Uona that can translate into' policy and proaraaa, the aspiration• of aationallaa and citizenabip. 111 lwief, poll tical deYelopaent la ua tion­bu1ldin&" ,1 . . .

Haay 'Uleorlata aubacrtbe ~ the idea tba'

poll Ucal developaen t ta ldenUoal with a4111Di atra­

tlve and legal developaeat. 2 Other abholars coD•

aider political deYelopaent •• notbin& but politi­

cal aodern1sation.'

1. a.

].

Pye, Op,ott,, PP• '7•38• sees Xu: Weber, the fhnrx of Social and Eco• aeato Or&!!lsatlon, trans. \7 A.M. Bendersoa an~ Talcott Parson• (Glenooef fb~ Pree Preas, 19!17). Joseph La Pal•bOra, ·.-. ed ... · .. Bureeucracr W!f Po!t-tical RfYtloltr;t (Princeton, PrlncetoD

Yer ty Press, 19 • W,H, Horris-Jonea wrtteat •Political Syst .. a and Social oban&e eross amd ... t at the prooen of political entry. these processes are tbe retleot·ora ot aocial chau&e: !bey can •irror changea in values, asplraU.oaa, preceptioaa ot opPOr'tunt ties, aa well ae actual atructures and roles. At tb.e s•e ti•e, they exert thet.r own influence• ill .cft.ti•MJt M .. ~., •• , .. ,.._ ~••• .,,.... tJa•tr d1atribut1oll ot atatua and preat1&e 1 then etticiency in aelecttnc persona appropriate to the taatea to be carried ovt1 by their tlexlltill ty they •Y contribute to ayat• atabillty and developaent, "by tbelr ri&idi ty aay create. points o:t tension and breakdowa". Seea w.u. Morris-Jonea, •Political aecruitaent and De'f'elop••t", in Colin Leya, ed., Pdlit1ct tp4 Change ig DeTtloping Cogtri'! (Lon OBI c .. arid&e Uaiveraity Preas, 1969 , P• 122.

· contd ••••

~tudy Oat of the outatandiDgLaaoq the earlier

works 011 the proceaa of 110derllisat1on ia ,,. Karl

w. Deuatch. Be distiqutahes between social 110bl-

11zatlon and pelt t1. cal 110dernlzatton and consider•

social aob111zation, ,Urat as a oauae of aodernl­

zation, and then, oYer a period ot ttae, aa one ot

ita oontilluiag aapects. 1 aar1 Von Vo7• &180

defines political deTelopaeot wltbia the fraae•

work of social -obillaation.1

F.N. J troa the prev1oua pace oontd ••• See alaot Jaaea c. Colemana "!be Political Syst• of the Developing areaa" in Gabriel A. Alaond and Jaaea c. Coleaaa, eda., .D.! ~ol1 tice of DeYelopina Ar!l' (Princeton, 1960). s.M. Lipset, •soae Social Requi1ltlea of Deaooraoya Boonoalc Developam t and Poll ti­cal Lealtlaaoy•, ~erioan Poltttcal SClfpct Rtriew, Llii, Jrlo. l, (larch, §'§), pp. s-tos.

1. Earl w. Denatcb, •Social Hobiltaation and Political Developaent•, iD Aaerican Politi­cal Sc1epce Rev~~w, Vol. LY (Sept .. ber, 1961), pp. 440-•9'·

a. Karl Von Voya wri te•' "'t (Poll Uoal Develop­••nt) is a procesa which lncludea aoclal and econoalo change• 'ltut whose focus la th• develop•en t of the &oYernaen ial capaol ty 'to direcl the coarae and tu rate of social and econoatc chan&•". •Towarde a Concept o1 Political DeYel•paeDt•, nal of th

ric d• ot Pol t c

13

!be work ot Edward A. Shila needs apectal

attention. 1 Be claaatttea the 110dern pol1 Uoal

tlf&tea into two categories, vt•. de110eraoy and

oligarchy, and their further classiticatloo into

political and tutelary de~craciea ot the toraer

and ~derniztna totalitarian and traditional oligar­

cbiea ot tbe latter.

tak1AI pol1 tical aodernisatioJl aa a 1'alua ..

ble toucbatone for the atratitication ot political

qste••• Sbil& &1 vee exaaplea ot prtat t1 ve and

backward societies where parechial loyalitles aake

it difficult to achieve the noraa ot IIOdern deao-

. cratio lite like the rule ot law and legi ttaate

exercise of poll tical au thor1 t)"J arKl where tbe

ava1lab111 ty of justice in adlliniatration aud the

adjudication process is aade difficult, even iapo•

aai ble, owina to the tendency to faYour ld.nsaen•

oaateaen, and co-believers.

In between, •• have the caae·ot the deYelop-

1n& aocietiea where the 1Dheri ted body ot tradt ti­

onal beliefs, the exiatin& social atructure,

Edward A. Shllaa Political DevelopaenJ in New Sta te• ('!be Bque; lorton i1:o., 1 62') •

14

aearcity of the b1111an aterlal of pol1t1ca, and

the noraal and intellectual qu.a11 t:lea ot the eli tea

theaeelTea all at:feot the operation of the poll ti­

cal ayatea, reYealin& ita true potentialitl•• aad

att•ctin& the nature of the ideal soupt as well

aa the aeana used to attain it.

At ibe apex of the Sbils aodel• there atan4

the developed pol11lcal arateas of tbe world, tboae

wbtch have attained the goal of dyn8111••• lttdoh are

concerned wt tb the people, and wbteh are deaooratio

and equalitarian, acientific, econoaioally adYanced,

soTer~i&n1 and tnt luentlal. 1

A nuaber of vritera wbe haTe adopted th•

acheae ot claal1f1cat1on ef pellttoal _, ..... oa

the basta ot pelitical aoderDiaation have applied

this typology by Sbila ODd baYe aodified 1 t. Sl

1. Sbila, oe.ctt., p. 10. 2. Kautak,r and Apter range a tev aicnlficent

types. Kautaky opine• that we aipt aaalyae political developaent in tema of flv• oate­gorteat traditional; ariatrocratic, authori­tar1ant .. , trallai tional atar;e ot doaination by the nat1oaal1at latellectuala, totalltaria­Diaa of tbe artetrocracy and totall tarlantaa of the intellectuala, and deaocraoy. Be aak•• it rather clear that tbe cateaor1aation •abould not be aiataken for an adequate 4eacript1oa of any or all exlstin& poll tical ayate••". Jobn B. Kauteky: P 11t1cal Chan i th Vnderde'Y lo e C t. e - Xat a •

l~j

Dartd Apter ottera a coaplex but intri&uiD&

theory ot atacea and altenat1Te patha of poll ti•

cal 4eYelopato t within tbe larger 1raaework ot

political aodern1zat1on. 1

This approaell cona1 attn& tn •quattq pelt•

tical deTelopam t w1 tb potential aoderni•atton is

rejected b7 Lucian v. Pyel and GioY&Jm1 Sartori.'

1. Apter &l•e• apeoial attention to the abara-etertaation ot traditional eociettea aa tbe starting point• ot cha~~&e, usin& a two-diaea­aional classtftcatton baaed oa three autho~ty t7pea (h1eraroh1oal, pyraaidioal and aeaaen­tal) and two Talue typea (1netntaental and oonau.aato:ry). Depe.Dlta& on tbe obaraoter of the tradi t.ional base, aDd aubject to th• oontradictiq and varied 1Dfluencea of the veetem social and political qateas, Apter,

·discern• two aain deTelopaental consequenoeaa A aeoular-ltberatarian aodel approachiq d.eao­cracy throuch aoblliaatioa -.yat ... and a aaere4 colleott-vl 'tf 110del approaobin& to tall tarian1• tbrou&h aobtliaatioa •Y•t•••· Alternative aequence arise troa the procesaea ot rttuall• aation and "retradi tionaliaatioo" lea41D& to non-aeroantiliaa. There ia a rooa ln Aptera' ache•• alao tor 'the analysia of ao4erDia1q autocraeies, ailitary oligarcblea, and otker coaplex pat~erna ot political aoderniaation•. Sees David a. Aptera fht Pelitic• of Kodernl• ~~~~'~ (Obioagoa UDiveraity ot Cbicaco Preas,

2. Pye conaidera tbat this approach talla to d1a­t1n&uiah between the "Veatern• and the "•odern• and taoores the :fact tlaat the backward or deTelopin& ooWitriea aay uot like to give up tor tbe sake of ••rely eaulating ever.ytb1Q& that ia Wes~ern or aodem. Pye, Oe.cit., PP• 35-36.

J. Pl. see next pace ••

s.N. 11aenatadt and other•~ &lYe a biator1cal

or! entation to their coucept of poll tical develop.

aent. Their. pHncJ.pal coacern is to abow (a) bow

a particular type ot poll tical ayst•, viz., a

ayatea of btatorlo bureaucratic aooietlea, developed

troa the traditional syate•J (b) hov tbe process

took sbape in these bureaucratic aocietleaJ (o)

how lt llana&ed to ulatain (or failed to llaintaln)

a certain balance between tbe ·h:•a41 tional md BOD•

traditional eler.aen ts in the poll Ucal ayst•J aDd

(d) how 110ae of these .biatorio bureaucratic

F.N.

1.

'froa prevloua Pa&•••••• Sartori arauea tba t "1 t la an extra-ordinary paradox tba t the · aooi aJ. set encea lllould be •••u JaOre proapted to explain poll tl ca 1 by developing a fashion tor the •tnviaible band•. See: Giovaani Sartori, "SocieloiY ot Politlca aad Polttlos ot SociolO&Y"t iD S.M. Ltraet, ed., Politic a ad tbe Social Science• ••• YorJu wiley, 1969), P• f4. · Cl1ttord Geerts, ed., 014 §ocietiet anA Xfj ~ttt•~ (Hew York& Pree Presa, Glencoe, 196 • Ruper~ Z.erson, Proa Bap1lJ to pa~ton (Caahrld&es Havard ODiveraliyresa, !960). Bert, F. Doselits, ed., !bt Prot;fl' tf m•r!JtV!loped AtJif (Chica&o&Yera{ty Of

caco Pre••• 19 2 •

.1 '1 1 •

societies were transformed into aodern politloal

systea. 1

thus, the concept of poll tlonl deYelop~~ent

la full of aeaant1o oontusion. 2 One 4et1D1tion

1. "!be poli t1 cal deYelop .. nt of the blskric bureaucratic societies was the resalt of tva pre-requ1ait1esa the deYelopa.ot bf tke rulers of •autoJJ.Omoua poll U cal•&oTerDJients• that is goals and aspirations freed froa asoriptlve­trajitional tieaJ and the aYa1lab111ty to the rulers of •tree-floatiD& resources" and •aeae­raltsed political power• both of these beinc aacrtpttve-traditional control. !be historic bureaucratic aocietiea also esblblted a fairly bigb dearee ot social ditferent1at1ons for it was only the reaul t of the developaent of new strata and aroups that power and reaouroea could be created outside the ascr1pt1Te sphere. But, the Tery processes of social dttfere·ntia­tions led to the creation of the prtaotpal

a.

poll tical 1nat1 tuttoas of the his~ric 'burea~P cratic .oeietieaa eti-1 a ceatraliaed bureau• craq, and lllbat llsenatadt calla •Chaauels for poll t1 cal atrugle" by •tcb he .. us the iut1tutioaal1aat1oa of conflict between rulera and Yartoua croupa and tbe atrata, ae well as •oD& the•• varloua croupa tb•aelTea. BoweTer, tbe historic bureaucratic .. ptrea maintained a balance between traditional and non-tradi ttonal eleaents. the aD&lyaia ot the distinction of this balaDCe and of the teras that arose troa tbe efforta to .aintatn 1 t f:(S.,. the care of Bi aenetadt' a wor It". !bt Political Sf•t• of Baplrtr! (De J'ree Preas ot Glencoe, Xev fOrk, 196,).

el political d!Yelopaent retera to the tact tbat 11

is unneceaaary and tr.rel~ant to Isolate political

deYelopaent too coapletely fro• other for•• ot

developaent. PollUcal developact 1e part ot a

aul ti•diaenaional proc••• of uotal change in whicb

DO aepent of IOciety Oftll lag bebiDd.t

Bow .. er, the ooncept·ot political deTelopaent

1• trau&ht vi th. •tbodologtcal, •pirical, aJl4

noraaUve di:tttoultteaa so auob so tha-t tt taaa

coae tor auob orl tiot• and has :fallen into cUsuse. 2

1. Tbla concept enta1le that all toraa of deTelop­aent are related, developaent la aucb the eaae aa aoderntaatton, and 1 t take a place wl tblD a historical contest in which 1Dfluenoes fro• outside the society lapine• on the process of eoctal changea4 Just as chan&•• in the diffe­rent aspects of a eociety - tbe eoono.,, tbe polit,y, and the social order - all taptaae on each o tb er. Seea Max F. K1111kan and Donald K. Blackaen, Tbe Z.!r&in& NatloDI (Boatonz Little Brown, 1961). Daniel Lerner, Dt! Paaatu ot Tra!U:­tional Socie!T (5ev Yorkt free Freas oi Glencoe, 19Jli • Lucian Pye, Op 1g1t., PP• '4-'5·

2. For eoae crt tical treat:.rtenta of tbe concept, eee: Lara Rudbeck, •Pol1tlcal DeTelopaent lovarda a Coherent and Theoretical Foraulatton of tho Concept•, ScandinaTiaa Polttioal #ltudlt!• Vol. 5, 1970, pp. 21-6,. ' Partba ChatterJee. •Modern Aaerican Poll Ucal Theory with Reterenee to UnderdeYeloped Nations", Sr.!l&l Sc1e~t1ttl• Vol. II, No • 12, (~uly, t97' , pp. ai- 2. ·

lJ

Tbua, the varioua approachea to the study

of political developact1 ooaaonly relate to a. general problea ot orea~iq, llaintainiq aDd expaa-

41D& the power ot the Siate aaalnst a reluctaat

aurroundi ng. SiDOe this pro bl• ta 8uppo aed to

bave reached a happy solution ln Europe and Aaerica,

1. to au up, the trad1 tt on-110denli ty continua approach are diTided into "atagea• and aoc1e­t1ea are classified as beina traditioDal, trana­ttional or ~dern. The aodern1sation criteria (urbanisation literacy, GNP, tnte&ration, di.fferentiation, etc.) are then used for coapa• ratiYe rankin& purpose a reaul tin& in broad typologies of which eocle~lea are aore aoden than otbera. !be atru.otur al•fUDctionalia• •»proacb coneetTea 'DeYelopaent' as the "result when the ex18tina atructure and culture of the political syst .. is q.ble to cope with the pro'bl• or challenge which confronts 1 t wl thout further •truotural dltferentiation and cultural aeoularlsatton•. Seea G.A. Alaond and a. Powell, Co•yarat1Yt ~11 ticst t Developamtal Aeemo, Boat.on, 1 Gt P• 5 • Lastly, tbe political d~elopaen~ is Yiewed _, the aoquia1tion of 10ae new capability. A oapab111ty, or oapaclt,r, is the response of a political eyst .. to a deYelopaental "probl .. " such aa natural and industrial reYolutiona, or 'syatea crises' such partioipaUon., legi t1· aaoy, identity etc. See& Leon aud 81ader, Criaea and Seguijce• in Political peyelopa~t. (Princeton, !971 . S.M. Llpaet and Stein Rokkan, •cleaTa&e Stru­ctures, Party Syat• aDd Voter Ali&m~eata•, tn s.K. Lipmet and Stela lokkan, eda.,

teas and V t r A1 •• ta Cr1 •-Jlat

\} ~\)

tbe Buropean and Aaerlcan aooietlea are the ~••

aodern. In oontraat, the newly .. er&iDI oouatrlea

ot the Third World are el tber tra41 ttonal or noa•

Political DeYeloR••nt and Political D!C!fl

A dlacusa1on on political developaent will

neYer be ooaplete vitbout referrina·to tbe ooacept

ot"polltioal decay"• It baa been euaseated tbat

political decay ia not oppoae4 to political develop­

.. nt and that the two are in fact co•pl .. entary to

each other. It ia poaslble tbat a •tate ot poll ti•

cal decay would lead to tbe cond1 tiona ot a •r•

aeanln&ful political deYelop .. nt. 1

Buntinctoo'a na.e 4eaerYea apectal at*ent1on.

Be correlateC political decay· wltb political deY.­

lopaent, and notes that 1nst1 tutlom decay uct d1a­

ao1Ye •• well aa crow and aature. Be lqa ap.o1a1

•treaa on •reciprocal interaction• between tbe

t. Alaoad and Powell aqa •1 t ellould alao be pointed out that a decline in the •&1111 tude or a a1gn1:ticaat chana• in the context of. tbe flow ot tnpute aay result 'developaent' 1D tile neaatt ve or r•areaa1v• ••11••• The capa­b111t1ea o:t 'Ule political ·ayatea ••7' 4ec11n• or be oYer-loaded; roles and atruoturee ~7 a~ropby • tbe cul tare •ay resreaa to a aore tradl tlonal pattern ot orientation•. G.A. Alaolld and B. Powell, Op,cl t,, p. ,.,. •.

__ -rhc~ ... V :· . THESIS '..) 324.2095413

As83 Po

21

\ '

1111111~~~~~11111111 __ ! "--~~-· ----·~

oqotq aoc1al pl'Oceaaea ot aodernizatloa oa the

one hand and .tbe etrenatb, atab11i't)r, and weakneaa

ot the trad1Uonal 1 trau1tlonal, or aoclei"D pol:I.U•

cal atructurea oa tbe other, aDd treata the latter

aa a •re 4eterain1q tactor.~

Accor41q to Butlqtoa, the leYel of poll•

tical ~mity that a society achieYea retlecta the

relatlonabtp between tte political 1ut1 tutlona

and the •clal torcea tbat operate ill a atven aoctety.

A aoclal force, la tb.la aeoae, la a racial, taaily,

rell&loua, territorial, econo.tc, and atatm• group.

Wl th aculenlaatioa, tb.eae aroltpiqa are aupple•entecl

'-Y occupational, olaas, and aklll aroupinga. A

poll tical lnatl tutton on. the other band la an arran­

cement tor aalntalnin& order, reaolYiDI disputea,

aelect1q leaders v1 tb power and authorl ty, aa.cl

1. S.P. Bunttnatont *Political Developaent aad Poll tical .O.CUQ"*t Ial Vtrii:PJli tic••. Vel. XVII (April, 1950) t PP• l 9 •

thereby proaotlq political uaity in a poliiioal

systea. 1

In a coaparatlve17 little developed ayetea,

therefore, a political co .. UD!ty -., be unified oa

a purely racial, rel1&ioua, or occupational basta,

and it vill .bave little need tor hl&bly developed

political iuti tutiona. Tile aore co•plez and varied

a aociety, tbe aore dlverae ita aoo1al aroup1n&a,

the aore 1 t will depend on a high leYel of poll tioal

inatttuttona tor ita exiatance and aalntenance.

Social conflict 1s, therefore, tbe very baaia

ot political institutions. Arl4 on the 'basia of tJli.a

bypotheaia, Bantiqton aaya that political decay in

the developing countrlea is not anti the tical to

political developaent. On 'Ule other band, political

t. Huntington writea: •Btatorlcally, polltloal inati tutlons have grown out of the iniera .. otion and conflict ot social· toroea 8114 tbe organtaattonal devtoea that were aradually developed tor dealiq w1 th tllu. ConcU. tiona that prepare the way tor tbe developaent of political or&anlaatloa include tile 1treald.q up ot a .. all, anit•ra rulib& olaaa, t.be 41Y1a1on of tocial toroea tn~ llaD)' ditte­rent groups, and the 1noreaae4 interao•toa between thea. S.P. Buntiqton, "Pol1t1oal Order anJI, Poll­tical Deca)f", in: Political Order lg Cllgs• AD' §po"tlji•(Yale Oalveriliy Preas, i•w aYen, , p. 12.

23

decaf •akea tor further 1nstitut1onaliaatlon ot the

political syate•s.coacelTed. 1

Secttoa Cs l!H:t&ea pd Poli ttoal DeTtlopaMt! A

1ftanrtt1oal Pereeeotl ,..,

Poll tical ParU ea:, , ~rili;ll and Con~ept1

Parties are one of the toreaoat alan• o1

"•oderni ty" in a poll tleal qatea. t'b.ey pertona

tb.ree easen tlal tuncUonaa they aenerate •upport

tor a reglmtJ the.y ~bllise and atructure public

opinlonJ and th8)' recrut t tuturt leaders.

Parties are therefore. one ot the •aJor

Tebloles wblob plq a def1Di te role in the proceaa

1. "Inati tu tionaliaation la the proceaa by vblcb oraantzatlona and procedure• acquire Tal ue and stab111 ty. The ltYtl of inati tu• tionaliaatto• of any political ayatea oaa bt defined by ita adaptability, co•plexlty, ani ty and autoDOilT• By autonoay, •• aeaa the state and exiattna or developtna without the control ot others. It these question• can be co•pared accord1n& to tbelr leTels ot 1nst1tut1onallaat1on ot tbe particular oraa­n1sat:1ona md procedure a w1 thin a poll tical ayate••. '· Huntinaton, 2p.cit., p. 13.

24

ot poll tt cal developaen ~ in a poll tical syatu.1

In other worda, in order to underatand poll tic a ln

a society, whether developina or developed, one of

the laportant foci of attention is the workiq of

poll tical partie a. Lapalaallora aad Weiner, araue

that the existence of poll tl cal parties are coaaon

to both the developing and developed poll tical

systeaaa, lrreapec~lYe o1 the tact whether they are

s.

"" .. ,.,.~_.....---" \~ ... h ,..~~:~-~ _, -

A nu.ber of students of party ayate• agree that (a) a pol1t1cal ayata. in order to be v1abl• and to succeed in per.torlliq tasks of autbort .. tattve re10urce allocation, probl .. s aolv1ng 1 conflict aettlecent and ao on, on IJehalt of a population of auy aubatantial eize, auat be 1nst1 tutlona11aed. In other words, orsaniza­t1ons auat be created and auata1ned that are specialized in aolvln& political aot1Ylty. See I s .P. B1lllt1qton, •Poll t1 cal Developaen t and Poll tical Deca)"•, .tns Poll tical Order ta Cban&1g Soo1za1et (!'ale Uiilveral ty Preas, lev HaYen, 19 ). (lt) lobert Dahl speaks ot •three areat aile­atones in the developaent of de110ora11o inatl­tutiona ( 1) the rigbt to participate in coven­aental 4ec1aiona by casting a vote, (2) the ri&ht to be represented and ( 3) 'Ule right of an oraantsed oppo.tt1on to appeal tor votes aaainat the aovernaent in the elections and in the parl1aaent. In enuaeratln& these tbree areat• aohieveaenta of 4eaocrat1o goverbllen't-•• Dahl 1ap11es that they are -bodied principally· in three main lnat1tut1onsc partie,, election• and lealalaturee. See, R.A. Dahl, . e4. 1 Poll tl ... cal Oppot1t1on in Weate~ Dea;rracie! \Ktw Iaven and LOndonJ YaleiYer ty Preas, 1960), p. st.

2:J

democratic, totalitarian and authoritative. 1

Part,y is, therefore, an e:f:fective institu­

tion which links social forces and ideologies to

governmental institutions and serves as a link

between the government and public opinion. It is

an essential instrument designed to solve the

problem of mobilising the new mass o:f voters into

1. ".The political party is a crea tare ot modern and aode.rnizing political systems, whether one thinks of Anglo-American demo­cracies or to tali tartan systems such as the Soviet Union, Fascist Italy and Hazy Germany; emergent A:frlcan States in the earliest years of independent revolution or Latin American Republics that have hobbled along tor over a century, a maDUDoth democracy or an equally mammoth communist power such as China seeking to mobilise a population through totalitarian methods, the politi­cal parties in one form or another is omni-present". , . Joseph LaPalambora and M. Weiner, edJ ••. Political Parties and Political Development (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1966), p. 9.

tbe poll tical coaauul ty .1

ParU es tend w repreaen~ t.he latereat of

1. !be pol1 tical par">' eaera•• whenever the aot1-Yit1ea of a political ayat.- reach a oertala de&ree of coaplui ty, or wheneYer the notion• of pol1U.oal power coae to include tbe idea tba t the public aust participate. Paldltora, Joaepb La, . abl Weiner, Hyront .;' e4a •, Poll ttPl! Partiea d Polit o DeYelo a t, rPrince Dl

r nceton Yer ty Presa, t • Eckatein also wrl. tea: Partie • are one of the .foreao at signe of •ao4ern1 ty" in a poll tic a1 qstea. Parties pertora tbree funcUonea they aenerate aupport tor a re&tae or the toTem• ••nt, they ao•tliae and atruoture public opl· aton and they reorui t future leaders. There are aat nly two approaches to the atudy ot parties and political developaent. Plratly, partie• are a dependent variable, vbioh are the result of a socio•econoldc and poll tical cbange. Secondly, parttea are an independent variable which atteota the ability of a 10ctety to develop. Poll tical cleYelopaent ia aeen bare •• •the capac! ty to ... t a nuber o~ probl•• and oriaes. !be apec1t1c atudtea deal1D& with partie a and political dev~ opaent can be ct1 vt­ded into three aaia &rOU,PIJI thoae baaed OD 1nat1tut1onal tlleaea, and thoae deallD& vltb tbe vartoue upecta of the prooeas ot Mdernl• sation. See: Barry Bckatetn, •Parties, Politi­cal II 1 Party Syat .. a•, ina Igternational &J!Ol­olopedte ot the §gclal Soiepeea, pp. b&:\jj.

2. RepreaentatlOD ia DOt OnlT 811 ln•trueat Of aanlpulation but alao a .. ana ot Rolttlcal adJuatllw.at to aooial preaaoea. TJ!le purpoae of repreaetailon 1a to loea te the coablnationa of relationship between partiea and social bas•• vbloh Mke posailale the tunotiolliq of ltD e.ftieient governaent. Suob a Yiew la enter-taiuecl by s.M. Ltpaet, in tala Introduotloa to the Civil books paper •ack edltioa of Robert Michael's Polltlcal Partie! (Wew York, DoYer,+959), P• 5'.

27

110ctal &roupa tbat exiat in a poll tical aysta.

It ayste .. tlsea and expreaaea 1 ta ideolol)", un1 tea

the lndirldual with the cotaunity, enllanoes tbe

voters• participation in the coapet1t1Ye polity

and also tend• to widen the area ot his tree cholc•

in the selection of their rulera.1

Deucratto IOTernaenta llaYe pyraatcJloal

structures w1 tb wide 'baae and narrow tope. Aa

such, it beco••• 1ape.rat1Ye in a 4.-ooratlo poll·

tical syatea that liVing coataot lte developed betwee11

1. Tbe classical defiu1tion that •Political Party Ia a ltody of aea tor proaott.q tbe uational lntereata on some particular prla­otplea Ia which they are all agreed baa beco•• rather outdated. Others araue that poltttca.l parties baYe beco•e easentlally political 1nat1tut1ons ~to 1apleaeat the o•Jeot1Te8 Of interest croups•, ldllu.n4 Burke, !b.oupta ~~ the Cau1ea o:t tilt £resent Diaoogttnt, 197 , P• 16. BoweYer, Sl&aaad Neuaau auggeata: ~A deli• Jli t1on of party lli&b t a a vell begin wt tb. 1 t• •1•ple word derivation. to becoae a part, to aoaeth1n& alwaya ••ans 1dent1f1ca­tion with one croup and ditferentiatioa tro• ano tber. Bt'ery party ta 1 ta .,..ry ••••nee •1&n1t1ea 'partner•hip' tn a particular or&aniaation and 'separation' fro• otber•' by a apec1t1o proar ... e.• Seet Si&aund Neuaannt •towar4a a Coapara­tive Study ot Poll tical Parties• ia Harry Bokateia and David Apter, eda., Cgaf!Eattvt ~glitlc• (Xew York& Pree Preas ot G~ooe, t96:J), P• 318.

the leadera and the followera. 1 ~ua, partlea play

an·l.,ortaat role by enhancina poli~ical participa­

tion and also ensures a proper and heal tby tunctten­

inc ot deaooratlo 1natltut1ons ia a political -.rat ...

Moat atudent a of poll t1 cal partie a1 :. ··

1. "~oraoy can be defined ••· a process o:f deot­eioD-aaldq in which tile leader• are receptive to the preterenoea ot thoae who are led. ID teraa ot &oala, cle110orat1o leaderahlp :tocusaea attention on tbe role and t•portanoe ot the whole aroup, to .neouraae sh~¥e4 decisiona, to decentralize reaponaibtltt,r, to take adYantaaea of the ability and talent• of all, ln abort, '&o act1Yate the en tire aoc1 al body.. • In conclu-81on, the foraula for deaocraoy is, or aho~ld be tb.e .followtnaa nel tber to elt•tnate nor au'blli t paasiYely to power, 'but to .._ke 1 t fun­otloDJ to control the leader• in the exerolae of tbls function and to put in oftioe respoa­aible, accountable and capable pereona." Seea G1oYarm1 Sartori, §seqcrattc 'llltoa (Calcutta, 1965), P• 12 • See alao, DaYid Apter •Poll Uoal Partie•" ia Barry ackatein and David Apter, eda., 29•Pt: rattve PolitiC! (Hew York, 196,), P• '28, tor a dlatincilon between the d .. ocratio and tota­litarian ~dele of party •Tate••

2. The role of political parties in •dem poll• tical acienoe baa been d1aouaae4 iDa Slplllld Neu•an, 11 fowarda a fheo17 of Poll Ucal Partie•" in World Pplit~oa, Vol. VI (July, 1954), pp. 5'9-6;. Auatln Ranney and W. Kendall, DtiiO• srac; aDd ,tb•;!l;rto'JrPS!:f flte (New York, i95o , pp. 11 1 4. • e o • Bn&leaauaa "A Critlquea of Recent Writings o.a Political Parties", dourpal of Polttlca XIX (19,7), pp. Jj2,.....\4iS. JJe11 A. KoDonalit "Party Perape­ct1Tet A Survey ot Vrit1nc•"• 1a Barry lokatein nnd DaVid K. Apter, eda., Co•parat1Ye Po~lt&o• (New Yorks Free Pre•• ot Glencoe, i§6]), fP· 332-'50; and The Studt: of Pol& tical Partit • (11ew York& Rando• Boaae, 1953J; Williaa~. Crotty, Donald Freeaa uad Doqlaa s. Gatliu, eels., Political Parttea and Political Beharlo!U} ( Boatona Alley ad Bacon, 1966).

contd •••

relate their origin and arowib to the .. araence of

•odern deaocrattc goYernaent. Hax Weber speaks ot

•ass parties of ~da,y aa •obtldred o~ ple't•ottarlan

de~cracy* whose orgautaational growth fro• •purely

personal followings of tbe aristocracy• to •partie•

of notables" to "partl•• ot plebtaci tar18J'l 4eaocraoy• I

was tap~led by the extenslon of the franchise md

the need ~ organise To tea. 1 ·Such a Tlev is aleo

beld tty Maurice DuTerger. DllTerger oonaidera the

eaergenoe of partie • a a an extension et popular

· su:tfrage, al tboup be argues that •parl1aaentQ7

preroaatiYaa" were also a significant taotor.aa well.

Parties eaerce4 not only •to organise t.be elections

b7 aean• of ooJUd. tteea capable of aaldq the oandt•

dates known and o:t canalieing the YO-lea ill their

dlrectlon", but also to enable tbe aea'bere of

F.N. 2 :troa prertoua pace contd ••• A.Tery Liersona "'l'tle Place ot Parties in the Study of Pol1 U ca" t la Allert cap P'lt tip&\ Soiepce ReTtew. LI (Dece•b•r• 19S }, PP• ,,,_ §J,, and Also, Parties and Politics (New Yorks Alfred A. Xoopt, 1958).

1. 8Pol1tlcs aa a Vocation•, 1D B.B. Gertb an4 c. Wright Kills, eds., tnaa Xu Weber: !it;" ip Soc1oloq (Nev Yorkt O~or4 Ualver•

. Preaa, 1§58), PP• 77-78.

parliaaent, •to group tb .. aelYea aocordln& to what

thq haTe ln c.--on, so aa to act ln conoerttt 1

But, 'tilts Tiev has been crt tlclsed by other•

who conaider party aa dangeroua to de-ooratic &oYera­

•ent.1

the origin and develop•mt of partie• 1a

cloaely coaected wttb deaocraoy vhich 1aYolYea tile

estenaion of popular autfrqe and parltaaentary pre­

roaattvea. •t'Jae •r• tlae d.pt to Tete ta atcDde4

t.

I.

H. DaYercer, Political Partiea, ~·cJt., pp. D11i-md.Y. See alsoa Robert He Yer, Til§ Welt Goverumt (ReY1ae4 edition)(••• Yorkae 'Pree Preaa, 196!), p. 157. a. E. Schattnetder, Partx GoYtfi!!Ht (lfev York1 19,2). Clinton Bossi ter, Parties •B!J:Pol! Ucs t.a •zrt ca (New York a Cornell veral ii Preas, 19 6)' p. 67. . Otto llrrobne:l.aer, "!be Party in Haaa SOciety•, l(orl4 PollU.oa, X (Ooto"ber, 1957·Jilly, 1958), PP• 189·f'· . S:l.&•und ITeWian, Peraanent R!folutipa (Htw York, 1965), P• 118. Suob .-1 ew• were undertaken )1'1 G110rae Yaaht.qtoa, •Letter to J'rancia Bopkina•, in A. KOch and w. Pede, eda., Tbt Life and Selected wrttiia'·Af Jho•t! Jetfertog (Bew Yorka 1944), p. 4 • IYen Vlltredo Pareto la lilt Ktad. agd Socttjz and G. Hosea iD !be Rulip& clat! •••• ID • party a vehicle for the perp•tuatiou of aa elttlat, oll&archlc rule within a de-acratic tr .. ework. For a ori tiel•• of tbelr Tiewa, aeea J.B. Hel&el, !he Kztb of the &ulin& Cltf! (ADD Arbora the Un1Yera1ty of itchi&an Preas, 1958).

Ji

and. aul tiplied, tb e 110re neceasary 1 t ••co••• to

orgaDlse the elections 'f ••an• of oo..ttteea oapa~

ble of aaktq the candidates ltnolCI and of oanallstng

tbe votes in their 41rect1on.•1

This concept of or1&1n of partie• and deiiOcra­

cy aay explain only the •ergence of partie• ln tbe

Weatern liberal deaocraciea of U.K. ab4 U.S.A. !be

origin ot parUea in tile deYeloping countries provi­

des an entirely different picture. In oa•• of tbe

latter, the parties or1&inate out of the hiatorical

aituatlon of the aoYeaent fro• tradition to aoder­

ntty and the probleaa 'that go with it.

!be role and tuaotiona of poll tical partie•

vi tb re&ard to tbe probleas of developaat haY• be•n

identified a a national 1ntearat1on, poll tical parti•

oipat1on, legittaacy and conflict -.nage•ent. fbeae

pro bleas aay eYen exist before the eaeraence of the

poll tical partie a and aq tberetore, be responeible

tor ibaplq tile tTP•• of parties and party aystea

in a cou.atry.

t.

Poll tical participa tlon la one of the tndea:e•

to the decree ot polttlcal deTelopaent ln a political

eyat •• 1 !be aodernialq moiety ia often a "plaral

aoeiety• encoapaasiq Q.DT rel1at.oua, racial• etllnt.o

and 11ngu1at1c aroupiqa~ Partiea or1an1ae partioi•

pattona party syste•• ar.:reot the rate a:t vhiob tit.•

participation expanda. The atab111~ aad atrength of

a party and party syatea dependa upoa 1 ta leYel of

t. !be political party ia therefore, a aot~ oen• tury aeobanl• deai1aed to aolve the problema ot hrtngtna 'the people', tbe new aaaa of 'f"'tera, into tbe pol1 Ucal co-anl tT.

2. "The probl• ot intecratin& prt.aordial aocial torcea into a atqle uattonal poll tical co-u­aity l»eco••• aore 411':floult. HoderDiaatioa alao br.l.qa into atatenoe and into poll U cal oonac1ouaaeaa and actlvt~ eoclal and econo• Jllo aroupa wbicb e1 ther d"id Dot a1a1 in tbe trad1 ttonal· aooiety or were out-aide the acope of politic• o:f tradiUonal moiety. Bither thea.e aroupa are aas1111late4 into the poll tical ayatea or tbey becoae a aou.ro• of antqolli • to and ot revolution qalnet. the political ayatea. The aCbieYeaent ot poll U cU co-•-Di ty in a ao4ern1a1q aociety thlla iaYo 1••• •til "horiaontal" late&raUon of coaaercial aroupa and the •vertic~• aasi.tlatloa ot aootal and eoouollio olaasea•. S.P. Bunttqton, "Partiea and Poll tical Stab111 ty" in Poll tical Order tp Challllpc ~oclet1t! (Yale VD1Yera1ty, Wew HaYen, t969) P• 391.

33

inatltut1onal1zat1on and lta leYel of part1c1paU.on. 1

A blib leYel of participatloa ooablned with low

leYels of political party lnatl tutioaallsatloD

produoea Yiolellce and anoldc poll t1c1. A party 111 ill

•asa support 1a liable to be •tronaer than a part:r

with reatrioted aupport. Due, a party a:yat• ldib. ·

a aaaa baae la Ulldoubtedly atronaer Uum a party

ayates with a reatrlcted baae.a

Secondly• the early pha••• of party develop.

aent are alaost always accoapanied 'bf a probl• ot

leal t1111a1q autborl ty. Tbe early pbaae of a new

1. Political ayat .. s whlcb haYe a balance between participation and instl tutloaallaailon at low levels both tend to be unatcble and ln.aecure anleas the espansioa of poll tical pa:rti cipa­tlon and 4evelopaent of poll tical inaU tutiona are carried on aiaultaueously and ~ce-Teraa. 'lhele political qet .. a are both politically aodern ed deTeloped. Tbq ha'f'e poll tical lnati tutions which can abaorb into the ayatea new social foroea and the increaala& leTela of participation produced b,y aodernlaatlou.

1. Buat1qton wri tea: "Stron& parUe.e r•quire high l•vela of poll tical tnati tutioaaltsatlon and bi&b levels of aasa support. "llob111sa­tion• an4 "organisation" thoee tvln •loaana ot ooaaunl•t political action, define prec1-aely the role to party atren&tb• The party aud the party qat .. whloll coab1ne '&b.• reconcile political aoderni1atloa wltb poll• tical developaent". Buntiqton, op.c&is• P• 402.

34

coverDJDent te alwaya a period ot uncertaln"ty and

t.aatablllv. The 1natab111 tie a in aaay ot the

_ctevelopiq counviea are attributed to the eatabli­

ahllent ot a new poll tical ayste• whieb deaan4s

the participation ot new l!IOCial foroea at Tartoua

levele. 1

Conteatin& eleotiona, therefore, ts one 01

the priaary taaka of tbe parties in both develop.

1q and developed political syateas.1 Anotber

problea of developac i which the poll tical partlea

and tazoty. syateMa face 1e tile pnblea ot aational

tntecration. In a 4eYelop1D& society, this task

4eaands areaier attention. In a poll Uoal qsta1

1. !laDY nev ua tiona upertanctna no ld. antft­oant econollic or .octal 9baD&•• are in the throes ot political uncertainty ~ile countr1•• vi th establlabed polt ttcal syateu are experiencln& rapid eocto•eoonoraic oban.­&•• vitb little pol1tlcal tu~tl. Weiner and Lapal .. bora, •Iapaot of Partie• on Poll tical Developact•, lafol_i,!l.O.al ls.~t..e.8.~Md g!t.!!~1~q~;L--~v-.Ie~~~ op. eft. • ,~ .o ..

a. 'l'he •con-hating ot. election•• diatingui shea a party fro• other organtsationa, organizeraa and tnteraediarlee in the po11 tical process and alao fro• the intor•l eli tee ot. tbe co .. UDit,r, tbe peraonal oltque, the fluid ud reatleaa faction and the basically DOll• political group - a Church or a Corperattou engaaed in pelit1cal activity.

which la obaraotertsed 'Y rellgioua 41tterencea,

etbDlc fraa••ntation, tra41t1onal-~dern1a1D& croup

oon.fliot, bi&h urbaa-raral aap etc., the probl• of

national integration aeeda areater attention. Laat­

ly, partie a ud party ayst•s, ·are ef:fecttYe tnatru­

aeata in 'the aanqement of poll tical conflict •1

In tbe newly .. erging countries, the party -.yateaa

are often faced wt th theae probleaa of poll tical

developaent aiaultaneously. Onoe political partlea

ooae into ext stenee, they are confronted w1 tb

4.-ands for broader participation, which ia often

aocoapanied by crises of leaderablp, uat1onal inte•

gratton and le&lt1aac7•

1. tt:ay auggeatiDI that parttea ha'f'e an !aport­ant effect on ~• inte&ratioa of a aatlon, the pattern of extended part1otpat1on, tbe le&l tiaacy o~ 1 ta poll t1 cal fraaevork, and the aanagement of poll tical conflict, we are in effect •ployin& tbat partie• are an tnatruaent of poll tical soolaltsatton ••• partl es aay plq an eTea aore t•portant role in the developln& areaa ioday than they did durin& the early pha&ea of part,y developaent 1n the Uai ted Sta tea, Great Britain, and the European continent 111 the eichteenth and nineteenth oeatur1••·" Weiner and Lapalambora, Op.ctt,• P• ,2,,

-:) . t~O

Pol,i tical Part1ea1 Par!f Slate•• and Poll tieal.,

§tabtlttr.

Wlnally, tbe stability of the partie• an4

party systeas depends on their atreqtb. A 1troq

party wi tb b.i&b levels ot tnstt tutionalizatloa and

aasa support contributes tor a aore stable aDd

developed political aystea. A second aapeot of

party atreqth 1 • oraanizational coaplesi ty and

dept.b, particularly, aa revealed by the linkages

between the party and sooio-econoalc organisations

aa labour uniona and peaaanta' associat.iona. A

third aspect of a party atren&th ooncerna the

extent ~ wbiCb tbe ... bers ot the party view the

party aa a aeaua to other ends. In lltgbly developed

poli U cal s;ys t•s, loyall ty to the party is a

priaary taak. It is rare tor a poll t1oal leader

to ahi:ft froa one party to anotb&r an4 the •vement

of social &roupa and classes troa one party to an­

other la usually a coaplu and lengthy blstorioal

process. In ~dernising countries, wbere the

parties and party syate•• are not so developed_.

·inter-party uve .. nt of 1ndi 'ri.duala and groups are

biply prevalent. Leader• at local leYels Join

the party which wina the eleot1ona, whereaa in

the national level, lea4era abitt froa one party

to another in teras of tbeir OWD electoral and

polt tical proapeots. 1

!berefore, partie• are a aenerto pbenoaenon

in both totalttariaD and deaocratlo political

ayeteas; whether they are in tbe catesory of deve­

loped or developing natlona. Strona national par1tea

play an taportemt role todey in providing atable ud

leg1tl•ate gover~ent and often tn laytnc the foUD4a•

tiona for national integration.

this study is cutded by tbe assuaptlona that

a party ts, at botto•, a croup of aab1 tious aen who

have chosen politics aa a vocation and vho •eek per­

aonal eucoeea In that Yocatton. · Ia soot etles of

mass franchise, if a party is to aatiaty tbe peraonal

aabltion ot 1ts elite, it auat obtain tbe Totes nece­

ssary to give it power, and to do tb:l.s it must appeal

to the people on the basis of plattora and ldeoloJY.

Therefore, while it •ay or1&1nate as an organisation

deai&ned to acquire power tor its elite. a party

necessarily and perhaps unperoeptlbly becoaes an

agent o~ eocial developaent.

t. Absence o1 party loyalltie• aaong lea4ere and followers of parties in developing countrte• 1a one ot tbe 1apor~ant featurea as coapare4 to the party aysta~a ot Great Britain an4 United States.

33

Seo~ton Dl Parties, Party SYetea aDd 'olitlcal

ReTelopaent in IacU.a

The relevance of poli u cal partie• and party

syst•s in India is hi&hligh'*td by the fact tha-t

India is priaarily a developing country which ha•

opted tor a parli .. entary fora of aovernaent of

~• British ~del.

Therefore, the ••rgenoe and worldq of tbe

party systea in India is oon4i t1one4 by the hleto•

rical al tuatton of t.be IIOTeMnt which proceeds

troll tra41 tion to aoderni ty. In the cour•• o1

developaent and traDsfonaatlon, the paJ"ties and.

party systeas are "und to face nuaeroU!· problees

tbat are obaraotertstio feature• of this evoluti.on.

The party ayat• in India ln tile pre-indepen­

dence years was characterized by an '1dent1t1able

centre' which was represented by the Indian Nati­

onal Congr•••• The INC waa the only party wbicb

developed nation-wide organization and lea4ers. 1

The Indian party ayat• owes its origin anrt

tranator~~~aUon to tht• •polt tical centre• of the

independence years. VbJ.le the CPI, the Akalt Dal

1. B • .Kothari, Pol1Uc:j in India .(Hew Delhi« Orient Longaan, t97o), P• 9.

3J

and tbe D,M.K, originated tro• outside the Conareas,

parties like the Sootaliat Party, the SWatantra,

the B.L.D., tbe B.K.D •• the Janta Party were to~ed

by political ·leaders ~ho were priaarily laportani

and erstwhile aeabera ot the lndlan National Concreaa.

A• re11onal level al.o, •any parties like the Baagla

Coqress1 the JC &Dd UC in Or1aaa were '&be outcoae

ot .factional etruggle vttbin the Congresa. Politi•

cal dissent baa tberetore 1 been a traamentatloa ot

the political centre of the society rather tkan a

projection ot autonomou• intereata in t.be social

and econoa1o spberea.

India baa evolved a aul tt-party qstea which

accollllta tor c:oapet•ttve poll tical prooeaa in the

country. It is difficult to aake a olearout olaasl•

.ficatlon of ·the Indian party syst• "because o:f ita

ault1pl1c1ty and d1veraity. To quote Hanson and

and Douglasa

"~ultiplic1ty and diveraity aade an att~pt to classify lndi an polt tical partie a a Yery

' hazardous underta!U,ng •••• Nevertheless, a · provisional olasaitication can be •ade -parties of left, parties ot the rt&bt. traditional parties, reatonal parties, atnor partiea (aub-rectonal)".1

1. A.B. Banaon and J. Doqlas, Indta's De110orac,x ( Delbit Viake, 1972) • p. 79.

4U

'llle Co-un1at Party of India (CPI), '&lte

Co-uniat Party of ladla (Karxiat), the Co-uniat

Party ot Iadta (Harnat-Len1Jiiat) and the Yartoua

Sootaltst Parties till thetr aerger w1 th the Jaata

Party in 1977 can all be oateaor1ze4 aa parties

to "tbe lett ot tbe Centre.

·file ·Rl&bttat parttea aq be claeattted aa

the Gantantra Partahad (a reslonal party in Ori aaa),

Swatantra vbich represented the feudal eleaenta ot

the Indian Society. The latter party cot aer&e4

wt tb the Janta Party in 1977. !be tra41 tional

parties like Jan Sangh, Huslia Leque, Rail RaJya

Par1shad are characterised by the tact that th-.y

repreaent coaaunal and obauailistic · interests. The

re&ional parttea tend to represent a particular

recion of the country ( e.a., Abli Dal ot PunJalt,

D.M.K. ot faNil Nadu, G.P. ot Oriaaa, etc.).

Ktnor or •ub-re&ional parties tend to

represent the 1ntereata of a particalar aeotton

of the society. For uaaple, the Gurkha Leaaue

repreaenta the tnteresta of the ~111 people of

Dar.jeeltq.

41

Phaaea of Ip.dian Pgtz §Xate•:

ftle I ndi.an party ayatu baa abown wide

fluctuations. Five diat1nct phaaea of tbe part.r

syst .. can be pointed out - 1952 to 1967; 1967 to

1971J 1971 to 1977J 1977 to 1980 -.4 1980 onwards.

P-aae IJ Cop&r!tl Do!1DaDC!&{1921•&26Zl

Pro• 19S2 to 1967, the Indian party ayst•

was described aa a aiqle party doatnant ayst••

!he dollini.Ulce of the Conareaa party during thla

phase can be attributed to ita htatorloal role in

tb! treedoa aove•enta, ita national wide baae, and

weak opposition partiea. 1

1. Banpn and Doqlaa pve the followiq reaaonsa 1) Coqress waa part of the aystlque o:t the national aove .. nt •• 2) It waa tar aore of a national party than •oat ot ita opponent• and tbe CoJllreaa atrengtb vaa nation-wide, S) !be .preaence of an •&aregatlve party at the Centre et the political apeotrua lett the other partlea no other choice -ut ~ occupy peripheral poa1t1on. A,.B. Bauaon and 3.. Doqlaa, Op.ctt., PP• "-18.

42

&967-Zta Ph'!• ot Coalition Po~ittca &a. the Stat•••

!be year 1967 proYed a 1et-baok to the pattern

of Congress dollinance in India. Greater ooap:•tet1Ye•

n••• and deoreaatnc 1natitutionalizat1on jaa tbe

aeneral trend after 1967. Poll tical fragaentatlon,

defection and diaaidenoe were tbe features of tbe

party systea bo tb at the national ud state levels •

The Coqreaa lost 95 aeat1 tn the Lok Sabha eleetlona

in 1967, althoup it did retaia a 118Jority. BoveYer,

the party :tailed to win aaJority ia ••7 •tatea.

The post-1967 period was characterized by intense

taotionali .. within tbe. party and coalition politics

wbioh together created 1natab111., within the Iadlan

political syst ... 1

!be 1natab1li v in the party ayatea duriJll

19 67-71 period caae to an end w1 th the re-establishment

1. "l.t&bt and lett parties would coab1ne or oppoae each other as adYantaces dictated. With tbe Coqresa split, both auooeases"were-now drawn lato tbia poll Uoa of aanoeUYere. .lal1cdoacop1c cban&ea .usd stra~e alliances caae to be liVery 4ay occurrence•"• w.u. Korrls-.Jonea, Jh• p;••~'* agd Pol1t1ct et Ia411 (Jrev Delhta B.~ Piiircattoaa, t971i), p. 21:S.

4J

of the Coqreaa dollinance ~n the 1971 Lok Sa'Oha

polla. Froa 1971•1977 the Coacreaa aupre .. cy in

the ladlan par~y ayatea waa atren&thened by the

deolaratioa of aationel .. ergenc,y troa 197' to

1977. the Opposition partie a were ineffeotiYe to

a lara• •~tent aa aany of their aenior leadera were

put into Jail.

!277•1280& 'fh• Jan~! Suer!agr:&

Bow ever, v1 th the. decealon ot s.t. ln41ra

Gandhi to hold election• to Parltaaea t in 1977

( Janua17) and wt thcll"awal of ••raency t new part7

alllanoea ••r&ed in tbe Indi&D party ayat•.

Oppoal t1oa parti.ea vb1.cb had been rell&attll to the

periphery of tile Indian political ayet• durinl

t97f•t977J once again aa4e treab att.-pta to provide

an al ternatlve to the Coqreaa. The Janta Party -

a tlve party alliance - was toraed as the aaJor

oppoai tion to the Coqreaa. In the election• tb •

.lanta Party awept the po•lla, cau.alna a aet 'llack

to the Coqreas dollinaDDe of 'the early yeara. Tbla

procesa 1n1 tlated a two-party ayatea in the coutry.

BoweTer, party tragaenta:tion haa been a coa­

a$ant .feature tn India. The Cong.-eaa party 11Jl4er

the burden of atnggering defeat and taotionalia•

split once again after 1969: into Congress (I)

under Smt. Indira Gandhi and Congress ( U) under

DeTraJ Urs.

1980- Congress Supremacy:

The Janta Party however could not face the

challange from within while undergoing a process

of party building and party consolidation. Although

it won absolute aajori ty in the State Assembly

elections, the party could not escape the process

ot fragmentation. On tbe eve of 1980 elections,

the party was split into toar . .factions - each

'faction establishing a · separate.party.

In the 1980 Lok Sabha elections, the Congress

won a thumping 2/Jrd maJority and the process was

repeated in the June Assembly elections. The

new political trend once a&ain snowed the way to

the "Congress doainance system in the country•.

Models of Party srste• and Party Building in Indias

An analysis of Indian party system ldll not

be complete without aaking a reference to the models

ot part¥ organisation and party structure that

operate ~n the country.

tbe flrat -.del of orcanlaa~oa 11 prov14e4

by the Coqreaa. this part1 la baaed on the prln•

otplea of •teCeral• ayatea, open ••berahip, 884

loose party discipline. The Coqresa aodel ba1

allowed the functioning of Yarioua faotlona w1 tlliD

tbe broad :fraaework o1 conaenaua poll u ce. fh•

eeaberebtp policy ot the Conar••• party providea

aa opporiuni tT to the aentor poll t1 cal leader a a

Ollance to reorui t th•lr aupportera w1 thout any

acrlltiDT or screenin&. Sucb a party ore ant aat1on

tends to be democratic in l'ts dec1a1on-•ald.n& and

accomaodat1Ye aJld co•priatq in tte polictea aa4

· prograamee.

The parties like tbe Jon S811&ht tile CPI, tbe

CPl (H), are exaaplea of aecond aodel of party

organiaaUon. Tb.eae parttea reetrlct their aes'ber­

abtp 1o ideologically coa.itte4 people, bea1dea

pr~otiain& a h1gb dlaclpl1ne4 hlerarohtcal relatton­

aht.p in partJ' •anaa .. en t. 'fbe Con&r••• party autho­

rity structures ls decentrall•ed and d&~tuaeda the

Jara Sangh aod the CoiUIUillat partiea operate on a

highly centralized authority s,yst .. to ideological

cohe.,::.ton and 41ao1pl1De.

Al .• ~0

'!be fiYe conatl went •tt• of 'tile Juta

Party were Iaiii liar wt tb Ule two •del• ot

orcantaatlons in tbe ladiaa party ays t••

BeTeral approaches haa beea tolloved in

the study o:f political partlea, party syat••

an4 po11 tical cteYelop•• t in Indl.a.

'l'be f1 rat is the inte&ration approach which

rela1:ee to the tact tbat parties play a pod t:lve

role in the prooesa ot 1nteJrat1oa,1 or they aay

play a negative role, i.e., be a dle1ntegrat1na

lorce.1 !be two relevant studies are vlner'• "

1. Poli U ca at tbe a tate le-vel haa been approached fro• a deYelopaental perspe­ctt•e by Myron Veiaer in hia 1ntroduoto~ survey to State Poll tics in India ( 1968)" !be tbree Min orlterta lor analysts, accordlnc to bia were political lnte&r&• tion, political participation and 1nat1• tuttonallzation ot political power. tbe two llinor ott teria were &oYernaet atabl• 11ty and pertor•ance. See& Krron Weiner. !d., §tat• §!11 ttce ta IpcUa \Princeton, 1968), pp. 60.

2. " ...... Party workera ot aat1onal poli ti­cal partie• caapal&nin& durin& election• often inatall new loyalitiea, att .. pt to ld.niatae tbe iaptJrtance o~ oaate and r•d­onal tlea, and at•• Yotere a •••• ot bla ovn capacity to tntlaence aovtrnaent through deaocrutic ••ana. But parties and candtdatea aay alao •'tren&thea partl• oulariat1c loyalittea to caste and oo .. ~ ni., tn an •tlort to vln Tot••••••••"

OODtd. • •

Party-Building 111 a ••• Watton ( 1967) and Jllchard

Slssoa'• •Congress Party in lajaathan•.

Ia Ill• study ot oae party 'the eoaar•••'•

Hyroa Weiner ar-sue• that the Coqre•s la sucoesdul

because 1 t baa tbe capacity to adapt 'to 1 ta enrtroa­

. · aent •1 Be bad aade a de tal led ex•tnatton of hM

r .•. froa previous contd ••• Myron Weiner 1 •TJae Poll tics of sou'tla: Aal a• ill Oidd•l· A, A1110nd •d Jaae• A. Coleaanl eda., !he Poll t1 oa o:.r the Rf!eloeiy A£••• Prlnoe.ton, t9fi6), PP• 24~241. · Such a view 1 s also entertained by Lucian Pye. Be observes: • ••••• A party syst .. is laportant to tile proceaa ot deYelopam t ltecause 1 t prort­dea tbe basic :lora and •truct~re ter· the emer­aence ot a diatiDOt and 1ntearat1on polity•. lnt "Party Syate .. and National Developaeat la Aela• (Cia. 13), ln LaPalaabora u4 Weiner, Op,ot t., 1966, p. 373. -

t. Bis laJ'pO'Ule ••• was 1Jaaed on a dngl• tbe•ea • •••• tbat Oonareas party leaders in order to aucoee4 poll Uoally, are concerned, t1r•t end toresost, w1 th doiDI wat..,er la necesaary to adapt tile party to 1 ta env1roDIIent. This pro­poait.loa ia 4ecept1Yely a:l~~ple, but lt 1-edia• tel;r call• attention to the difference lJetweeu the Con&r••• party and II&DJ' o tiler poll U cal partie a in the developlJll world. Blsewhere, ••1 aovernln& partiea are concerned w1 ttl· either aoblliain& or controll1ni population. Jn oontraat, Conareas ls prtaarll)' couoel'lled vi tb reerul tine aember• amd llflaning aupport. Jt does not 1101lllize1 1 t agareaates. It doea not seet to innovate, tt aeeka to adapt. Though a few Coqreaa•n dreaa of tranafora-tna tbe count.ryalde in practice, aoat Concreaa• •eD are concerned lliaply 1d. th w11Ul1n& eleotiona". I at

7Party Bu11d1na ta a l'ew •ettoq ( Cbtcaao,

t96 ), PP• ti=t5~

4J

the Conareaa Part, baa acquired the orgaaizat1oaal

skill for atayiDg ia power in fi"f'e diatrtcta la

di:fferent parts ot India.

J.ichar4 Slaaon, in bta a'Cucty ot tbe"Coqreaa

Party ill RaJasthan• concludes tbat tbe character all4

change in tile Con&reae ayatea baa been an outco••

ot :taottonal ooapetattoa act other conflicts at

successive points in U•a. 1 Pactlonal coapeti tlon

and bargainiq ha•e aenecl •· function ot poll tical

coamuntcatloa w1 thin the Coqrass and also betwaaa

tbe Coaar••• ed lts hl&her political enrii'ODIIeot.

lfew poll t1 cal &roup a tend to aeek poll U.cal aocaas

tirst through the Congreaa ayatea. Such aroap•

aaka cJeaands ot botll an tatel'lledlate and ultlaate

aature-lnte:naadlate lu the aenaa that tbey t.ncla4e

t. •Pol1·tlcal coutlict llaa not ollly been !aport­ant with respect to cban&e in the Con&ress party 1 tael1 lfut al.o vi th respect t.o 1 ta a4aptatloa to 1 ts poll Ucal annroaaent. ••••• factional coapetltion baa been conduoiYa to to the racruitllnt ot new political reaourcea into the Coqraaa .,..,...... Political coapa­tl tion t•nds to be areateat 1Ji those areaa 1D wblcb factional oo•petltion baa been aoat 1D• tanae.. Fur'U:leraore, sreater the intensity of factional co•pati tion, tbe araatar the proba• b111 v 'tba t the repreaentation ot 10ci a1 aroupa wlll •• diaperaed,.' ••••• ll1cbar4 Stsaon, ColliJ'••• Pf!tX in f!J~, Political Inte&raUon ana natriuion~-in& ln an Indian State {Delllt, .1972), P• :sao.

asplratlons for control oYer poet tiona of power I

auaranteed aceeas w thea, and ul Uaa te ln the

aenae tllat there ta a deaire to ahape public

pol loy in a particular way. !hue, the ooapet•

tl ve aystea eJJ.oouraa•• the tran-*1 stlon of poll•

tical ••••aa•s not only fro• lower to hlper

echelons of the party oraanisations but alao

troa oppoei t1oa parttss and aroups to tile rultq

par~.

lhea,.tbere are the approachea whteh :foousa

attention on polarised m. atntearat!on. the two

booka which bad oo .. anded tbe attenttoa tn thla

field are Sell& Harrison• a Indtaa rhe Kott

D!Jla•mu• Decades and CarolJ'D Blllot' • artiol•

oa •caste and !"action aaona the Dold.D&Dt Caaiet

fbe Re4dis ud Xaamaa of Aftftra•. 1 Baatn& h•r

coacluaton Oil detailed dlstr1ct-1ty•cltstrlot

studies, Carolyn tillot' s analysis ot poll tic•

1.

a.

Sell& Barrlsoa, Ind1 j' !he Hoat Rau«trgu• Dtcad•! (llaclraa, 196§ • Ia JlaJJd Kothari, e4., Caste tg Ia41H Pg11ttca (Wev Delbt, ~7o), PP• 129-~1.

in AJtdbra Pradeah dltfera fro.a Barr1•on•a.1

l'he CPI waa not a X..a Part¥ 1 no~ a continua­

tion of DO..,..Brahllinta•, but an expr•••ioa of

aobillzation alone class linea. K..-a aupport

to the CPI waa an expreaaion of the audden enter•

in& into tile poll tical arena of a larce nuber

of newly educated Kamaa yeutb.

Another approach to the Indian Party ayatea

baa been tbrouah 1dlat Harcaa : .Pran4a calla •the

federallsin& process• 1n the IntU.an Political ' . .

eyet ... 2 !he class otruagle or Karst at approacll

1.

a.

t'b.e core of Barrlaon' • eapirical aaterial deala w11b tbe contltct betweau the .Kuuaaa and Re4d1a of Andllra Prade all, aad tbe1r rela• tion to the Couunlat Party ot IruUa (CPI). Uta basic thesis waa that Ole confliota caused b.1 caste, lan&uaae, re&ion and cla•• all tend to reinforce c'eaoll other. The reaul t of these cueulatlve or relnforcin& oleavac•• is auob a polarisation •• to probi b1 t ihe -•rcenc• of a tunotloDing partJ ..,. tea. a. arauea that the CPI la atroq •only vhea it 1• parochial• (pp. 1,6-,7), '&bat 1• •-&he aucoes•ful re&ional Coaauntst Parties haY• been those able to aantpulate to tbetr Olfll adYanta&ea, ~enaiona between one re&ion and anoUJ.er, between reponal and the oentl"al author! ty, ad utwem caete lobblea wttbia each ~•at•n•. (pp. 204-205).

Karoua F. Franda, Vest »•ural !Q4 tbt P'IIJ £t11sin& Proctf! iii Ipd1L Prtaoetoa, 19 8. llllncan B. Forester, •su'b-reaionali• in India& !be Case of felen&ana•, Paoif!c Affairs, ' ' (1970), ~. PP• 5·21. Hoban aaa, Hindi Alainst IndiO - Tile Hey-111 of D.M.f. (Hew Delbt, 19 ).

at

to pariy poll tlca in India •phaa1sea the prlaaoy

ot class olea•aa••· that o1aas ts au l•portaat

4eteralnant ot party bebaYlour la n-er really

debate4. 1 ADoiber approach whtcb was 110at co•••

.. on& poll ileal act entiat ln analysiq ~e Indiaa

pariy aystea vaa ln teraa ot one-party d~~nanoe.

tbla vas, in reply to the proliferation ot aln&le­

party rest••• in .Urtoa 8114 Ada ancl what thta . .

••ant for 4e•oorat1e and deYelop•ental &oala.

Bquipped with tbe analytical. tools provided by

Maurice DuTercer, 1 poltt1cal'aclentlat ••nt to

the task of explicatin& the na-ture ot oae .. party

For a thesis tha't caete 1a like class( •e•t Andre Beleite, . Caa'tea1 Old Ill!! lifv Boabay, 1969). Por a critique an4 dlscuaa o• of 41:t terent approaches to oaate, •••• Bt.ra Singh, "Castes Old an4 liew•, Pgli ttcal §otence aen19, Vol. s~, Boa. ' and 4 (JaJ.y.._ Dec .. ber, i9 J • PP • -'"o-'67 •

· Bhabani Sea Gupta, 22-;,t•• ip lp4tg Pqli Ucs (Wev York, 2912 • Robert L. Bard&raYe, Jr., "fbe Han:i•t Dele- in &:eralal A.dldalatratloa and:/•r Stru&&l•"• A•t:y SurYez, Yol. 10, 5o. 11, (JfoY .. ber, 1970 , PP• 19,_20), Kathleen Goup and Bari P. Shal'lla, I•P!f!•· 11 .. ant'l ReYolutton ln South Aala (le11orli, 19,;). Katblee» d0uch 1 •Peaaant aest•taaoe and KeYol t in Soutb. ladS. a•• ;,cit! o flta~[!• Vol. XL, No.,, (Winter t96~ ), pp.~t- 42.

Maurice DuTeraer, Ptltttcal Par!ta•k !heir R£a•1•tt1on gd Ac JYlii Iii iii __ o_iii Sji,te ~. (London, !-1ethuen Press, 19 54).

52

4ollinance in ltuU.a, dubbed tile 'Coqreaa STatea•

by RaJDi Kothari. 1 ftnally, 'Ulere are other•

vbo baYe atudl ed the Indian Political party a:yat•

throu8b, detection, faotlonall .. and elec-.ral

-r••··· ror 8X8.11ple, aorat Bartaann aran•• tba"

tbe integration ln tbe party ayat• la dlle to the

lnaU tuttonal arranceaenta of eleottona.1

s-au Pll

fhua, political partlea plq a crucial role

, in the political a:yat .. of a 4eYeloptug'coantry.

India, bela& prlaarlly a deYeloptq countiT, tbe

poll ttcal parties are e:ftect1Ye lnatrllllenta la

brlng1q aboat desirable Chana•• itt 'the political

•T•••· Hence, la41an ae well aa t.,reip acholarl

have concentrated on tbe stud)' of dift•rent el ...

•enta of Indian political ayat... these &eneral

and apectttc •tudies coYer caste, olaas, re&ion,

leaderahlp, reatonaltaa, lancuage crtaea of the

soctety. 1 Our 1oou1 of attenttoa 11 oa the poll·

t1co.l parUea in their totality rather than on &D"f

of their spec1t1o aspects.

'!bia study oonoentratea Oil an 1ntensi ve,

a1oro-atudy of t.be po11t1oal parties ln Orissa.

What role the poll tical partie a plq in a deTelep­

in& poll t1 cal system, of ~1'1 ssa'l Wht tiler they haTe

been able to adopt theaselvea to ib• .new eDYtro..,..

••nt? Whetbe r 1 t has been able to asslll11ate into

the aev changes ,the society ie undergoiqt What

are the d1s1ntearat1ng faotora that biDder tbe

partt ea capacity tor inte&ratlon in Ol*i sa a? Vbetber

the electoral patten has led to IUl lntearatton

of the two aubatruoturea that e:d at in tbe Statet

IJ'here:tore, Ulia study aakee 811 att•pt to

stut\Y the role of political parties in ita aeTeral

aapects. It aakea uae of a aul U-d1aen•1onal

approach to tbe study ot polttieal parties and

party systeas in On ssa.

1. See next chapter for a reYlev of literature.