CMST 2061 Final Exam Study Guide Chapter 7 • Organizational Training o Involves the acquisition of knowledge and skills necessary for individuals to perform effectively on the job. o Two critical Components: Knowledge acquisition • Designed to enhance what people know about an organizational process or issue Skills acquisition o Facilitation skills Ability to lead and guide groups o Interpersonal Communication Skills Must be sensitive and competent in interpersonal communication o Data Gathering skills o Data Analysis Skills Ability to evaluate and interpret information o Political Skills o Understanding of the Adult Learner • Need For Training
Transcript
CMST 2061Final Exam Study Guide
Chapter 7• Organizational Training
o Involves the acquisition of knowledge and skills necessary for individuals to perform effectively on the job.
o Two critical Components: Knowledge acquisition
• Designed to enhance what people know about an organizational process or issue
Skills acquisition• Training employees to perform a particular behavior
• Compensation and Benefits Functiono Encompasses job evaluations, structure and merit plans, and executive compensation
plans.• Employment/Staffing function
o Includes both internal and external staffing and hiring• Employee relations function
o Concerns evaluating performance, handling management issues, managing safety and health services, dealing with disciplinary and attendance issues, and fostering positive employee relations.
• Training functiono Imparts knowledge and skill that will enable employees to be more effective in their
position• Organizational development function
o Concern organizational design and structure, intervention design and implementation, and quality of work-life processes.
• Trainer Roleo Instructional design
The development of training modules and training programso Course delivery
The presentation or delivery of training programs• Trainer skills
o Presentation skillso Written communication skillso Active listening skills
Be able to listen with comprehensiono Facilitation skills
Ability to lead and guide groupso Interpersonal Communication Skills
Must be sensitive and competent in interpersonal communicationo Data Gathering skillso Data Analysis Skills
Ability to evaluate and interpret informationo Political Skillso Understanding of the Adult Learner
• Need For Training
o An individual’s job may change within an organizationo Changes in the culture or structure mandate new knowledge and skillso Technological innovations may require acquisition of new knowledge and skills
• Levels of Competencyo Unconscious incompetence
Occurs when we cannot perform a behavior or skill and we do not know that we cannot perform it
o Conscious incompetence Occurs when we try to perform the skill or behavior and we realize that we either
cannot either do it at all or do it unsatisfactorily.o Conscious Competence
We can perform the skill, but we still must exert a great deal of mental effort to accomplish the task or perform the behavior.
o Unconscious competence Occurs after training has been completed and we have had some time to practice
new skills or behaviors• Interaction Training
o Interviews Allow greater in depth information to be gathered and frequently employ open
ended questionso Questionnaires
Contains both open and closed end questions, are especially useful when gathering data from a large group of people
o Observation A trainer actually observes others on the job
• Experiential Activitieso Role Plays
Allow trainees to put into practice the knowledge, skills, and behaviors they have just learned.
o Case Studies Allow trainees to use the knowledge gained through training to enhance problem
solvingo Games
Most popular because they are considered low in risk, are adaptable to almost all forms of content, and foster a great deal of participation.
Testing the knowledge of trainees in a dynamic and interactive fashiono Instruments
Surveys, Diagnostic tools, self report measures, inventories • Instructional Aids
o Overhead projectors, video tapes, electronic whiteboardso Presentation software and flip charts are mostly recommendedo Powerpoints
Chapter 8 Difference between Leader & Manager, Leadership styles – Trait, situational, exchange, orgs as leaders, applied, including specific theories within each style
• Diff btw Leaders & managerso Perceptions of status quo
The managers job is to continue the status quo as efficiently as possible. Leaders look for the next development or opportunity for growth and change that
might lead to increased growth, profitability, and market share. Managers focus on here and now and what is Leaders focus on tomorrow and what can be
o Managers do the “telling” (This is the way you want to do the job)o Leaders do the “selling” (If we were to change this process, how would you do things
differently?)o Managers organize laboro Leaders inspire laboro Managers are reactive to new informationo Leaders are proactiveo Managers use legitimate power (power officially granted to them)o Leaders use referent power (people follow because people like them)
• Leadership Styleso Trait (Great Man Theory)
People either possess the attributes of a leader or the do not. Leadership traits are a part of a person’s personality. Narcissism
• Belief that they are qualified to lead Charisma
• Ability to display a high degree of communication competence• Ability to inspire subordinates• Ability to convince subordinates to “buy into” the leader perspective
o Situational (Contingency Theory) Assumes that there is no such thing as a “born leader”, rather people act as
leaders depending on the situation. o Exchange (Leader-member exchange theory)
Focuses on the quality of relational linkages between both the superior and subordinates as a major influence in determining effective leadership.
Leaders behave differently to individual members based on the interpersonal relationship between them.
High quality links = high trust, respect, overall positive tone Low Quality links = low trust, disrespect, negative tone Subordinates with high quality links are called “in-group” members while those
with low quality links are called “out-group” members.o Organizations as Industry Leaders
McKinsey 7-S Framework (based on structure, strategy, systems, skills, staff, and shared value)
• Bias for action (lets try it and see what happens)• Close to the customer (customers are the sole reason they exist)
• Autonomy and Entrepreneurship (support and encourage risk taking)• Productivity through people (• Hands on, value driven • Stick to the Knitting (focus on doing what they do best)• Simple form, Lean Staff (Authority is well defined)• Simultaneous loose-tight properties
o Applied The Peter Principle
• People rise to their level of competence, any further promotions results in becoming incompetent
Relationships from MoodleDimensions of relationships, power, stages, superior-subordinate relationships, peer, harassmentChapter 9Language in workplace, styles, perception, power, interaction, including CAT, language expectancy, conversation analysisSexual harassment and language
• Language in the Workplaceo Main function is to allow human beings to stimulate meaning in the minds of other
people. o Language become particularly restricted by not only societal rules, but by organization-
specific rules as well. o Simply addressing people in the workplace can be difficult. o Use last names for managers and executives until told otherwise. o Ask permission to address someone based on how he or she signs letters
• Styleso Negative
Creates an impression of someone who is pessimistic, threatened by situations, people, and places
Can turn a well functioning work team into a dysfunctional group. o Positive
Projects a confident, well-meaning, and team-oriented person. • Perception
o The language we use can also tell a great deal about the way we view the world.o The Theory of Linguistic Relativity (Sapir-Whorf hypothesis)
All higher levels of thought depend on language and that the structure of language we use influences the way we perceive an environment.
• Powero Verbal intensifiers are words that increase the intensity of the emotion the speaker is
experiencing as opposed to the literal information contained in the message. Chronic use of verbal intensifiers communicates a powerless position. Subordinates tend to use verbal intensifiers more than their superiors.
o Verbal Qualifiers are words that reduce the strength and impact of the utterance. Relevant in the speech patterns of the powerless person because it draws away
from the speaker’s certainty of the statements as well as the assertion made by the statement.
• I may be wrong but…• This may sound dumb but…• This is not my area of expertise but…
o Tag Questions A form of powerless language use that are tagged onto the end of the statement
and greatly detract the power and status of the speaker. o Length of Requests
Longer requests are called compound requests and reflect a more powerless, less assertive, and lower status position.
• “if you wouldn’t mind, could you get me an application?” Shorter requests tend to be more powerful
o Women tend to use more verbal intensifiers, qualifiers, tag questions, and lengthening of requests than men.
• Interactiono Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT)
Developed to examine the underlying motivations and consequences of shifts in language patterns.
The similarity-attraction principle influences CAT in that we use to language to “fit in”
When communicating with others, people try to adjust their style of language to one another.
People perform this accommodation process to gain approval, increase communication efficiency, and create/maintain a positive self-image with the person with whom they are speaking
o Convergence Adapting to each other’s style of communication
o Divergence Accentuating communication differences in order to point out social differences.
o Interaction Adaptation Theory There are several main factors that influence a person’s needs, wants, and
expectations of other people when engaged in interaction. When we first encounter someone in a conversation:
• We have conversational Requirements• Conversational Expectations• Conversational Desires• R.E.D.
• Language Expectancy Theoryo LET focuses on language and how language affects both the change and reinforcement
of attitudes and beliefs. This theory seeks to explain why some linguistic forms of persuasive messages are more effective than others
• Conversation Analysis Theoryo Views communication as “actions constructed by communicators out of talk and body
behavior.”o Communication is considered a primary resource through which social life is
constructed. o CA has 3 main components for understanding talk:
Talk is Action• To understand interpersonal interaction, we must understand that talk is
something people do Action is Structured
• Not only is talk an action, but action is guided by a structure that allows the communicators to coordinate the interaction in a way that allows for things such as turn taking and establishes patterns of interaction.
Action is Locally Organized• Conversation not only shapes the context, but also renews the context;
thus the context is constantly being created and re-created. • Sexual Harassment and Language
o Sexual harassment is primarily receiver based The intentions of the message are of little importance when the receiver deems
the message as harassing. Chapter 10Close encounters and 5 channels, gestures, eye signalsFunctions from handout
• Close Encounterso The amount of space a person needs to be comfortable varies
Age, sex, personalityo Intimate space
1 ½ feet. Too close, back off. Too close for business situationso Personal Space
1 – 2 feet. Use for long time clients, and only if they are comfortable.o Social Space
4 – 7 feet. Allows room for gesturing and stretching without invading the client’s territory.
o Public Space 10 feet or more. Good distance for delivering speeches and small presentations
• 5 Channelso Channel one – Body Angle
During negotiations, square your body and shoulders toward your client Body Behaviors:
• Slumped Posture = low spirits, dejection• Erect Posture = high spirits, energy, confidence• Leaning Forward = interest, openness, positive attitude• Leaning Away = distrusting, defensive, disinterested• Crossed Arms = defensive, not listening, unsympathetic• Uncrossed Arms = willingness to listen, accessible• Sitting on the edge of chair = receptive, ready to listen• Unbuttoning suit coat = agreement is near
o Channel two – Face Eyebrow Flash
• Beginning of the greeting phase. Acknowledgement of the other person. Relates pleasure one feels when is his acquaintances presence.
Eye Contact• Too much contact as communicating superiority or lack of respect. Too
little is not paying attention, covering up emotions, being impolite. Gazing signifies boredom.
Facial Expression
• Anxiety causes a person’s face to show stress. People who feel bad tend to frown. Depressed people smile wider to cover up the fact that they are unhappy. A quick flush says that something is wrong.
Smiles• Genuine smile involve the whole face.
o Channel three – Arms Placement and movement of arms indicates the clients underlying attitude. A
defensive prospect raises his hands in a ‘stop’ gesture or has his upper arms and elbows as far back on his chair as they will go. A client who places one arm on the back of his chair is displaying confidence. If a client feels negative, he will put his hands behind his head. Leaning forward and arms on the desk exhibits interest.
o Channel four- Hands Open and relaxed hands, especially with palms facing upward, are a positive
selling signal. Tightly clinched fists represent defensiveness. “Touching” gestures show that they are nervous. “Fidgeting” gestures show nervousness as well.
o Channel five – Legs An individual who keeps his legs crossed may have minor hesitations. Keeping
his feet on his desk during a negotiation displays an attitude of ownership, superiority, and dominance. Uncrossed legs send a message of cooperation, confidence, and friendly interest in the other person.
• Gestureso Hand Gestures
Open hands and visible palms are good Clenched hands show frustration and a negative attitude.
• Clenched hands in front of the face• Clenched hands resting on a desk or on his lap• Hands placed in front of his crotch when standing
Hands steepled together• Shows confidence and superiority. • A steeple at chest level exudes confidence• When a person is confident in what he is hearing, he forms a steeple at
his lap level Steeple gesture followed by positive gestures (eye contact, body leaning forward)
means that the salesperson has made the sale Steeple gesture followed by negative gestures (arm folding, head placed in palm)
means the client is confident he will DENY your offer. o Clinging, Twisted Hands, Fingers
Clinging to something shows a need for support, shows confusion, insecurity. Twisted hands shows a complex personality or a difficult emotional life.
o Gripping Hands, arms, and wrists Gripping hands behind back shows superiority and confidence.
o Thumb Displays, Hands to lips In North America, Thumb displays are positive signals and signs of proudness.
Exposed thumbs are used to display dominance, superiority, or even aggression. o Hand Parade
Open and relaxed are positive Self touching gestures indicate tension Gestures that contradict a facial expression could show the clients true feelings.
o Eye Signals A person first needs to establish eye contact with someone to start a
conversation, then, if the person looks back, he has been granted permission to begin speaking.
Eye Blocking• Occurs when a person keeps his eyes closed for longer than necessary or
excessively blinks his eyes during a conversation. Controlling a person’s gaze
• Use visuals, charts, powerpoints, graphs. • Functions of NonVerbal Communication
Nonverbal works with verbal communication to convey meaning. Nonverbal has six functions in the communication process:
• Substitute – happens when we use a nonverbal symbol to replace verbal communication. For example, you are on a phone call and a colleague walks to your office door. Instead of asking him to be quiet, you might put a finger to your lips vertically. More often than not, that colleague will understand that placing a finger to your lips vertically means to be quiet or stop talking.
• Complement – when both verbal and nonverbal communication are used together at the same time, it can improve the meaning. When you meet someone for the first time, you will often shake hands and say, “Pleased to meet you.” Both the hand shake and the verbal message work to emphasize that you are indeed pleased to meet this person. If you failed to shake someone’s hand or even hesitated in shaking the hand, the person might not believe you are truly pleased to meet him. The nonverbal provides balance to the verbal and helps to focus the meaning of your message.
• Repeat – is similar to complementing but the nonverbal replicates the verbal message after it is spoken. For example, you may say to two colleagues who are arguing, “Time out, let’s regroup.” After you say time you, you make a T with your hands like a referee does in a football game. The time out symbol reinforces your verbal message but happens after the verbal message is complete.
• Regulate – nonverbal messages are used to control the interactions in a conversation. For example, in a meeting you might raise your hand to get the attention of the facilitator and make a comment. Nonverbal is used to let others know we want to be a part of the conversation.
• Accent – vocal qualities are used to emphasize and accent certain parts of the verbal message. The choice of words to accent can dramatically change the meaning of the verbal message. For example, think about the phrase, “I didn’t say your report was substandard.” Now, say the phrase out loud and emphasize the word “didn’t”. Next, emphasize the word “your”. Simply changing the word emphasized alters the meaning of the same sentence, which is the power of the accent function.
• Contradict – sometimes our verbal and nonverbal communication does not agree. We typically expect our verbal and nonverbal to match up and when they don’t, it takes time for us to decipher the meaning. For example, imagine a HR manager smiling while telling you, “I’m so sorry, but your job is eliminated and you will be laid off in 2 weeks.” These two messages clash and you begin to wonder what the true meaning is. Is the HR manager happy to see me losing my job? Is the HR manager nervous and the smile happens to cover up the nerves? When verbal and nonverbal messages contradict, it requires more time to interpret the meaning of the message.
Chapter 11 – Chapter on MoodleHandout from textbook on responsive listening stylesListening to customers, employees, coworkers & supervisors, signs & causes of poor listening, bad habitsImproving listening, attribution theory
• Give the speaker your undivided attention• Listen with an open mind• Detect speakers objectives (functional, relational, identify management)• Recognize main ideas and the relationships among ideas• Detect bias and/or prejudice• Distinguish between statements of fact and statements of opinion• Distinguish between emotional and logical arguments• Employ active listening techniques when appropriate
Causes of Bad Listening• The setting (heat, light, noise, and time of day)• Receiver interests• Receiver Values• Receiver assumptions• Receiver bias• Receiver background and experiences• Limited attention span• Listening too hard
o Trying to listen to every detail instead of grasping the “big picture”• Reserving Judgment
o Jumping to conclusions• Focusing on delivery and personal experience
o Being distracted by the delivery of the message and past experience
Styles Examples Intention To...
Style I
JudgmentalDirective Evaluative
You are...You should...It is...
EvaluateMoralizeJudge
Style II
Interpretive You do that because... ExplainAnalyzeTeach
Style III
Supportive Don't worry you'll be fine...Tomorrow is another day...
SootheSympathizeReassure
Style IV
ProbingQuestioning
When did you first feel that way?What do you plan to do now?
QuestionGather Information
Style V
UnderstandingEmpathic
You sound really...Let me see if I understand how you feel...
• The closer our physical distance, the more likely we will build a relationship with the other party
Social Attractiveness• Degree to which an individual is liked and valued by others for their social
skills Supportive/Mentoring Attractiveness
• The qualities of empathy and helpfulness in a person. o Involvement
The amount of interaction that takes place between the relational partieso Situation
How the circumstances in which people work together impact the relationships they develop.
When circumstances change in the workplace, relationships will likely be affected.
• Verbal Aggressivenesso Attacking the self concept of another person with the intent to inflict psychological
harm or pain• Argumentativeness
o A tendency to present and defend positions on controversial issues while simultaneously attacking the positions of others on those issues
• Taking Conflict Personallyo The degree to which people view conflict as a punishing situation and something
that should be avoided• Tolerance for Disagreement
o The “amount of disagreement an individual can tolerate before he or she perceives the existence of conflict in a relationship
• Competence Traits
o Communicator Style People have stylistic differences and that these differences between people
are cross-contextual or carried across situations. The way one verbally and paraverbally interacts to signal how literal meaning
should be taken, interpreted, filtered, or understoodo Cognitive Flexibility
The degree to which communicators are able to adapt their communication to meet the demands of the situations and to consider options and alternative ways of behaving in different situations
o Communicative Adaptability The ability to perceive socio-interpersonal relationships and adapt one’s
interaction goals and behaviors Chapter 13Persuasion defined, how it works, types of persuasive presentations, Monroe’s, Building arguments, credibility, reasoning, Elevator speech and source credibility handouts
• Persuasiono Involving some measure of change in attitudes and/or behaviorso A receiver-oriented area of study. o Intentional influencing of receiver’s attitudes and/or behaviors through communication
• How Persuasion Works• Types of Persuasive Presentations
o Question of Fact Presentations that address questions of fact focus on the truth of a claim or
assertion. Attempts to answer “what is”
o Questions of Value Focus on the worth we attach to an idea or action Calls upon the audience to make a judgment as to the worth of an idea or action Tries to persuade the audience that something is good or bad, right or wrong.
o Questions of Policy Focus on change Determine whether to gain Passive Agreement or Immediate Action
• Monroe’so Offers a clear series of steps to follow when developing and delivering a persuasive
message.o Adv: Provides listeners with a clearly structured message that tends to follow the way
receivers process messages.o Steps:
Attention• Gain attention and interest in introduction
Need (First Main Point)• Explain why change is needed• Convince that there is a serious problem
Satisfaction (Second Main Point)• Propose a solution to the problem• Present an in depth plan to make clear how and why the plan would work
Visualization• Benefits are explained in this step by showing what will be improved if
your solution is adopted. Action
• Remind them of what needs to be done or what you want them to do. • Building Persuasive Arguments
o Source Factors Source Credibility
• Credibility is the factor that makes the single greatest difference to receivers.
Competence• Receivers make judgments about competence in terms of the speaker’s
expertise with the topic. Trustworthiness
• Trust is developed over time, as well as through the reputation the speaker enjoys with the members of the audience and their network
• Building Credibilityo Make sure you are prepared. o Seek to establish credentials in the introduction.o Whenever possible, stress the commonalities that you share with the audience
members. o Make use of two-sided arguments whenever possible in persuasive presentations.
Seen as more objective and trustworthy by members• Reasoning
o The way people draw conclusions from the available information and evidence. o Four methods of reasoning:
Causal Reasoning• Drawing the conclusion that a cause leads to a specific effect or set of
effects Analogical Reasoning
• Drawing conclusions based on comparisons.
Reasoning from specific instance• A person is making use of specific facts to draw a much broader
conclusion about others or events in the world. Reasoning from principle
• A person applies a general premise to arrive a very specific conclusiono Fallacies that you should guard against
Hasty Generalization• Speakers jump to conclusion on the basis of poorly selected facts
Mistaken cause• When a speaker erroneously assumes that the first event must have
caused the second event Invalid analogy
• An invalid analogy takes place when a speaker uses fallacious reasoning to suggest similarities in two cases that are truly different
Red Herring• Speakers seek to divert attention from the issue at hand by introducing
irrelevant issues into the topic of discussion Ad hominem
• Speaker uses fallacious reasoning by attacking the messenger rather than the actual message
False Dilemma• The speaker uses fallacious reasoning to force listeners to choose
between only two alternatives when more than two alternatives actually exist
Bandwagon• Because something is popular it is therefore correct, good, or desired
Slippery Slope• Speaker assumes that the first step will be followed by other steps that
cannot be prevented
Blake and Mouton
• Communication behaviors of Aggressiono Glaring someone in the eyeo Invade other’s spaceo Don’t talk about yourself
HighTeamAuthority Compliance
Concern Task
Middle of the road
Impoverished Country Club
Concern People
HighLow
o Ineffective listening• Submissive
o Opposite of Assertive• Communication behaviors for Assertiveness
o State your wants, needs, and feelingso Maintain good eye contacto Maintain good postureo Able and willing to talk about optionso Be decisive
• Assertiveness is different than Aggressivenesso Aggressiveness is more of an attack on someone else
• How to say noo Say it straight forward and directo No need to apologizeo You can follow “no” with an explanation, but it doesn’t have to be lengthyo You shouldn’t say “no” and then look for an alternative
• Thomas & Kilman
• Classifying audienceo Classify/understand your audience
Does this audience agree/disagree with me?o Use persuasive proof
Building straight forward arguments Ethos (Building Credibility)
• “I’m just like you” Pathos (Emotions)
• Let them know your opinions• Use when visualization
Logos (Logical)• Use in satisfaction
• Toulmino Make a claim
“You need/want this product”
CollaborateComplete Control
Concern for Self Compromise
AccommodateAvoidance
Concern for Others
Supported with data Warrent
• Why does this data lead us to believe this claim is true?
LecturesAssertiveness – know difference between submission and aggressionCommunication behaviors for submission, You and I messages and 3 step processListening – Reflective listening – what involves Skills of Attending and RespondingListening Styles and how to respondWay to prepare presentations – audience analysis, ID general topic, specific topic, body, conclusion and introductionTypes of persuasive presentations
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