CMJ Pubblicato Berio

30 Computer Music Journal

Francesco Giomi, Damiano Meacci,and Kilian SchwoonCentro Tempo RealeVilla Strozzi–Via Pisana 7750143 Florence, Italy{fg, dm, kilian}@centrotemporeale.it

Live Electronics inLuciano Berio’s Music

Computer Music Journal, 27:2, pp. 30–46, Summer 2003q 2003 Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Luciano Berio has made signi� cant contributionsto the development of electronic music, from theStudio di Fonologia Musicale of the RAI in Milan,to IRCAM in Paris, to the Italian Centro TempoReale, founded in Florence in 1987 with the objec-tive of creating a structure in which to investigatethe possibilities of real-time interaction betweenlive performance and programmed digital systems.Tempo Reale is today a center of musical produc-tion, research, and education where many majorItalian composers, in addition to Berio himself, cre-ate their works and where important works fromthe electroacoustic repertoire are performed.

In this article, we focus on three compositions byBerio that are not only particularly signi� cant inthemselves but also represent an important testi-monial to the production activity of the center inrecent years: Outis, the azione musicale composedin 1996 for La Scala theater and then performedagain in 1999; Ofan`m (1988–1997) for femalevoice, two children’s choirs, two instrumentalgroups, and live electronics; and � nally, Altra voce(1999), a chamber music composition for mezzo-soprano, � ute, and live electronics. The electronicparts of these compositions were totally revised be-ginning in 1999, and various updated musical–technological contributions have been presented intheir recent performances. They are in any caseworks that, ranging from musical theater to cham-ber music, clearly exemplify Berio’s approach tocomposing for live electronics in different contexts.

This article discusses the problems involved inthis approach within the context of the musical–technological solutions designed and implementedby Tempo Reale for the live performance of thethree works. The techniques adopted are � rst de-scribed in relation to their use in music; they arethen viewed within their proper context in a moredetailed description of the three speci� c works.The performances in question are the most recent

ones for each composition, namely Outis in Milan(September 1999, La Scala Theater) and Paris (No-vember 1999, Theatre du Chatelet), Ofan`m inMilan (October 2000, Sala Verdi), and Altra vocein New York (March 2001, Carnegie Hall), Tokyo(October 2002, Kajimoto Music), and Rome (March2003, Renzo Piano’s Auditorium).

Technology Serving Music

One of the major features of Berio’s work is un-doubtedly his search for continuous mobility inmusic. The possibilities of physical movement ofsound offered the composer by new technologiesare many, involving, for instance, the trajectoriesfollowed by sound events through space, continu-ous modulation on harmonic and dynamic levels,and various types of proliferations of sound layers.But what truly interests Berio are not these situa-tions in themselves, but rather the relationshipsthat are established between such physical–acousticsound mobility and the effective mobility of themusical thought.

Another fundamental aspect in the use of tech-nology is what Berio himself de� nes as ‘‘adaptabil-ity of the musical thought to different spaces andlistening situations.’’ Computer technologies andthose of sound diffusion allow the composer to in-habit new, unconventional acoustic spaces, as wellas to open up and render � exible spaces that aretypically closed (such as traditional theaters) andoften strongly linked to standard modes of musicpresentation.

Analytical Listening: Principles of Ampli� cationand Sound Spatialization

The simple ampli� cation of a sound should beviewed, according to Berio, in the light of its musi-cal consequences:

Our listening is today conditioned by top-quality recording. A recording of this type al-

31Giomi, Meacci, and Schwoon

ways has an analytic nature and therefore myideal is that of creating a type of acoustics andof sound that is typical of a great recording stu-dio. (Berio 1999b)

This consideration implies a series of conse-quences for the entire electroacoustic chain, frommicrophone techniques to sound diffusion systems.These decisions must, however, take account notonly the maximum possible quality of the soundsreproduced through the loudspeakers but also theinteraction between these and the natural soundsof instruments and voices:

Technologies interest me when they becomean extension of human work, of the perfor-mance, the sound, the voice, but not as an endin themselves, not as ‘‘effects.’’ In fact, I haveno interest in searching for new sounds. A newsound is created when there is a new musicalidea to produce it. What interests me is extend-ing the possibilities of instruments, of thevoice, but in an organic manner, which is notin con� ict with the sources of sound. (Berio1999b)

This concept differs profoundly, for example,from the traditional ampli� cation of a rock-and-rollconcert. In fact, here it serves not so much to in-crease the loudness of the sound, but rather tomodulate the natural acoustics of a space. Thiscalls for great homogeneity between the naturaland the ampli� ed sound—homogeneity that can beachieved only by analyzing the acoustics of eachindividual space and adapting accordingly all of theparameters important to the spatial perception ofthe sound: the number of sound loudspeakers usedfor ampli� cation and sound spatialization, their po-sitions, equalization, delaying systems—even slightreverberations to avoid excessive superimpositionof the more directional sound emanating from theloudspeakers over the natural one.

One of Berio’s special interests is the potentialfor mobility in space of the ampli� ed sound. Al-ready in his works without electronics there existmany examples in which the positioning of the per-formers in space is used as a compositional parame-ter. It might almost be said that this is a constant

factor in his catalogue, considering works such asAllelujah II (1956–1958), Sinfonia (1968–1969),Coro (1974), and Formazioni (1985–1987). The mu-sical use of space can serve very different functions.The modi� cation of the listening perspective andthe determination of a multiplicity of sound levelsin continuous transformation are among its mostimportant aspects. This is exempli� ed by the thirdgroup of violins in Sinfonia, placed behind the or-chestra, and the two harps in Formazioni posi-tioned at the two far ends of the stage, as close aspossible to the audience. A spatial organization ofthis type leads to greater acoustic transparency,whereas in other cases it is possible to suggest adifferent mode of perception, capable of renderinglistening ambiguous and orienting it toward agreater fusion of timbres. This happens in Coro, forexample, where a group of 40 singers and 40 instru-mentalists (not counting the keyboard and percus-sion instruments) is divided into 40 pairs, eachcomposed of a voice and an instrument in the sameregister, thus contributing to the creation of a sin-gle quasi-hybrid ensemble of voices and instru-ments. As a result, the organization of space inmusic results at times in a greater acoustic trans-parence, at times in a more tight-knit perceptiveunity—characteristics that even without electronicmeans confer a more ‘‘analytic’’ perspective on lis-tening.

The effect which in the orchestral writing isachieved through static dispositions can acquire anew dimension of mobility through electronics: byarti� cially moving different sound structures closeror further away in space, it is possible to continu-ously modulate the degree of af� nity betweensound layers. This principle holds true for the in-teraction between natural sound and ampli� edsound as well as between different electronic lay-ers, but can also be emphasized through suitablydifferentiated systems of reverberation serving tovary the degree of perception of each sound sourceby the listener. The ‘‘trajectories’’ of the move-ments can also become signi� cant, as is already thecase in Berio’s compositions without electronics,where at times he creates ‘‘virtual’’ movements ofsound. Formazioni is, for example, dense in situa-tions where identical notes or similar � gures pass


between groups that are similar in timbre, butseparated in space, thus creating the illusion of ashifting of the sound. But it is expressly in workssuch as Ofan`m that the sound trajectories, createdarti� cially, can acquire further signi� cance, as willbe seen in the � nal part of this article.

In the works featuring electronics, many parame-ters of the sound spatialization or transformationsystems are not established in detail by the com-poser. However, the sound locations are � xed inrelatively precise manner in an ‘‘electronic score’’thanks to a notation that de� nes sequences of con-� gurations of loudspeakers. (This term ‘‘electronicscore’’ will be used repeatedly in this article: in ad-dition to the normal, traditional score, Berio con-structs an annexed document containing a generaldescription of the points where electronics inter-vene and provide cues, including also the spatiali-zation of sounds.) In this regard, the traditionalscore is enriched by a series of pointers that indi-cate the starting and ending points of the cues andof the groups of instruments progressively involved(see Figure 1). Accordingly, the electronic score isnot a score in the traditional sense, but rather itconstitutes a list, in symbolic form, of the generalinstructions to be carried out for each individualaction of electronics.

In the diagram in Figure 2, an example of soundspatialization can be seen. Each box represents acertain loudspeaker, while the numbers indicatethe order in which each con� guration appears forthe � rst time. To each diagram corresponds a de� -nition of holding times tp and movement times tm

(i.e., of the passage from one con� guration to an-other). The sequence proceeds the � rst time in theorder in which it is written, after which varioustypes of permutation may succeed each other inthe electronic score. The sequences may stop at thelast con� guration, or begin again from the start(loop option).

For these three works in particular, but also ingeneral for all of the latest works realized byTempo Reale, a general-purpose system of soundspatialization called Smov (Sound Movement) hasbeen developed that, while retaining basically thesame structure from one piece to another, allowsthe realization of compositions where the arrange-ment and number of loudspeakers for spatializationdiffers substantially. The system can be applied for

a variable number of sound sources to be moved. Itconsists of a series of engines which operate on theamplitude of the audio signal, redirecting it towarda variable number of outputs according to a seriesof musical models of movement. In the works ex-amined here, predominant use is made of se-quences (path between sound loudspeakers selectedwith determined times of stasis and of movement)and some types of random algorithms (randomtimes and localizations, weighted randomness onthe localizations, permutation of localizations andtime). The reverberation parameters associatedwith each sound source (natural or transformed) arecontrolled separately by the module for generalmanagement of events described in the followingsections.

Rami� cations and Accumulations:The Use of Harmonizers

The creation of a homogeneous path betweenacoustic sources on the one hand (voices and in-struments) and electroacoustic sources on the other(live electronics) is undoubtedly one of the mainconcerns of Berio’s recent composing with electron-ics. In this sense, his decisions are oriented towardprocessing algorithms that do not radically trans-form the sound but are akin to the procedures ofvocal and instrumental composing. This is certainlytrue of the use of harmonizers, algorithms thattranspose the pitch of the input signal a certain in-terval, thus adding to the input one or more trans-posed signals. Berio is well aware of the possiblehazards of this type of processing, consisting primar-ily in the rigidity of a � xed transposition, at timesresulting in parallelisms that may easily becomeannoying. To render the perceptive effect of harmo-nizers more mobile in time, he often uses asyn-chronous time sequences of intervals, describingthem in detail in the electronic score (see Figure 3).

Fixing the tempo in such a precise manner mayseem like excessive control, but in reality, owing tothe freer performance times of the interpreters, theresult is never ‘‘mathematical.’’ Rather, it consistsof a certain indetermination in the effective har-monic results that break away from the algorithmin time. To give even greater range to the use of


Figure 1. Excerpt from thescore of Outis. (Copyright1996 by Ricordi-BMG. Usedwith permission.) The elec-tronic processing refers towoods (cues 9–11) andbrasses (cues 10 et seq.).


this technique, Berio also requests continuousmodulation of the relationship between the originalsignal and the transformed signal. As a generalprinciple, their contributions should be practicallythe same (as with two orchestral groups, for exam-ple). However, the relationship between the levelsshould never sound mechanical but constantly inmotion.

The harmonizer is used mainly in two types ofmusical situations, the � rst linked to the conceptof heterophony, the second to that of soundmasses. In the case of heterophony, a melodic lineappears simultaneously with other lines derivedfrom it. This principle can be easily applied by su-perimposing on a line played live its transforma-tions from the harmonizer. The example appearingin Figure 4, taken from Altra voce, shows the partof the mezzo-soprano line with one of the possibleresults of its electronic transformation.

In other situations, characterized instead by thepresence of sound masses, the harmonizer serves toaugment the vertical density of structures alreadyvery rich harmonically. This is the case, for exam-ple, of Section V of Ofan`m: in the harmonic ex-cerpt shown in Figure 5, the results of thetranspositions are not explicitly indicated, but it isinstead possible to see the temporal developmentof the harmonic shifting in relation to the chords ofthe � rst of the two instrumental groups.

Memory and Continuity:Delay and Sampling Algorithms

In the relationship between instrumental soundand transformed sound, delay and sampling are of

crucial importance. The so-called ‘‘real-timefreeze’’ processes are one of the most distinctivefeatures of the newest versions of Altra voce andOfan`m. This involves the real-time recording ofselective fragments of the performance in processand their reappearance in loops at subsequenttimes shown in the score. In some cases, the dura-tion of the recorded fragment is established inde-pendent of a particular performance, while inothers it is deduced from the sampled event (as, forexample, in every case in Altra voce).

Usually, the freeze operation concerns the con-tinuous reproduction of individual notes, individ-ual chords, or notes and chords with rhythmicarticulation or internal melodic pro� le. This situa-tion results in the perception of prolonged, inter-woven, dynamically variable textures of sound thatfunction as structures of continuity in the econ-omy of the compositions. In other cases, the freezemay operate instead on the reproduction of longerfragments articulated rhythmically and melodically(entire musical phrases, for instance). This use ofsampling, which plays on the strati� cation ofmemory, resembles the use made by Berio himselfof delay algorithms with relatively long delay times

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Figure 2. Excerpt from themanuscript electronicscore of Altra voce con-taining a description of thesound spatialization (cue24). (Copyright 1999 byUniversal Edition A.G.Used with permission.)

Figure 3. Harmonizersequence in an excerptfrom the manuscript elec-tronic score of Outis (cue4). (Copyright 1996 by Ri-cordi-BMG. Used with per-mission.) In this score, in

addition to the holdingtime tp, Berio speci�es themovement time tm, which,in the case of time valuesother than zero, refers to agradual passage betweentwo transpositions (glis-

sando). In the scores ofOfan`m and Altra Voce,this element is omittedand is considered alwaysequal to zero.


(up to 8 sec at some moments in Outis). This alsoreiterates the concept of the dialogue and of prolif-eration in time of the sound events in question,characteristics common to all of the works ana-lyzed here.

Concerning other sampling systems, in Ofan`mand Outis we � nd among the performers a sampler(‘‘keyboard’’ in the score) that is used with instru-mental or vocal timbres to augment the potentialof the originals in both harmonic aspects andrhythmic articulation (e.g., clusters of large size,particular glissandi, rhythmic � gures). In both ofthe compositions, the sampled sounds never standout alone from those of the orchestra but blendwith the rest of the live sounds and serve the func-tion of both sound enrichment and orchestral ex-tension.

Algorithms and Musical Events: SystemManagement and Technological Solutions

The algorithms employed by Berio are not in them-selves complex but belong to the classical reper-toire of live electronics. The possible problems ofimplementation regard on the one hand a series ofmicro-level details (e.g., selection of the individual

parameters of the algorithms, times and modes oftheir input and output, etc.) and on the other theglobal management of the score. Regarding the lat-ter aspect, some of Berio’s scores often call for, atleast in two of the cases described, large orchestraswith electronics that at various times operate ondifferent instrumental and/or vocal groups. Thesescores also call for very large ampli� cation systemsfor both the sheer number of instruments involvedand the number of diffusion groups. In addition, thehigh degree of strati� cation of the electronics (i.e.,the number of individual operations in parallel),which evolves continuously during the playing ofthe pieces, contributes still further to the generalcomplexity, making it necessary to devise veryhighly evolved solutions for managing the pluralityof events.

Over the years, Tempo Reale has developed asystem based on a number of fundamental charac-teristics: versatility and adaptability to differentmusical contexts, simplicity and rapidity in bring-ing about changes in events (changes that becomenecessary in regard to compositional requisites andpotentially at any stage in production), stabilityof the entire system, and overall sound quality. Inthe general construction of the system, a primarygoal was that of attaining the maximum degree of

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Figure 4. A fragment of thevocal part of Altra voce.(Copyright 1999 by Uni-versal Edition A.G. Usedwith permission.) The lineat the bottom shows one

of the possible results thatcan be obtained by apply-ing real-time transpositionthrough the harmonizer al-gorithms.

Figure 5. A fragment of thepart of the �rst orchestralgroup of Ofan`m (Copy-right 1988, 1997 by Uni-versal Edition A.G. Used

with permission.) with in-dication of the transposi-tion intervals (without in-dication of the overallresult).


automation possible, but without excessively con-straining the freedom of the performers, both in-strumental and electronic.

The system has a central management core witha series of collateral elements whose interactionand integration ensure easy management of a widerange of musical and control events. The logicalscheme of the control structure (see Figure 6) isconceptually simple, which guarantees its adapt-ability to numerous situations. The central node ofthe system consists of an audio matrix includingone or more mixers within which converge all au-dio signals to be processed or to be ampli� ed. InAltra voce, the work that calls for the fewest per-formers (� ute and voice) of those discussed here, asingle digital mixer is used, while Outis (a musicaltheater composition involving, in addition to cho-rus and an orchestra, numerous soloists), requirestwo digital mixing boards, an analog mixer of largesize for the orchestral premix, and an additionalsmall analog mixer for the vocal group. The struc-ture of the audio matrix can thus vary substan-tially, but the central core always consists of oneor more digital mixers entirely controlled by MIDI.Thanks to this feature, it is possible to remotelymanage the quantity of each individual signal to besent to the signal processors and to the diffusion or

spatialization system, thus obtaining the greatestpossible degree of � exibility in signal routing.

For signal processing operations that are particu-larly computationally demanding, dedicated com-mercial hardware systems have been selected thatshare with the entire system the characteristics ofprogrammability and reliability in the majority ofoperational situations. These devices have beenused basically for the reproduction of recorded sam-ples and for three types of algorithms—harmoniza-tion, delay, and reverberation, as well as fordifferent combinations of the three. In all cases, thevarious parameters are controlled by MIDI. Forother operations, a different approach has beenused: that of programming workstations in theMax/MSP environment. This is the case with thereproduction of ‘‘playlists’’ of long duration, offreeze algorithms, and of the sound spatializationsystem. The management module (Cue Manager),which controls all of the elements of the system, isalso programmed in Max/MSP. Through internalmessages, MIDI, and Ethernet, it controls all of theother subsystems, opening and closing the channelsof the matrix, sending sequences of intervals to theharmonizers, actuating the spatialization engines,controlling the sampling systems, generating moni-toring signals, and so on.

Figure 6. General logicaldiagram of the hardwareand software system usedby Tempo Reale for liveelectronics. ‘‘Additional

systems’’ refers to MIDIkeyboards, sensors, fadercontrollers, display inter-faces, and so on.


The Cue Manager is based on a structured se-quence of events in which each block represents aprecise point in the score (cue) along with all of theelectronics events associated with it. During a liveperformance, the list is scrolled manually by meansof a computer keyboard or through a MIDI periph-eral. (In Ofan`m, for example, the keyboard playerin the orchestra controls the Cue Manager.) To thepossibility of sequentially scrolling the list ofevents, the system adds that of jumping directly toany point in the score, instantaneously recalculat-ing the lines of the electronics enabled at thatpoint, and repositioning itself at the musical situa-tion requested. This characteristic is highly usefulin the testing stage and during rehearsals with theinstrumentalists.

The structured list of events is normally complexand thus dif� cult to write and to edit. A speciallydesigned relational database (Meeg, or Max Elec-tronic Events Generator) is used expressly for thepurpose of facilitating writing and subsequent edit-ing. This database can be automatically generatedafter the formalization of the electronics com-mands. Through interaction between Meeg and theCue Manager, it is possible to recreate the entirecon� guration of the system and the ensemble of in-structions speci� cally used in each compositionwithout having to act directly on the databasecode. Thanks to this approach, Meeg, like most ofthe system, can be used in a broad range of situa-tions without requiring modi� cations in its code,and it allows rapid changes in the sequence ofevents to satisfy new musical or technical requi-sites.

The problem of stability is particularly importantin musical systems having a high degree of integra-tion between software and hardware devices andhas been the subject of special attention. Usually,the weak point lies in the computer sub-systems,which may be subject to complications of variouskinds not always easily predictable. To lessen thepossibilities of a system crash, redundant subsys-tems that function as backup devices have been in-tegrated into the structure. These subsystems,proceeding synchronously with the main ones, canbe used instantly in case of problems during a per-formance.

Inside the Music

Although many of the musical concepts in thethree works are in some way correlated, and theguidelines for designing their electronics complywith a unifying logic, it seems useful to describe ingreater detail the relationship between music andtechnologies within the context of the three com-positions which, as a whole, offer a panorama ofdifferent aspects of making music, from chambermusic to musical theater. In this article, the threeworks are examined in chronological order basedon the � rst drafting of the scores. Actually, theevolutionary cycle of the latest revisions of theelectronic parts should follow a different order(Outis–Ofan`m–Altra Voce). This indicates howBerio constantly reconsiders each performance withelectronics; in this sense, each new version is in-evitably in� uenced by previous experience andwork.

Inhabiting Space: Ofan`m

Ofan`m for two children’s choirs, two instrumentalgroups, a female voice, and live electronics can beconsidered a work in progress. The � rst versionwas presented in Italy, at Prato, in 1988, and it hassince undergone various processes of rewriting ofnot only the electronics but also the entire score(Bernardini 1995). In the latest versions, the vocaland instrumental parts have undergone no changes,but Berio already speci� ed the ‘‘open’’ nature of theelectronics part in these terms:

Musical thought today must be able to interactwith the new technologies and to adapt itselfcreatively to every kind of space, exploring itsvirtualities and reshaping acoustically. The im-age of music as sound architecture is no longera mere metaphor: it represents a concrete pos-sibility, realizable in all its aspects. It is, ofcourse, a mobile and � exible architecture, ca-pable of adaptation to different situations andenvironments. Therefore, the acoustic strategyof Ofan`m has to be modi� ed with each newperformance and consequently several aspectsof the entire work are recomposed. (Berio 1992)


In his program notes, Berio also explains the useof the texts:

The text of Ofan`m (in Hebrew both ‘‘wheels’’and ‘‘modes’’) alternates fragments from thebook of Ezekiel with verses from the Song ofSongs. The dramatic vision of Ezekiel (Chapter1)—the most personal and apocalyptic of allprophets—stands in strong opposition to theearthly sensuality of the verses from the Songof Songs (Chapters 4 and 5). The phantasma-goric apparitions of Ezekiel’s vision whirlsaround in perpetual motion against a burningsky: the poetic images from the Song of Songsdwell longingly on the face and body of the be-loved. (Berio 2000)

Sound spatialization assumes a crucially impor-tant role in characterizing the formal sections mu-sically, while ampli� cation is entrusted to aspeci� c stereophonic system (see Figure 7, groupsL–R). The eight groups of loudspeakers employedfor movement in space form a circle around the au-dience (see Figure 7, groups 1–8), thus reinforcingthe initial concept of the wheel. Alternation be-tween the two levels of the text (Ezekiel and theSong of Songs) takes place formally by blocks with

very strong contrasts. The fragments of Ezekiel arelinked to very rapid movements of striking physi-cal impact, while the fragments of the Song ofSongs are often distinguished by � xed sound loca-tions. Table 1 illustrates the formal scheme, in-cluding very simple verbal descriptions of thespatialization, and gives some idea of the dramatur-gical relationship between the various sections ofthe piece. The table also shows how at certain mo-ments the spatialization anticipates textual andmusical elements of the next section (IU II, VIII U IX)or reiterates and develops characteristics from theprevious section (IIIK IV, V K VI).

To investigate the function of electronics inOfan`m, we may consider some details of the com-position. The score begins with a continuous prolif-eration of elements. The whole originates from asingle note sung by the soloists in the chorus,which is sampled and immediately reproduced inloop. At the moment in which the recorded versionbecomes perceptible, the soloists begin a melodicpath that arises from this central note, while subse-quently other ‘‘rami� cations’’ of the clarinet andthe sampling of the children’s choir are added. Inthis fragment, marked by a strong timbral af� nitybetween the instrumental and vocal elements, theelectronic ampli� cation contributes to a very amal-gamated acoustical result. The process of sound‘‘opening,’’ both harmonic and timbral, is accompa-nied by spatial projections that slowly oscillate be-tween the front loudspeakers, creating a sense ofinner motion along the vast stereo front. At a fol-lowing stage, onto this sound texture are superim-posed more lively � gurations of the two clarinetsas well as rototoms, diffused with ‘‘zig-zag’’ mo-tions around the circle of loudspeakers—a momentof great surprise which seems a preparation for theexplosion of sound at the beginning of the secondpart, a sort of presentiment of Ezekiel’s vision ofthe hurricane.

Another section of Ofan`m of great importancefor the electronics part is the clarinet solo (SectionIV). Throughout the preceding fragment, takenfrom the Song of Songs, the � rst clarinet emergesstrongly with � gurations that are almost arpeggia-tions, very sweet and played pianissimo, but thatremain well integrated into the overall harmonicstructure. From this series of � gurations emerges

Figure 7. Con� guration ofthe loudspeakers inOfan`m (top view).


Table 1. Formal diagram of Ofan`m and of the relevant distribution of the text with respect to theindividual sections. The third column contains a verbal description of the sound movements.

I. EZEKIEL (1:28) And I heard a voice of one that spake. frontal calm movements; rototoms with fast‘‘zig-zag’’ movements through full space

II. EZEKIEL (1:4–10) And I looked, and, behold, a whirlwindcame out of the north, a great cloud, and a � re infoldingitself . . . four living creatures . . . and every one had fourfaces, and every one had four wings . . . and the sole oftheir feet was like the sole of a calf’s foot . . . they fourhad the face of a man, and the face of a lion . . . the faceof an ox . . . the face of an eagle.

fast movements of various kinds (full space)

III. SONG OF SOLOMON (4:16) Awake, O north wind; andcome, thou south; blow upon my garden, that the spicesthereof may � ow out. Let my beloved come into his gar-den, and eat his pleasant fruits.

� xed diffusion (frontal)

IV. CLARINET SOLOEZEKIEL (1:28) . . . A voice . . .

fast movements (softly ‘‘blowing’’ )

V. EZEKIEL (1:14–21) And the living creatures ran and re-turned as the appearance of a � ash of lightning . . . be-hold one wheel upon the earth by the living creatures . . .and when the living creatures went, the wheels went bythem: and when the living creatures were lifted up fromthe earth, the wheels were lifted up . . . and when thosestood, these stood.

fast movements (full space)

VI. INSTRUMENTAL ‘‘TUTTI’’—‘‘ROTATING’’ fast movements

VII. SONG OF SOLOMON (5:3–4) I have put off my coat;how shall I put it on? I have washed my feet; how shall Ide� le them? My beloved put in his hand by the hold ofthe door, and my bowels were moved for him.


VIII. TROMBONE SOLO fast movements on the � rst four loudspeakers

IX. EZEKIEL (1:22–24) And the likeness of the � rmamentupon the heads of the living creature was as the colour ofthe terrible crystal . . . and . . . I heard the noise of theirwings, like the noise of great waters, as the voice of theAlmighty . . . as the voice of an host.


X. SONG OF SOLOMON (4:1–9) Behold, thou art fair, mylove; behold, thou art fair; thou hast doves’ eyes . . . thyteeth are like a � ock of sheep, which came up from thewashing . . . thy lips are like a thread of scarlet; and thyspeech is comely: thy temples are like a piece of pome-granate . . . thy neck is like the tower of David . . . thytwo breasts are like two young roes . . . how fair is thylove . . . thou hast ravished my heart, my sister, myspouse.


XI. EZEKIEL (1:26–28) And above the � rmament . . . was thelikeness of a throne . . . and the appearance of a manabove upon it . . . as the appearance of � re . . . and . . .brightness round about . . . as the appearance of the bowthat is in the cloud in the day of rain . . . A voice . . .


XII. EZEKIEL (19:10–13) Thy mother is like a vine in thyblood, planted by the waters: she was fruitful and full ofbranches by reason of many waters. And she had strongrods . . . and her stature was exalted among the thickbranches, and she appeared in her height with the multi-tude of her branches. But she was plucked up in fury, shewas cast down to the ground, and the east wind dried upher fruit; her strong rods were broken and withered; the� re consumed them. And now she is planted in the wil-derness, in a dry and thirsty ground.

calm movements (full space, gradually movingaway from the female voice, then returning toher)


the solo passage, accompanied only by a few‘‘punctuations’’ of the two choirs, the percussion,and the sampler. The entire section is treated witha single algorithm of live electronics, a combina-tion of spatialization, harmonization, and delaywith variable feedback (see Figure 8). The se-quences of spatialization, harmonization, and theamount of feedback in the delay are all looped andsuperimposed in an irregular manner, both amongeach other and with the original sound. The resultis a kind of dialogue of the clarinet with its elec-tronic double. The score oscillates between zonesdense in arpeggiation and other more rari� ed ones(see Figure 9), continuously shifting attention be-tween the original clarinet sound and its electronictransformation.

Lastly, consider Section VI, a fragment withoutvoices that follows the central movement of thetext of Ezekiel, the vision of the wheels. This sec-tion begins with a great crescendo of the tremolosreinforced again by electronics that proceed with ir-regular ‘‘zig-zag’’ spatialization and with harmoni-zation sequences that are different for the twoorchestral groups. The very particular orchestralwriting (combinations of whirring trills, very fastrepetitions, and arpeggios), the use of slide whis-tles, the rhythmically asynchronous organization,and the almost ‘‘circular’’ melodic pro� le of the in-dividual parts create, as a perceptive result, a singlemass of sound, overwhelming, turbulent, and al-most in ‘‘rotation.’’ Through the various electronicshifts (in pitch, time, and space) it becomes evenmore agitated and teeming with life.

At points such as these, an important change hasbeen made in the latest version of Ofan`m pre-sented in Milan. Whereas the former versions werealways distinguished by real rotations in the spa-tialization, these have now been abandoned in fa-vor of much more irregular movements that confera somewhat ‘‘probabilistic’’ nature on the sense ofspatialization, conveying a striking sense of discov-

ery of acoustic space. Regarding the electronics,only the physical arrangement of the sound loud-speakers still alludes to the concept of ‘‘wheel.’’

Electronics for Musical Theater: Outis

Outis is one of Berio’s two more recent works ofmusical theater, along with Cronaca del Luogo,which inaugurated the Salzburg Festival of 1999. Itis a complex work lasting nearly two hours withtexts by Berio himself and by the renowned ItalianHellenist Dario Del Corno, whose title is evocativeof Homer’s Odyssey and of Ulysses’ answer toPolyphemus: ‘‘Outis emoi g’onoma’’ or ‘‘My nameis no one’’ (Del Corno 1999). However, the workdoes not follow the narrative path of the Odysseybut is instead distinguished by a division into � vecycles within which emerge a plurality of historiesand plots, referring to the most widely differing au-thors, from Homer himself to Catullus, from Au-den to Brecht, to Joyce, Melville, Sanguineti, andCelan. The multiplicity and variability of both textand scene—but above all of the music—are to beconsidered the true narrative constants of Outis,characteristics that make it possible to ‘‘perceivedifferent � gures and episodes in the same light orto grasp the sense of a single element in constantlychanging lights and musical perspectives’’ (Berio1999a). This pertains to all elements of the musicalpath, whose amplitude and continuous transforma-tion bear witness to their complexity, suggestedalso by the relatively large number of performers:19 soloists (13 singers, 1 actor, 5 instrumentalistson the scene), a vocal group of 8 singers, chorus, or-chestra, and live electronics.

Performed for the � rst time at La Scala in Milanin 1996, directed by Graham Vick, Outis was pre-sented again in 1999 � rst at La Scala and then atthe Theatre du Chatelet in Paris, where it was di-rected by Yannis Kokkos. For these two perfor-mances, Berio designed a new electronics part moresuitable to both solving problems typical of elec-tronics for the musical theater and the identi� ca-tion of the particular musical and sound features ofthe work itself. The basic premise for electronics inOutis is an attempt to free the sound from the un-desirable tube-like effect deriving from the posi-

Figure 8. Processing algo-rithm for the clarinet soloin Ofan`m (cue 17). Thetwo delays have the samedelay time (3 sec). The

output of delay A (withfeedback) is opened andclosed alternatively, whilethat of delay B remainsconstantly open.


tioning of the orchestra in the theater pit, an effectwhich undoubtedly con� icts with the ideal of ana-lytical listening. What � nds application here is thegeneral concept of an orchestral sonority, which,thanks to ampli� cation and proper equalization,can approach the character of a perfect studio re-cording. In this case, however, the sound diffusionmust be such as to prohibit any perception of thepresence of loudspeakers or of evident electronictransformations; the processing of the sound issomething that appears but which the audienceshould not have time to identify and recognize:

In this work—where there is not, in effect, any‘‘real’’ live electronics, but there is a great re-spect for the musical acoustic substance of thework and also for space itself—the technolo-gies tend to prolong certain aspects, to developthem interiorly in a way that might almost becalled devious and concealed. (Berio 1999b)

In this sense, the difference between this conceptand the electronics of Ofan`m, where the presenceof loudspeakers constitutes an element of great dra-matic impact, is striking.

In the case of Outis, ampli� cation and diffusionsystems adapted to the scenic space of La Scala andof the Theatre du Chatelet were used. The frontalarrangement of the loudspeakers provides fourgroups of loudspeakers placed in the stage boxes, towhich is added a central cluster serving to close thestereo front and for diffusion of the voices (see Fig-

ure 10). The four side groups are also used toachieve sound diffusion with horizontal, vertical,and diagonal movements. Furthermore, a group ofloudspeakers is placed inside the chandelier locatedat the center of the ceiling over the stalls and isused to play particular recorded sequences of chil-dren’s voices. As a whole, this is a diffusion systemthat, on the one hand, reiterates structural featuresof the work, while on the other interacts with andis grafted onto the most classic and dif� cult sce-nario, that of the traditional theater space. Beriohimself clearly explains this dual function of thediffusion techniques:

An acoustical dimension is created which nolonger corresponds to that of the orchestra pit.There are loudspeakers concealed at the sidesof the stage and above the stalls, of which theaudience will be unaware, but which will serveto enlarge the sound perspective. The centralinterest of these sophisticated systems occurswhen they are adapted to the musical work.There can be no indifference toward this typeof technology in relation to the work repre-sented[;] it must enter into it and be redesignedin accordance with the nature of the work.(Berio 1999b)

Although the computer music environment usesconceptually simple algorithms, it is their relation-ships with the musical score and with the orches-tral sound that determine their functioning. The

Figure 9. Clarinet solo ex-cerpt from the score ofOfan`m. (Copyright 1988,1997 by Universal EditionA.G. Used with permis-

sion.) The electronics be-gin pianissimo after letterK (cue 17) with the algo-rithm shown in Figure 8.


spatialization and the harmonizing as well as, themicrophone choice and placement, thus contributeto a process of extending the orchestral sound andprojecting it into a dimension of continuous mobil-ity and transparency:

I have always tried to renew the instrumentalsound, the one produced by known and ac-cepted instruments. I have tried to transform itto make listening more analytical, with severallayers interacting with each other. . . . Thereare articulations which are harmonically verycomplex and the microphone can, in effect,contribute to better listening. Basically, it isused as a microscope, for the enlargement ofminimal aspects, acoustic and musical, of thework. (Berio 1999b)

All of the instruments in the orchestra, the choir,and the instrumental soloists are given individualmicrophones, whereas the voices all sing withoutampli� cation with the exception of the speaker and

the vocal group. ‘‘Microphoning’’ has the objectiveof capturing the signals both for sound reinforce-ment and for the live electronics algorithms. Theelectronics includes the spatialization and a seriesof delay and harmonization algorithms that are ap-plied at various times to different orchestral groups.In addition, recorded sequences (playlists) contain-ing both recited phrases and real sounds of variouskinds (animal sounds, a ship’s foghorn, birds, andso on) are reproduced.

The setup also includes a sampler placed in theorchestra pit with which a keyboard player exe-cutes sound events with mainly instrumental orchoral timbres. During the second, fourth, and � fthcycles, the work uses a motion detection system(realized already for the � rst version of Outis bythe Musical Informatics Laboratory of DIST inGenoa). The system is based on two footboardsplaced at stage level that, when activated by amovement of the foot, effect reproduction of per-cussion samples.

Figure 10. Con� guration ofthe loudspeakers in Outis(front view).


Many aspects thus make Outis a complex andimportant work among the recent musical achieve-ments of Berio: the fragmentation of the texts, themany ways of singing them, the concealed but in-tense use of live electronics, and the adaptability oftechnologies to the work and to the scenic space.In this sense, the electronics function to enrich asound organism that, albeit moving with relativelytraditional characteristics, is enhanced by continu-ous mobility and variability over time, with the re-sult of constantly drawing the listener’s attentionback to the musical dimension of the work, mak-ing sound, more than the other parameters of musi-cal theatre, the true protagonist of the long andcomplex dramaturgical process (Giomi 2000).

The Live Electronics ‘‘da Camera’’ of Altra voce

Altra voce for contralto � ute, mezzo-soprano, andlive electronics is an example of Berio’s use of elec-tronic techniques within a chamber music context.This composition, however, is derived from a workof musical theater:

In one episode, namely Il Campo (The Field),from my azione musicale[,] Cronaca del luogo,

there is a virtual love duet. Two voices andseveral instruments ‘‘fall in love’’ and followone another in a constantly renewingrelationship. . . . As we all know, in true po-lyphony each voice contributes to the whole,yet retains its own identity, if not complete au-tonomy. In Altra voce, I have liberated onevoice (mezzo-soprano) and one instrument (alto� ute) from the whole and developed their re-spective autonomies and harmonic premisesby, among other means, using live electronics.(Berio 2001)

The choir, the orchestra, and the loudspeakers ofCronaca del Luogo are placed behind the stage atvarious heights, forming a kind of ‘‘wall’’ of sound.In Altra voce, this idea of a wall is translated into acon� guration with two diverging diagonal lines ofloudspeakers that, adapting themselves to the per-formance space, are positioned at the farthest possi-ble distances (see Figure 11, groups 1–6). To thediagonals are then added two groups of loudspeak-ers positioned at the performers’s feet for sound re-inforcement (see Figure 11, groups L–R).

In this composition, the electronics play a crucialstructural role and are characterized by three types

Figure 11. Con� guration ofthe loudspeakers in Altravoce (front view).


of processing: the live sampling of various frag-ments, spatialization, and the use of harmonizers.From the formal diagram of the electronics part(see Figure 12), it is immediately apparent that thevarious kinds of processing do not take place oneafter another but tend to overlap and interweave.The � rst sample, a single F for voice and � ute, isactually held from the third beat (see Figure 13) tothe last. Regarding the function of this continuousnote, Berio speaks of a sort of ‘‘tonic,’’ an always-present element that gives a common perspectiveto all other events. This F is accompanied at vari-ous times by other samples falling into two catego-ries: fragments of held notes, which played in aloop create continuous events (#1, #2, #3, and #6);and entire musical phrases (#4, #5, #7, and #8),which appear instead as repeated musical struc-tures. This creates various reference elements thatcould be described as ‘‘attraction poles,’’ comparedto the precise delimiting of the traditional tonic.The musical discourse moves within the gap thatopens between these poles.

Following the formal scheme it can be seen howthe � rst category of samples has an almost sym-metrical distribution (#1-#2-#3-#3-#6-#2-#3-#2-#1),while those with phrasing (#4, #5, and #7) mark thebeginning or the end of formal accumulations.Sample #8 should be considered a special case, as itconsists of a structure recorded ‘‘off-line,’’ that is,not during the performance, and enriches the � nal

zone in which, in general, continuous rarifying ofthe sound layers occurs.

The sound spatialization is characterized by aprocess of expansion of the loudspeakers closest tothe performers (1 and 2) up to the ensemble of all ofthe loudspeakers, reached at beat 49. From this mo-ment on, various differentiations in the use ofspace take place based on the type of movements(speed and regularity) and on the use of pairs ofloudspeakers alternating with individual loud-speakers.

In addition to these ideas of movement, Altravoce is undoubtedly an important example of howBerio operates with electronics on degrees of af� n-ity between different sonorities: initially, with thelong F held on the loudspeakers closest to the per-formers, the already intense fusion between thetimbre of the mezzo-soprano and the contralto� ute is reinforced still further, while subsequently,with the accumulation of layers of samples (freeze)and of harmonizers, the various signals are increas-ingly separated in space, thus rendering transparentan ensemble of layers so homogeneous as to be oth-erwise almost impenetrable to the ear. Concerningthe harmonizers, the formal diagram demonstratesthe progressive augmentation of the intervals andof the number of intervals per sequence. In beats94–109, the degree of parallelism of the harmoniz-ers also increases, up to a maximum of three on the� ute and two on the voice. In the � nal part of the

Figure 12. Formal diagramof electronics in Altravoce. For sampling, an in-dex and an approximateduration of the fragmentrecorded and reproduced

in loop are indicated (forexample: #1 ||:49 :||). Forthe spatialization, theloudspeakers are denotedby Roman numerals. Forthe harmonizers, the inter-

vals used are shown (e.g.,0, 2–# , 2 $ with the se-quences which work onpermutations of these in-tervals).


composition, the harmonizations progressively dis-appear in favor of the exclusive presence of spatiali-zation alone.

The overall form can be described as two arches,with the � rst climax underlined predominantly byprogressive spatial expansion and the second,thanks to the harmonic strati� cation, achieved bythe augmenting of intervals, the length of the har-monizer’s transposition sequences, and their degreeof parallelism. The superimposition of freeze tech-niques on these elements creates for the listener atexture that extends and develops throughout theentire composition, a ‘‘harmonic wall’’ in ceaselessevolution. All of these aspects of Altra voce may beviewed within the light of the initial perspective:the simple metaphor of ‘‘falling in love’’ leads to acomplex polyphony and to a surprising interaction

among the three dimensions of sound: vocal, in-strumental, and electronic music, which, while re-taining their individual autonomy, seem almost toabandon themselves to each other, creating hybridsituations of striking intensity.

Acknowledgments

Many people have contributed over the years to thedevelopment of the computer music systems ofTempo Reale in relation to the works described;among these are Nicola Bernardini, Alvise Vidolin,Thierry Coduys, Lamberto Coccioli, and SylvianeSapir. An important role for the success of the Ital-ian performances has also been carried out by thetechnicians of the BH-audio company who have

Figure 13. A preliminaryversion of the �rst page ofthe Altra voce score, real-ized by Paul Roberts and

the authors for UniversalEdition. (Copyright 1999by Universal Edition A.G.Used with permission.)


provided audio services. Special thanks also to PaulRoberts, transcriber of Luciano Berio’s scores, forhis invaluable aid with constant reference to themost updated versions. The authors are grateful toUniversal Edition and to Ricordi-BMG for their per-mission to publish the excerpts from the scores.

References

Berio, L. 1992. ‘‘Ofan`m.’’ Concert program. Jerusalem:Gala concert in honour of the dedication of the Su-preme Court Building.

Berio, L. 1999a. ‘‘Morfologia di un viaggio.’’ Outis: Cata-logue of the Opera. Milan: Teatro alla Scala.

Berio, L. 1999b. Interview for the television program ‘‘Su-perquark.’’ RAI–RadioTelevisione Italiana.

Berio, L. 2000. ‘‘Ofan`m.’’ Luigi Nono e il suono elettron-ico. Milan: Milano Musica/Teatro alla Scala.

Berio, L. 2001. ‘‘Altra voce.’’ Carnegie Hall Stage Bill.New York: Carnegie Hall.

Bernardini, N. 1995. ‘‘Ofan`m di Luciano Berio.’’ LectureNotes for Electronic Music. Padova: Conservatory ofMusic.

Del Corno, D. 1999. ‘‘Nessuno.’’ Outis: Catalogue of theOpera. Milan: Teatro alla Scala.

Giomi, F. 2000. ‘‘Musical Technologies in Luciano Be-rio’s Outis.’’ Proceedings of the XII Colloquium ofMusical Informatics. L’Aquila: Istituto Gramma/AIMI.

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